The dominion arose as a result of the termination of this dual power in favor of the princeps, and this happened during the reign of Diocletian (since 284). Formally, the emperor was considered an unlimited ruler, a dominus, which was confirmed by the concept of the transfer of supreme power from National Assembly to the emperor. During the reign of Diocletian, reforms are being carried out to reorganize the administration of territories, as well as military, financial, etc.:

1. the empire is divided into 12 dioceses, which in turn are subdivided into provinces; 2. specialization of functions is carried out in the army separate troops 3. The tax system is updated with the introduction of natural and cash taxes, as well as the introduction of a full-fledged coin to ensure the maintenance of officials and the army. The emperor combined the listed powers with the command of the army and navy, with the right to appoint to command military posts. His power largely depended on the army, which took the oath to him and was often the main force. The Council under the emperor, which combined legislative, administrative and supreme judicial functions, acquired great importance. Court positions occupied the most important place in the entire hierarchy. Here were the positions of the head of the royal palace, head of the personal office of the emperor, head of the treasury and finance, etc.

30. Second Punic War

The Second Punic War (also called by the Romans the "war against Hannibal" and the Hannibal War, 218-202 BC) is a military conflict between two coalitions, led by Rome and Carthage, for hegemony in the Mediterranean. The official reason for the wars was the siege and capture Spanish city Sagunta by the Carthaginian commander Hannibal. After that, the Romans declared war on Carthage. At first, the Carthaginian army, led by Hannibal, prevailed over the Roman troops. The most significant of the victories of the Carthaginians is the battle of Cannae, after which Macedonia entered the war on the side of Carthage. Last battle war was the battle of Zama, after which Carthage sued for peace. As a result of the war, Carthage lost all its possessions outside of Africa. The main source about the second Punic War is the work of the Roman Titus Livy "History from the founding of the city", books 21-30. Another Roman, Dio Cassius, wrote the book "Roman History", which also describes the second Punic War. The Greek sources are also important for us. Polybius in the 2nd century BC e. wrote historical book under the title "General History", which includes the events of 264-146 BC. e. Plutarch at the beginning of the II century. wrote the work "Comparative Lives", which tells the biographies of famous Greeks and Romans.

32. Laws of the XII tables: causes, content

The laws of the twelve tables (451-450 BC) - the codification of the state law from the people in Ancient Rome. The laws of the twelve tables are the fruit of a specially created commission of 10 and were a set of laws governing almost all industries. The legal norms are set out in a row, without sectoral division. Represents the first written source of law ancient rome. The law was passed by the People's Assembly in two stages. The first stage in 451 BC. e. 10 tables were adopted, and in the next, 450 BC. uh, two more. The purpose of this law was to weaken the patrician-plebeian confrontation by introducing into the traditional agrarian order an equal private and criminal law for all. The most significant fact is the introduction of money in the form of copper coins common at that time, which were weighed and received a face value in accordance with the weight. Structure

Table I - "On judicial proceedings" (procedural law: invitation to the process, types of claims and complaints, enforcement law, judicial process).

Table II - "On robberies" (types and punishments, penalties).

Table III - "On loans and the rights of the creditor" (loan, credit and lending rates).

Table IV - "Rights of fathers of the family" (family law: recognition of paternity, sale and purchase of children).

Table V - "On inheritance and guardianship" (inheritance law: will, inheritance by law, determination of the legal order of heirs).

Table VI - "On property and possession" (agreement, sale and purchase, acquisition and loss of movable and immovable property).

Table VII-VIII - “On crossing (the boundaries of the site) and damage”, “On land tenure” (land (neighborly) law).

Table IX - Public law, about public affairs (equals).

Table X - funerary (ceremonial) law.

Table XI - divine right (religious rites).

Table XII - marriage law (husband).

In the III century. n. e. (since 284) an unlimited monarchy is established in Rome. This is the period of dominance (from "dominus" - master). The old republican institutions are disappearing. The administration of the empire is concentrated in the hands of several main departments, led by dignitaries appointed by the emperor. Among these departments, two should be noted first of all: state council under the emperor (the body that prepared bills and discussed policy issues on behalf of the emperor) and the financial department. At the head of the military department are generals appointed by the emperor.

Officials receive a special organization. They are given a uniform. They are given privileges. They are entitled to a pension.

The assertion of dominance is associated with the name and reforms of the Roman emperor Diocletian, the son of a freedman who made a brilliant military career and in 284 proclaimed Roman emperor.

What Diocletian did can be summarized basically as follows: a) for best management huge empire sovereignty was divided among four co-rulers. Two of them, who bore the title of Augustus, occupied a leading position, each ruling their own half of the empire, Western and Eastern; b) the army, increased by one third, was divided according to the type of service: one part of it was located on the borders of the empire, guarding the latter, the other was in the place where it was needed; in) administrative reform led to the disaggregation of the provinces and at the same time to their unification into newly created regions (dioceses). Italy finally loses its privileged position: like other parts of the empire, it was divided into provinces and dioceses (although Rome continued, according to at least officially, be considered the capital of the entire empire); d) instead of indirect taxes different kind a direct land-per capita tax was introduced, levied in kind on grain, meat, wool, etc.; the amount of taxation was significantly increased; e) the empire received a full-fledged gold coin(walking along with silver and copper); f) the rise in prices brought to life the well-known edict of 301, which established maximum prices for goods sold.

Being responsible to the state for the receipt of taxes from all the people who were dependent on them, large landowners were able to increase their power over them; contributed to the same military reform, by virtue of which the same landowners received the right to send to military service a certain amount of dependent people.

The work begun by Diocletian was continued by Emperor Constantine, known mainly for his ecclesiastical policies favorable to Christianity (313-337). Among the many and varied measures implemented in the reign of Constantine, attention is drawn to the ongoing line on the enslavement of the colonial peasants and artisans.

In accordance with the imperial constitution of 332, the column was deprived of the right to move from one estate to another. Those who did not obey this order were shackled like a slave and returned to their former owner; he who received the runaway column paid his master full amount taxes due. The attachment of artisans can be judged, for example, by the decree of 317, which prescribed that the masters of the mint “remain forever in their state” (Theodosius Code, V, 91, X, 20).

Under Constantine, the capital of the empire was moved to the city of Byzantium, called Constantinople (May 11, 330). Accordingly, the highest government institutions were transferred here from Rome and a new senate was created.

The final division of the empire into two parts - the Western (with the capital in Rome) and the Eastern (with the capital in Constantinople) - was made in 395.

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3rd - 5th century AD - period of dominance. Rome turns into a monarchy, with the absolute power of the emperor, whose decisions are unconditional and strict laws. The transition is associated with the coming to power of Diocletian, who orders to call himself Dominus(lord, sovereign, lord).

Magistrates become honorary positions for those close to the emperor. The role of the Senate was reduced to that of a city council registering imperial edicts. Local governments have focused on economic activity and maintaining law and order in Rome. Under Constantine (337), the support was Christianity.

The council of the princeps became the state council - consistories. The bureaucracy was divided into hierarchical ranks. There were court, civil and military officials.

Rome began to rule prefect appointed by the emperor and subordinate to him.

The army began to be divided into mobile and border troops. The Praetorian Guard became the palace guards.

Diocletian carried out economic, military and administrative reforms:

1. In economics, he unsuccessfully tried to stop inflation by issuing coins with a low content of the precious metal. The reform proved to be more effective taxation. Most of taxes began to be collected not in kind, but in money, a periodically repeated population census was introduced. Taxation was based on the size of land ownership and the number of persons cultivating the land. In cities - poll taxation.

2. Military reform consolidated the formation of border and mobile troops. Recruitment was introduced. Landowners, depending on the size of the landholding, were required to supply a certain number of recruits.

3. Administrative reform. In 285, Diocletian appointed himself a co-ruler - Maximilian, with the same power as Diocletian. The empire was divided into 2 parts - western and eastern, but the legislation remained the same. Each of them appointed himself another co-ruler - Caesar. The result was a tetrarchy. The state consisted of 4 parts, including 100 provinces. Rome ceased to be the capital of the empire. Further in the 4th century, Constantine restored the unity of power, continued economic reforms Diocletian (monetary circulation stabilized).

In the III century. AD (since 284) an unlimited monarchy is established in Rome. This is the period of dominance (from "dominus" - master). The old republican institutions are disappearing. The administration of the empire is concentrated in the hands of several main departments, led by dignitaries appointed by the emperor. Among these departments, it should be noted: the state council under the emperor (the body that prepared bills and discussed policy issues on behalf of the emperor) and the financial department. At the head of the military department are generals appointed by the emperor.

Officials receive a special organization. They are given a uniform. They are given privileges. They are entitled to a pension.

The assertion of dominance is associated with the name and reforms of the Roman emperor Diocletian, the son of a freedman, who made a brilliant military career and was proclaimed Roman emperor in 284. What Diocletian did can be summarized basically as follows: a) for the best possible management of the vast empire, the supreme power was divided among four co-rulers. Two of them, who bore the title of Augusts, occupied a leading position, each ruling their own half of the empire - Western and Eastern; b) the army, increased by one third, was divided according to the type of service: one part of it was located on the borders of the empire, guarding the latter, the other was in the place where it was needed; c) the administrative reform led to the disaggregation of the provinces and, at the same time, to their unification into newly created regions (dioceses). Italy finally loses its privileged position: like other parts of the empire, it was divided into provinces and dioceses (although Rome continued, at least officially, to be considered the capital of the entire empire); d) instead of indirect taxes of various kinds, a direct land-per capita tax was introduced, levied in kind on grain, meat, wool, etc.; the amount of taxation was significantly increased; e) the empire received a full-fledged gold coin (along with silver and copper); f) the rise in prices brought to life the well-known edict of 301, which established maximum prices for goods sold.

Being responsible to the state for the receipt of taxes from all the people who were dependent on them, large landowners were able to increase their power over them; the same was facilitated by the military reform, by virtue of which the same landowners received the right to send a certain number of dependent people to military service. The work begun by Diocletian was continued by Emperor Constantine, known mainly for his ecclesiastical policies favorable to Christianity (313-337). Among the many and varied measures implemented in the reign of Constantine, attention is drawn to the ongoing line on the enslavement of the colonial peasants and artisans. In accordance with the imperial constitution of 332, the column was deprived of the right to move from one estate to another. Those who did not obey this order were shackled like a slave and returned to their former owner; the one who received the fugitive column paid his master the full amount of due taxes.

Under Constantine, the capital of the empire was moved to the city of Byzantium, called Constantinople (May 11, 330). Accordingly, the highest government institutions were transferred here from Rome and a new senate was created. The final division of the empire into two parts - the Western (with the capital in Rome) and the Eastern (with the capital in Constantinople) - was made in 395.

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Dominat in Rome

Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletian (243 - between 313 and 316), Roman emperor in 284-305. Was the son of a freedman; began his military service as a private. Moved forward under the emperor Proba, becoming the governor of the province of Moesia; under emperor Numerian, he commanded his armed guards, and after the death of Numerian, he was proclaimed emperor. The name of Diocletian is associated with the establishment dominance - monarchies of the type of ancient Eastern despotisms.
In order to overcome the socio-political and economic crisis (end III c.) Diocletian carried out reforms that temporarily stabilized the position of the empire. To strengthen central government In 286, Diocletian appointed Maximian as his co-ruler, calling him the second Augustus, and in 293 he divided the empire into 4 parts (tetrarchies), giving two junior co-rulers to help Augustus - Caesars Gaius Garelia and Constantius Chlorus. The whole empire was divided into 12 dioceses, uniting 101 or 120 provinces, the territories of which did not coincide with the previous ones. Rome remained the capital, but the residences of the rulers were (simultaneously) in Nicomedia (Diocletian), Sirmia (Galeria), Mediolanum (Maximian) and Trier (Constance Chlorus). Diocletian strengthened the army, increasing its strength through recruitment sets to 450 thousand people. One part of the legions constantly stood in certain border areas, the other was transferred as needed. Diocletian streamlined taxation by establishing a direct land-poll tax in kind, which reflected the naturalization of the economy; tried to establish finances by introducing a full-fledged coin; fought speculation by issuing an edict on prices in 301. Diocletian expanded the power of the landlords over dependent population and at the same time made them responsible for the collection of taxes and for the supply of recruits; issued a number of edicts in favor of small and medium landowners (providing, in particular, the termination of the sale and purchase of land previously sold for nothing). Diocletian brutally suppressed the uprisings populace and separatist movements in the provinces: in 285-286. - Bagauds in Gaul, in 290 - Moorish tribes in Africa, in 294-295. - the usurper Achilles in Egypt, in 297 - the usurper Carausius in Britain. Diocletian and his co-rulers repulsed the invasions of the tribes of the Carps and the Iazygs on the Danube, the Franks and the Alemanni on the Rhine, led successful campaigns against the Persians (in 286-287 and 296-298), as a result of which the Romans strengthened their influence in Armenia and Iberia and captured part of Mesopotamia.
In 303-304 years. Diocletian undertook persecution of Christians. In 305, together with Maximian, Diocletian voluntarily renounced power. lived last years in an estate in Salona (modern Split).

In the III century. economic crisis begins in the Roman Empire, the decline Agriculture, crafts, trade, return to natural forms of economy. Is born new form land relations - colony. Large landowners rented out plots of land, livestock, necessary for the work of tools. Small tenants, gradually falling into dependence on landowners due to debts, were called columns. They paid rent to the owners of the land and taxes to the state with products. The columns gradually turned into serfs who did not have the right to leave their village, and urban artisans lost the right to change their profession and place of residence. Huge spending on the maintenance of the army and the luxurious court of emperors, on circuses, handouts to the free poor forced the Roman rulers to increase taxes from the population of the provinces. AT different parts empires, uprisings of the population and riots of soldiers who were dissatisfied with the hard service broke out.

In the last period of the Roman Empire, two processes develop in parallel: the process of spreading Christianity in the empire and the process of regular invasions of European barbarians.

Christianity originated in the Roman province of Judea in the 1st century. n. e. based on the religious and social doctrine of the spiritual salvation of people through faith in the redemptive power of the Savior, the Son of God, which was preached by such sects of Judaism as the Zealots and Essenes. The idea of ​​Christianity is based on the redemptive mission of Jesus Christ, his execution, resurrection and second coming to people, Last Judgment, retribution for sins, the establishment of the eternal Kingdom of Heaven.

In the conditions of economic and national oppression, ideological confusion in the Roman Empire in the I-III centuries. n. e. this teaching was accepted by the masses of the population of the vast empire, as it proclaimed the equality of all people before God, and destroyed ethnic and social barriers in society. All this contributed to the spread of Christianity in many countries, despite the persecution by the authorities.

After a long and unsuccessful struggle with Christianity, the emperors allowed the confession of faith in Jesus Christ (Edict of Milan, Constantine, 313). Over time, the rulers themselves were baptized (Constantine, 330) and declared Christianity the only state religion(Theodosius I, 381). They participated in church councils and tried to bring the church under the control of the state.

Meanwhile, European barbarians were regularly invading the empire. In 378 the Goths defeated the Roman army, in 410 they were led by the king of the Visigoths Alaric(about 370-410) sacked Rome, which had been inaccessible to conquerors for the previous 800 years. The Goths burned many palaces and temples, melted them into metal wonderful works ancient masters. In 445 the vandals from North Africa even more cruelly than the Goths sacked Rome. their leader Genseric ordered his soldiers to destroy what they could not carry. In 476 a barbarian commander Odoacer(about 431-493) took away the regalia of power from the last Roman emperor and sent them to Constantinople, former capital Eastern Roman Empire, later called Byzantium(In 395, before his death, Emperor Theodosius divided the Roman Empire between his sons into the Western Empire with Rome as its capital and the Eastern Empire with Constantinople). Odoacer declared that there should be one emperor on earth, like one sun in the sky. He himself began to rule Italy, taking the ancient title of "rex", renouncing claims to all other possessions of the Empire.

Thus ended the once mighty Roman Empire. The history of a new, "barbaric" Europe began.