In the practice of modern urban planning, a certain system of construction is used street network, logically related to the structure of the entire residential area and organization of the life of the population in residential areas and microdistricts.

The main streets of the city and district significance belong to public transport. The area enclosed between these streets must be completely isolated from regular urban traffic.

At the same time, a residential complex located on this territory must have its own transport service, which includes: passenger transport ( cars), freight transport(for the transportation of household items and furniture, the delivery of products and goods to the buildings of cultural and public services, etc.); special transport (emergency health care, cleaning and cleaning of the territory, etc.).

Appropriate roads and places for temporary parking should be provided for this transport. These basic requirements dictated the system of streets of residential complexes. The most modern method of solving a residential complex is the division of a residential area into microdistricts or its solution in the form of one enlarged microdistrict.

When dividing an inter-main territory (which is a residential area or part of it) into microdistricts, residential streets (streets local importance) intended only to serve a residential area. Citywide traffic on them is excluded.

Entrances to groups of houses, public buildings and outbuildings located on the territory of microdistricts and enlarged microdistricts are carried out along microdistrict driveways.

Pedestrian communication is carried out along the sidewalks of residential streets and microdistrict driveways, as well as footpaths and alleys.

Thus, the entire road network of residential areas, subdivided into categories according to purpose, is built with a clear transition from the movement of one step to the next:

• residential streets separating microdistricts from each other and transferring vehicular and pedestrian traffic from the microdistrict to the main streets;
• micro-district passages connecting residential and main streets with individual groups of houses, public and communal institutions and devices;
• entrances to houses leading directly to the entrances to residential buildings; walking paths and alleys intended for pedestrian communication between residential buildings, public buildings, bus stops public transport;
• walking paths in gardens and landscaped courtyards.

In this system, it is very important to correctly resolve the issues of adjoining one category of streets to another.

Frequent entrances and exits from microdistricts to main streets with heavy traffic of urban transport slow down the speed of traffic, violate its safety and the normal movement of pedestrians along the sidewalk. Therefore, one should strive to maximize the intervals between highway exits, which is achieved by appropriate planning of residential streets and driveways in adjacent microdistricts.

Residential streets are designed in the case when the inter-main territory is divided into microdistricts. These streets are reserved for occasional local traffic only. The carriageway of the streets is usually made two-lane (band width 3 m). When planning large inter-main areas with high-rise buildings, it is advisable to make some of the residential streets wider, counting their roadway for 3 traffic lanes. In both cases, sidewalks 2.25-3.00 m wide and green stripes along the carriageway at least 2 m wide are arranged on residential streets. Thus, when the building is indented from the red line, the street width in the red lines should be at least 25 m ( in multi-storey buildings).

Residential streets are built up with residential buildings, schools, children's institutions and various buildings for cultural and community purposes. In this case, all buildings should be located indented from the red line to form protective strip between buildings and the sidewalk, where it is recommended to use landscape gardening techniques. This indent should be at least 15 m for schools and childcare facilities and 3 m for all other buildings.

Internal driveways of microdistricts are intended to serve residential and public buildings only in this microdistrict and to connect it with local traffic streets. According to their purpose, microdistrict driveways are designed in three types:

• the main ones - for access to groups of residential buildings and public buildings;
• secondary - for the entrance to individual residential buildings;
• economic - for maintenance of utility yards and entrances to garbage collectors;

When designing a system of micro-district passages, one should strive for their minimum length, which is dictated by economic and hygienic considerations.

Road surfaces are one of the most expensive elements of improvement. At the same time, large surfaces of asphalt pavements create overheating and air pollution with dust in summer, which significantly worsen the microclimate of residential complexes. Therefore, excesses in the length and width of passages are unacceptable.

The system of the main micro-district passages is built according to the ring, loop, dead-end or mixed scheme.

Ring roads cover the entire territory of the microdistrict and have one or more branches for entry and exit.

Loop and dead-end driveways serve individual groups residential buildings and public areas. The former may have separate or combined entrances and exits, the latter - only combined.

With a mixed scheme, a combination of ring, semi-ring and dead-end passages is possible.

Each of these schemes should create conditions that exclude transit communication through the microdistrict (or limit such a possibility).

When designing a network of passages, one should strive to ensure that the main passages do not separate groups of residential buildings from children's institutions, schools, recreation areas, that is, they do not cross the main pedestrian directions. The main driveways should not cross the territory of landscaped yards.

According to the nature of the movement of cars, the main passages are divided into two-lane (with two-way traffic) and single-lane (with one-way traffic).

As a rule, driveways leading to groups of residential buildings in a high-rise building zone (with a population of up to 3,000 people) should be taken into two traffic lanes with a total width of 5.5 m. a traffic lane 3.5 m wide. Dead-end driveways, not more than 150 m long, are also accepted as single-lane.

On driveways with one-way traffic, every 100 m, passing platforms sized 6x15 m should be located, and at the end of dead ends - dead-end or ring detours for turning cars.

Secondary driveways (entrances to houses) are usually designed in the form of dead ends, ending with turntables. In accordance with the method of development, these passages can also be circular, covering small groups of houses.

Driveways leading to residential buildings should be placed no closer than 5 m from the walls of residential buildings and public buildings.

Secondary driveways adjoin the main or residential streets. In the places of these junctions (i.e., on turns), it is advisable to make widenings, which are simultaneously used for short-term parking of cars.

Household driveways arrange in the form of separate dead ends leading to household yards and platforms, or combined with the main internal passages.

Pedestrian paths and alleys are designed to connect groups of houses with schools, children's institutions, district and microdistrict centers, for exits from the microdistrict towards public transport stops. These paths should be located in the shortest direction through green areas and so that they do not cross quiet recreation areas and the most intense intra-quarter transport routes. The width of footpaths is assumed to be 1.5-2.25 m. The pavement structures of intra-block passages, sidewalks, etc., are accepted in terms of solidity and sanitary and hygienic indicators in accordance with the purpose of each passage.

Features of city roads compared to roads common network are as follows:

the presence of buildings and underground structures, affecting the water-thermal regime of the subgrade;

location within the boundaries of the streets of sidewalks, tram tracks, footpaths, etc.;

the impossibility of erecting high embankments of the subgrade;

difficult driving conditions;

the difficulty of providing surface runoff in areas with small slopes and the need for an underground drainage system.

Road and street networks

Streets and roads in cities are transport channels along which various vehicles and pedestrians move. In addition, they are used for drainage and laying of trunk underground networks. They are divided into 4 groups:

I. Expressways, main city streets, roads freight traffic(an analogue of the category of roads of the general network I, II)

II. Main streets of regional significance

III. Streets and roads of local importance, roads of industrial and warehouse areas.

IV. Residential streets and driveways, settlement streets and roads.

express roads have a significant length, connect city roads with highways of the general network, remote residential, industrial areas, recreation areas.

Trunk streets of citywide significance connect city roads with high-speed roads and roads of the general network, carry out inter-district communications, connect districts with city centers, objects of citywide significance (railway stations, stadiums, parks, etc.).

The main streets of district significance carry out transport links within residential and industrial areas, between districts, and also connect areas with the main streets of the city.

residential streets provide transport and pedestrian connection of residential areas with the main streets.

Streets and roads of industrial and warehouse districts serves to connect with the main streets.

The squares are divided into main squares, squares of residential and industrial areas, transport, railway stations, near commercial buildings and markets, and in front of theaters, clubs, stadiums, etc.

Highways of industrial enterprises are divided into driveways and internal. Access - connect industrial enterprises with each other, with resource bases, with roads of the common network, railway stations, marinas; internal - located on the territory of factories, mines, warehouses, quarries, etc.

Country roads, or highways of the general network, are divided into 5 categories:

I and II - national significance and republican significance with traffic intensity over 7000 > aut./day. (SNiP

III - roads of the republican or regional significance- intensity 1000-3000 cars / day.

IV; V - local roads - intensity 200-1000 vehicles / day.

System highways a common network of urban, industrial, rural, rural roads creates a single road network of the country. network density roads is the length of roads in km per 1 km 2 of territory. A dense network of roads is observed in industrial areas. The configuration of the urban road network can be very different.

Schematic diagrams of networks of main streets of cities

Each of these schemes has its own advantages and disadvantages. One of the characteristics of schemes is curvature factor:

Kn - communication range / overhead line.

The radial-ring scheme has the lowest coefficient of non-straightness, but overloads the center. At rectangular pattern a large coefficient of non-straightness, especially in linear cities (cities located along the banks of rivers, seas). The rectilinear-diagonal scheme complicates the organization of traffic at intersections, because street crossing is under sharp corners. General structure the network of streets and roads is predetermined by the system of main highways. For their outline, information is needed on the location of industrial, residential areas, stations, airfields, transit highways. Tracing of the main streets is carried out in the direction of the main passenger and cargo flows. It is envisaged that the movement of ground passenger transport is carried out along the main streets. Passenger approach distance stopping points should be no more than 300-400m. In this case, the intervals between the main streets are also limited (600-800-1000 m.).

The density of the street network depends on many factors. The optimal values ​​are suggested by practice and, depending on the population, are 2-3.5 km/km2. Bridges are located taking into account the main directions of traffic flows and route routes of public transport. The axis of the bridge must be perpendicular to the dynamic axis of the river during the design flood. The highway passing through the settlement, on the one hand, serves it, on the other, it is a transit road. How bigger city, the lower the percentage of non-stop transit traffic through it. Newly designed intercity highways are routed around or tangentially to settlements. In existing cities, perimeter (bypass) roads are being arranged to separate transit traffic from local traffic (the Moscow Ring Road - MKAD).

The roads in the cities are designed so that the movement of trucks is carried out bypassing residential areas, bypassing the city center. The network of streets and roads must have at least two exits to external highways. Expressways should be laid on undeveloped territories or at a distance of more than 50 m from the development, with the device of wide strips of green spaces. Traffic interchanges at intersections express roads with other roads and streets are carried out in different levels, pedestrian crossings - outside the level of the carriageway.

The movement can be continuous or adjustable. In the first case, this is high-speed movement at different levels. Adjustable movement provided by the device of intersections at a distance of more than 500m. The distance between intersections should be approximately the same to ensure coordinated traffic control (green street). The main streets of regional significance, as a rule, are arranged with regulated traffic.

Elements and equipment of city streets and roads

1. Structural transverse profiles.

The main elements of urban roads are carriageways, and streets are carriageways and sidewalks. In addition, the elements are landscaping, lighting and drainage devices.

The territory within which all elements of highways must be located is called right-of-way. Areas outside the subgrade are called cutoffs. They serve for the placement of footpaths, landscaping, construction and operational purposes. The design boundaries of streets, within which all their elements should be located, are called red lines. Buildings and structures are placed along the red lines or built, retreating from them into the depths of microdistricts. In the red lines, the width of the main streets of citywide significance is assigned at least 45m, district significance - 35m, local streets - 25m (for high-rise construction), for low-rise buildings - 15m. The roadways are given transverse slopes towards trays, ditches, storm sewer receiving wells. Separate elements of streets and roads are recommended to be separated from each other by strips of green spaces. Sidewalks from buildings, as a rule, are separated by lawns. Appointment of green spaces: decorative, hygienic; they serve as barriers preventing the spread of noise, dust, exhaust gases from vehicles from the side of the carriageway. Boulevards and pedestrian alleys are also arranged along the streets. Strips of green spaces are used to separate sidewalks from the carriageway, to separate carriageways for traffic various kinds and directions. Tram tracks and footpaths are located within the streets.

Cross profile of the main street of citywide significance: 1 - carriageway high-speed traffic; 2 - carriageway of mixed traffic; 3 - carriageway of local traffic; 4 - sidewalks, alleys, footpaths; 5 - stripes of green spaces; 10 - blind areas near buildings; 11 - dividing strips	Street profile with tram tracks

Traffic on a given street can be continuous or regulated. In the first case, the intersection with other streets or roads is carried out at different levels by constructing tunnels, viaducts, overpasses.

The width of individual elements and roads is taken in accordance with design standards. The width of the carriageway and sidewalks is set by calculation, taking into account the nature and size of traffic.

2. Roadways

The roadway must be level, non-slip, durable, capable of withstanding the loads from vehicles, ensuring the possibility of their movement at design speeds. To do this, a supporting structure is arranged on the roadway, called pavement. Pavements consist of one or more layers. The top structural layer of the pavement is called coated. The coating is directly exposed to passing traffic. Significant weight, dynamism and multiple impacts of loads, large tangential forces during braking impose high requirements to the material of road surfaces: resistance to temperature and humidity influences, resistance to abrasion and wear, shear. To increase the durability, the coefficient of adhesion with the tires of the wheels of the car, a wear layer is arranged, which is restored as it wears out.

Structural layers of pavement, located under the pavement, are called grounds. This is the bearing layer of the pavement, which serves to absorb the loads from the pavement and distribute them over the underlying layer and subgrade. The lower structural layer is called the underlying layer. Designed to distribute pressure over the subgrade soil, ensure its water-thermal regime. The underlying layer is also called draining. Usually, sand and other materials with filtering ability are used (filtration coefficient more than Kf> 3 m / day): sand, sand-gravel mixture (SGM), slag, shell rock.

Road clothes

Rice. fourteen. Classification of pavement.

Pavement structures: a - capital type; b - transitional type: 1 - fine-grained asphalt concrete; 2 – coarse-grained asphalt concrete; 3 - crushed stone base; 4 - sandy underlying layer; 5 - surface treatment; 6 - gravel treated with a mineral binder.

The figures show the classification of pavement and typical designs. Improved pavements are made of cement concrete, asphalt concrete, paving stones, etc. (Fig. 1.5. a). Lightweight pavements are made of cold asphalt concrete, bitumen-mineral mixtures, etc. Transitional pavements are used in two-stage construction (Fig. 1.5 b). in the second stage, they are used as bases for advanced coatings. Lower road clothes are used on local roads. They consist of crushed stone, gravel, slag, and soil reinforced with mineral binders.

3. Sidewalks and footpaths

The dimensions of sidewalks, footpaths, longitudinal and transverse slopes are taken in accordance with design standards. Sidewalk surfaces are usually given a single-slope profile, and footpaths - a gable profile, with slopes from the axis. The main requirements for sidewalk coverings: evenness, non-slip, wear resistance, the possibility of cleaning and repair. For footpaths, especially in parks, boulevards, squares great importance give the appearance, color, in harmony with environment. Fine-grained, sandy, colored asphalt concrete with a thickness h = 2.5 ... 4 cm is used as coatings; in hard-to-reach places use cast asphalt concrete. The base is limestone crushed stone with compressive strength R = 60 MPa, slag, treated with binders and without them. In some cases, cement concrete is used. An underlying filter layer is also required.

For the construction of sidewalks and footpaths, piece materials are widely used:

cement concrete slabs(RF, USA, GDR, FRG, France, etc.). Pros: smooth surface, beautiful appearance, disassembly and ease of repair. Changing the size and configuration of the plate diversifies the appearance. Plates square shape 35…50×3.5…6cm. Dimensions in terms of small medium slabs should be a multiple of the width of the calculated sidewalk lane - 0.75. Plates are laid on a sandy base. Slabs with a mosaic pattern are made in molds, on the bottom of which fragmentation stones are first laid, and then concrete or mortar. Seams are filled with asphalt mastic or cement mortar. In some cases, the seams are covered with vegetable soil with grass seeds. Germinating, the grass gives the coating a peculiar look, in harmony with surrounding nature. Sometimes in such cases, natural stone is used.

asphalt concrete slabs square, rectangular, obtained by pressing under a load of 30-40 MPa from fine-grained or sandy asphalt concrete. Lay on cold asphalt concrete, on crushed stone, sand.

stone slabs from limestone, sandstone with compressive strength R=80…100 MPa, frost resistance F>25; both chipped and sawn slabs up to 1 m long are used, they are laid on a sandy base with a thickness of h = 10 ... 15 cm.

Ceramic materials in the form of bricks or slabs. Clinker bricks, obtained by firing before sintering, with increased strength and water resistance. Lay on sandy bases h=8…12 cm flat or on edge. With heavy traffic, bases made of crushed stone and slag are used. These materials allow you to vary the pattern: rows of longitudinal, transverse, herringbone, squares, rhombuses. Seams are sealed with asphalt mastic or cement mortar. In a number foreign countries use stone mosaic checkers.

Colored concretes on white cement with pigments or on colored cement, colored asphalt concretes are also used. Bright color the latter is due to the use of synthetic resins with the addition of pigments as a binder, in essence it is polymer concrete. The lighter the resin, the brighter the coatings.

Beautiful coatings can be obtained from colored rubber in the form of plates. Such coatings are elastic, silent, hygienic.

4. Bike lanes

It is recommended to arrange along the streets and roads leading to recreation areas, to parks, stadiums, beaches, as well as to enterprises located in the suburbs. They are located on one or both sides of the street, between the carriageway and sidewalks. With separate carriageways for transit and local traffic, bike paths are placed between them. In all cases, they must be protected. green spaces. They can be for single-row, double-row, oncoming traffic. AT last case the width of the track can reach 4.5m. Single or double profile. Road clothes - like on the sidewalks.

5. Tramways

The choice of tram track designs depends on their location:

on a separate canvas;

on a common roadway.

In the latter case, the type of pavement on the carriageway is preserved on the tram tracks.

The structure of tram tracks includes the following elements: subgrade with drainage devices, base (lower structure of the tracks), superstructure(rails, special parts, fastenings) and road surface (except for tracks on a separate canvas).

The width and depth of the trough for tram tracks depends on the design of the substructure of the tracks. The bottom of the trough is given slopes from 10 to 80% towards the drainage. The bases for tram tracks are divided into ballast (elastic, semi-rigid) and non-ballast (rigid). The most common are sleeper-sand structures, which have a lower cost. Bases with crushed stone and crushed stone and gravel underlying layer are more stable. They are used in combination with reinforced concrete elements - sleepers. Ballastless concrete foundations with rails embedded in concrete are used in tram tracks on main streets.

6. Conjugation of elements of streets and roads

Pairings of elements of streets and roads are performed at the same or different levels. On one level: sidewalks + footpath + lawn, carriageway with curb, pavements on the carriageway and tram tracks.

At different levels: the carriageway is below the level of the sidewalks, the sidewalks are below the lawn; islands of safety, dividing strips, landing areas of urban transport - above the roadway. Pairings are most often performed with side stones, which are stops for the roadway and ensure the clarity of its boundaries. Side stones are made of concrete, granite with strength Rszh≥40MPa, frost resistance F≥100…200. For footpaths, concrete with a strength of ≥20 MPa is used. The stones are set so that the elevation is at least 15 cm. To ensure stability, side stones should be placed on a concrete base with stones embedded in it to a depth of 10 cm. On bridges, high embankments, slopes, sidewalks are fenced with railings, green spaces that ensure traffic safety. Pairings of elements of streets or roads located at different levels, with a difference in elevations > 0.5 m, are performed with slopes or retaining walls.

Engineering networks are divided into underground and aboveground:

Underground- water supply, sewerage, heating, cables, etc.

Elevated- electric lighting wires, contact wires of urban electric transport, telephone and others. Overground networks in modern cities- This contact networks urban transport. They are placed at a height of 5.5 ... 6.3 m.

Underground engineering networks are divided into cable, pipeline and tunnel (collectors). Cables include:

- High voltage cables - power supply, consecration and power supply of urban transport (tram, trolleybus, subway);

- Low voltage cables - telephone, telegraph, radio, television, fire alarm, traffic control systems and others.

Pipelines are used for heating, water supply, sewerage (storm and fecal), gasification; in industrial production, oil pipelines and air pipelines are used. Collectors, tunnels, channels or galleries are used for laying cables, pipelines or jointly laying underground utilities under streets and roads.

Collectors are also called the main pipelines of storm or fecal sewers. Underground networks are laid at different depths, some of them taking into account the depth of soil freezing. networks shallow(cables) are laid closer to the building, deep- farther. Between the individual gaskets, gaps of 0.4 ... 5 m must be observed. Combined laying of cables in common trenches is practiced. Rational and progressive laying of communications in common collectors (tunnels). Free access in collectors provides constant monitoring of communications and their repair.

Collectors for joint laying of underground communications.

Collectors are located under sidewalks or lawns at a distance of more than 2 m from the foundations of buildings. It is recommended that any communications, in order to avoid work on opening and restoring pavement, be laid outside the carriageway and even sidewalks - under specially designated technical lanes on which the lawn is arranged.

8. Drainage and snow removal

The drainage system can be closed, open, mixed. The most perfect is a closed system, in which water is discharged through underground pipelines, where it enters through water intake wells with grates.

Reinforced concrete, asbestos-cement, polymer pipes are used: small pipes - d = 0.4 ... 0.6m; medium - d=0.7…1.5m; large - d \u003d 1.5 ... 3.5m. Pipes d>1m are called collectors. Channels from prefabricated elements up to 4 m wide and up to 3 m high are also used.

A closed drainage network is called storm sewer; it has manholes, confluence and intersection chambers, transition wells, etc. Manholes are arranged for cleaning drains, fixing the position of the pipe through certain intervals(50 ... 80 m) on straight sections, in places of rotation, changes in diameter, slopes, in places where drain branches, wells, etc. are attached. Drains are laid taking into account the depth of soil freezing. The backfill thickness is 0.7…8 m. From the trays, water enters the storm water wells with gratings.

Storm sewerage scheme: 1. Water intake wells with gratings; 2. Manholes; 3. Gutter collector

Storm sewerage should be carried out both on the streets and in the intra-apartment areas. The depth of wells on the street and in the red lines in the apartment areas is from 1.2 to 2.1 m. Along with the withdrawal surface water attention should be paid to lowering the level and diverting ground water. For this, deep drains are used. On the streets and roads, shallow drainage is arranged at the edges of the carriageway under the pavement. They take in water from the draining layers.

When designing streets and roads, measures are taken to ensure rapid snow removal. Snow removal by road, snow rafting, snow melting are used. Snow rafting can be carried out through any sewer system. To do this, snow collection chambers are arranged on large collectors, located outside the traffic zone at a distance of 200-250 m. They are covered with gratings and covers. Snow melting is carried out by heating coatings or melting snow with infrared burners.

9. Landscaping

Landscaping is carried out in the form of strips of green spaces: lawns with planting trees, shrubs, flowers. With an ordinary planting of trees, the distance between them along the streets, roads, sidewalks is at least 3-6m, and between the bushes - at least 0.5-1.5m. Best conditions for pedestrian traffic - when sidewalks and footpaths are bordered on both sides by strips of green spaces.

Dividing strips with green spaces are located:

- along the axis of the carriageway to separate oncoming traffic (3-4m);

- between the carriageway of transit and local traffic (6-8m);

- between the carriageway and the tram tracks (2m);

- between the carriageway and bike paths (1.2-4m);

- between the sidewalks and the carriageway or the tramway (2m).

10. Crossing streets and roads

Intersections are the most unfavorable sections of the road and street network. Stop here vehicles, arise dangerous situations for traffic and pedestrians. Therefore, at intersections in the presence of large traffic and pedestrian flows, intersections at different levels are recommended. Other intersections are regulated to allow traffic in mutually intersecting directions. It is recommended to carry left turning movement outside the intersections or arrange guide islands. At limited sizes movement along each of the intersecting streets, it is possible to organize a self-regulating intersection due to the installation of central guide islands.

12. Crossroads and squares

crossroads called the confluence or intersection of streets or roads. Square is an architecturally organized public space associated with road network cities ( locality) and having a certain functional value. At the intersection of two or more main streets or roads, intersections can be converted into traffic areas. Crossings are simple and complex. Simple intersections are formed when mutual intersection two streets or roads, or joining one or two streets or roads. Complex intersections are formed at the junction of several streets. The connection of a street to another is called an incomplete intersection, or junction.

1. Crossroads:

a) straight< пер~90 o	b) oblique< пер <90 o	c) T-shaped direct connection	d) Oblique connection	e) Mixed intersection	f) Semimixed intersection

Connections and branches

U - figurative intersection (fork or "fork")	Fork-shaped fork ("trident")	Scheme of the roundabout of highways in one level	Complex intersections	Simple intersections

Branches

13. Intersections at different levels

The greatest safety of traffic on the streets and roads can be achieved by arranging intersections at different levels. At the same time, throughput capacity increases, the speed of movement increases, significant savings in time and transport costs are achieved. The installation of artificial structures at intersections is very expensive and difficult in the current development. Therefore, intersections at different levels are arranged primarily on high-speed roads (this is a prerequisite), as well as on citywide highways with continuous traffic. They are necessary when crossing roads (railways) with railroads (railway, tramways, subway). At the same time, so-called interchanges are arranged for the movement of vehicles in different directions.

A common intersection at different levels with a denouement of traffic in all directions is the "cloverleaf".

Clover leaf scheme: a - with eight single-track ramps; b - with four double-track ramps.

One of the roads passes through the overpass above the other, located at ground level. "Petals" are used for left-turn directions. The disadvantage of such a decoupling is a large area for its construction, up to 2 hectares. In urban conditions interchanges are used according to the type of "flattened" or elongated "clover leaf". In urban conditions, it is advisable to arrange intersections with cross-circular traffic using a flyover or excavation. Crossings can be in 3 or even 4 levels with the construction of tunnels and flyovers. Transport tunnels are arranged with a width corresponding to the estimated width of the carriageway. The width of the traffic lane is 3.5 ... 4 m, the width of the sidewalk is 0.75 m. The carriageway for movement in each direction must consist of at least 2.

Road junction, suburban San Francisco, USA

14. Pedestrian crossings

Pedestrian crossings are arranged at the intersection of streets and roads, as well as between them, if the length of the stages is more than 400-600m. The width of the crossings is taken from 4 to 10 meters, depending on the size of the pedestrian traffic. They must be clearly marked, equipped with signs, safety islands, pedestrian traffic lights. With heavy traffic, off-street crossings are arranged:

- footbridges over the street;

- underground passages.

The advantages of underground passages include the following:

- descent and ascent to a small height - up to 3-3.5 m (on bridges up to 6 m.);

- lack of supports;

- maintaining the perspective of the street;

- favorable conditions in inclement weather.

Pedestrian bridges are useful if they connect functionally combined buildings. They are mainly used at railway stations, etc.

Pedestrian crossings are usually perpendicular to the street being crossed. Descents are carried out with the help of stairs and inclined slopes - ramps. Stair steps should be heated to prevent icing. With a laying depth of more than 4-5 m, they should be equipped with escalators, with a large length of the tunnel, moving sidewalks are used. Of the various designs of pedestrian tunnels, the most widely used tunnels are rectangular sections made of precast concrete elements. In cross section, they can be one or two-span. The width of the tunnel is more than 3 m; with a tunnel width of more than 6 m, intermediate axial supports are made. In our country, tunnels 4 m wide and 2 × 4 m wide have become widespread. The longitudinal slope of the tunnel should not exceed 30%.

The status quo

The territory of the designed sports and leisure center is located in the Istra Municipal District of the Moscow Region between the villages of Leonovo and Kartsevo. The transport connection of the territory of the planned location of the sports and leisure center with the villages and cities of the Istra district is carried out along the Volokolamsk Highway - Buzharovo - Savelyevo - Rumyantsevo highway.

Car roads

The road "Volokolamsk highway - Buzharovo - Savelyevo - Rumyantsevo" is a road of regional significance of the III technical category. In the area under consideration, the width of the carriageway of the highway is 6 m. Road markings are applied to the carriageway. The markings have two lanes for vehicles in both directions. There is no artificial lighting on the considered section of the road.

Project proposals

Project proposals for the transport service of the territory of the sports and leisure center are developed with the aim of streamlining and ensuring the safe movement of vehicles and pedestrians, for the purpose of their transport service and determining the location of parking lots.

Highways and streets

External transport links of the territory under consideration will be carried out along the highway of regional significance "Volokolamsk Highway - Buzharovo - Savelyevo - Rumyantsevo".

The project provides for two planned streets of local importance for the passage of motor vehicles to the territory of the sports and leisure center. Entry and exit to the territory of the sports and leisure center is carried out from the planned street of local importance, located to the north of the territory under consideration. Departure to the highway "Volokolamsk highway - Buzharovo - Savelyevo - Rumyantsevo" is carried out along the planned street of local importance located to the west of the territory of the sports and leisure center.

The project provides for the reconstruction of the Volokolamsk Highway - Buzharovo - Savelyevo - Rumyantsevo highway with the preservation of two traffic lanes and an increase in the carriageway to 7.00 m. shoulders on each side of the road). The width of the carriageway of the streets is taken equal to 8.00 m (4.00 m is the width of the traffic lane in each direction, taking into account the passage of a horse carriage along it). The planned cross profiles of streets and the highway are presented on the sheet "Scheme of the organization of the road network and traffic" (profiles 1-1, 2-2, 3-3).

On the highway in the area where the street of local importance adjoins it, transitional and high-speed lanes are arranged. Departure from the planned street to the motor road is carried out in both directions of the road. The parameters of transitional speed lanes and radii of the intersection curves of the highway and the planned street are adopted in accordance with SNiP 2.05.02-85 "Motorways" and can be further refined in accordance with the technical specifications of the State Institution of the Ministry of Defense "UAD MO" Mosavtodor ".

It is planned to apply appropriate road markings along the highway and streets and install appropriate road signs in compliance with GOST R 52289-2004 “Technical means of organizing traffic. Rules for the use of road signs, markings, traffic lights, road barriers and guide devices”, GOST R 51256-99 “Road markings. General specifications” and GOST R 52290-2004 “Road signs. General technical conditions".

Network of internal passages

Departure of vehicles from the territory of the sports and recreation complex is carried out in the checkpoint area to the street located to the north of the territory under consideration. Departure is carried out in both directions of the street. The passage provides an entrance to the administrative building and a car park for 13 cars. To the east of the junction of the passage to the street, an entrance-exit to an open parking lot is provided, designed for 68 parking spaces. The minimum width of driveways is 8.00 m.

Driveways are accepted with asphalt concrete pavement, closed rainwater drainage and installation of curbstones. At night, the entire planned internal network of passages is proposed to be illuminated with the help of lamps installed on special masts.

The movement of traffic on the junction of passages to the streets is regulated by road signs and road markings.

Structures and devices for temporary storage of vehicles

The maximum one-time estimated number of visitors to the sports and recreation complex is 300 people. The number of permanent employees is 12 people, temporarily - 30 people. Thus, in accordance with TSN 30-303-2000 “Planning and development of urban and rural settlements. Moscow Region” the maximum estimated fleet of vehicles will be 95 units. For visitors, it is necessary to provide 90 parking spaces at the rate of 30 parking spaces per 100 people. For employees 5 parking spaces at the rate of 15 parking spaces per 100 employees.

In the area of ​​​​the administrative building, an open parking lot for 13 cars is provided. An open parking lot, located to the east of the main entrance, is designed for 66 parking spaces and has a separate entrance from the street. Also along the street of local importance, parking spaces for 16 cars adjacent to the carriageway are provided.

Thus, the total capacity of open car parks in the territory under consideration is 95 parking spaces.

Public transport

It is planned to place a public transport stop along the Volokolamsk Highway - Buzharovo - Savelyevo - Rumyantsevo road to the south of the territory of the sports and leisure center at a distance of 400 m.

Pedestrian traffic

Pedestrian traffic is planned to be organized along the sidewalks along the highway, streets and driveways. The intersections of pedestrian and traffic flows are equipped with pedestrian crossings (corresponding road markings and appropriate road signs).

On the road "Volokolamsk highway - Buzharovo - Savelyevo - Rumyantsevo", a sidewalk 1.50 m wide is provided from the side of the territory of the sports and leisure center. The sidewalk also connects the area under consideration with a public transport stop. Along the planned street of local importance, located to the west of the sports and leisure center, sidewalks 1.50 m wide are provided on both sides of the carriageway. Along the planned street of local importance, passing from the north of the territory under consideration, a sidewalk 3.00 m wide is provided on the north side of the carriageway. On the eastern side of the sports and leisure center, a sidewalk 3.00 m wide is provided, connecting the sidewalks of the highway and the planned local street.

Traffic on the territory of the sports and leisure center is planned to be organized along sidewalks and footpaths 1.5-3 m wide, pedestrians are also allowed to move along the carriageway.

After studying this chapter, the student should:

know

• provisions and theoretical foundations of the formation of the road network of cities;
• normative legal and normative-technical documents in the field of designing the road network of cities;
• rules for designing the road network of cities;

be able to

• generalize and systematize the main documents regulating the design and operation of the road network of cities;
• solve problems related to determining the parameters of streets and city roads;
• choose the most rational design solutions for the infrastructure of pedestrian traffic and parking;

own

• skills of working with regulatory and scientific literature in the field of design and operation of the street and road network of cities;
• skills in solving practical problems in calculating the parameters of streets and city roads.

Planning structure of the street-road network. Its main characteristics

Road network(UDS) is a complex of transport infrastructure facilities that are part of the territory of settlements and urban districts, limited by red lines and intended for the movement of vehicles and pedestrians, streamlining development and laying engineering communications (with an appropriate feasibility study), as well as providing transport and pedestrian connections of the territories of settlements and urban districts as an integral part of their communication routes; is an interconnected system of city streets and highways, each of which performs its own function of ensuring the movement of its participants and the function of access to the starting and ending points of movement (objects of gravity).

The road network of cities and settlements consists of city roads, streets, avenues, squares, lanes, embankment passages, transport engineering structures (tunnels, overpasses, under- and overhead pedestrian crossings), tram tracks, dead-end streets, driveways and entrances, car parks and parking lots.

Planning for the development of the road network of cities and settlements, as well as the placement of city streets and roads should be carried out on the basis of urban design standards, land use and development rules, urban planning regulations, types of permitted use of land plots and capital construction facilities, urban planning plans for land plots and based on from the placement of elements of the planning structure (quarters, microdistricts, other elements).

The road network of settlements should be formed in the form of a continuous hierarchically built system of streets, city roads and its other elements, taking into account the functional purpose of streets and roads, the intensity of transport, cycling, pedestrian and other types of traffic, the architectural and planning organization of the territory and the nature of development.

A number of requirements are imposed on the planning structure of the road network.

• 1. Rational placement of various functional urban areas and providing the shortest links between individual functional areas of the city. Within the boundaries of a large city, the time spent by residents to travel from their place of residence (dormitory areas) to their place of work (industrial and administrative areas) should not exceed 45–60 minutes.
• 2. Ensuring the necessary capacity of highways and transport hubs with the separation of traffic by speed and mode of transport.
• 3. The possibility of redistributing traffic flows in case of temporary difficulties in certain directions and sections.
• 4. Providing convenient access to external transport facilities (airports, bus stations) and exits to country roads.
• 5. Ensuring the safe movement of vehicles and pedestrians.

The planning structure of cities is formed taking into account natural conditions: terrain, the presence of watercourses and climate. So, for example, in the northern cities a network of streets will be created, located in the direction of the prevailing winds in the winter season, ensuring the transfer of most of the snow through the city. In cities located on a slope, a network of streets directed from top to bottom is created - the city is ventilated: the smog is transferred down to the valley.

There are the following planning structures UDS of the city(Fig. 4.1).

• 1. free scheme typical for old cities with a disordered street and road network (Fig. 4.1, a). It is characterized by narrow, curved streets with frequent intersections, which are a serious obstacle to the organization of urban transport.
• 2. Radial scheme found in small old towns that developed as trading centers. Provides the shortest connections of peripheral regions with the center (Fig. 4.1, b). It is also typical of the road network that develops around the city center. The main disadvantages of such a scheme are the congestion of the center with transit traffic and the difficulty of communication between peripheral regions.
• 3. Radial-ring scheme represents an improved radial scheme with the addition of ring highways, which remove some of the load from the central part and provide communication between peripheral areas bypassing the central transport hub (Fig. 4.1, in). It is typical for large historical cities. In the course of the development of the city, the extra-urban tracts, which converged at the central junction, turn into radial highways, and the ring highways appear along the routes of the dismantled fortress walls and ramparts that previously encircled separate parts of the city concentrically. A classic example is Moscow.
• 4. triangular pattern has not received wide distribution, since the sharp corners formed at the intersection points of the elements of the road network create significant difficulties and inconveniences in the development and development of sites (Fig. 4.1, d). In addition, the triangular scheme does not provide convenient transport links even in the most active directions. Elements of the triangular scheme can be found in the old districts of London, Paris, Bern and other cities.
• 5. Rectangular pattern has become very widespread. It is typical for young cities (Odessa, Rostov), ​​which developed according to pre-developed plans (Figure 4.1, e). It has the following advantages over other planning structures:
  • – convenience and ease of orientation in the process of movement;
  • – significant capacity due to the presence of backup highways that disperse traffic flows;
  • – no overload of the central transport hub.

The disadvantage is the significant remoteness of oppositely located peripheral areas. In these cases, instead of moving along the hypotenuse, the traffic flow is directed along two legs.

6. Rectangular-diagonal layout is a development of the rectangular scheme. Provides the shortest connections in the most demanded directions. While retaining the advantages of a purely rectangular scheme, it frees it from its main drawback (Fig. 4.1, e). Diagonal highways simplify the connection of peripheral areas with each other and with the center.

The disadvantage is the presence of transport hubs with many incoming streets (mutually perpendicular and diagonal highways).

7. Combined scheme preserves the advantages of some schemes and eliminates the disadvantages of others. It is typical for large and largest historically developed cities. It is a combination of the above types of circuits and, in fact, is the most common. Here, free, radial or radial-ring structures are often found in the central zones, and in new areas the road network develops according to a rectangular or rectangular-diagonal pattern.

Rice. 4.1.

a - free scheme; b- radial; in- radial-annular; G - triangular; d- rectangular; e - rectangular-diagonal

Depending on the planning structure, the loading of the city center is different. The radial network has the largest number of transport links through the city center, since transportation is actively carried out along the radial streets in the diametrical direction. The radial-ring scheme largely eliminates this drawback, since the peripheral ones go along the ring streets to bypass the center. This disadvantage is also eliminated by the rectangular scheme, which allows dispersing traffic flows along parallel streets.

UDS is characterized by the following indicators.

1. Network density of streets and roads defined as the ratio of the length of roads to the area of ​​the territory, km/km2

Sometimes a network density indicator is used, expressed as km2 of the area of ​​the carriageway divided by km2 of the urban area (km2/km2).

According to modern standards, the average density of main streets 5 = 2.2-2.4 km/km2 with a distance between them of 0.5-1.0 km.

The rational distance between the main streets, along which the movement of public transport is carried out, is assigned from the condition of convenience for the inhabitants of the city, so that the distance from the most remote point of the place of residence or work to the stop does not exceed 400–500 m.

With the same distance between the streets, the density of the network with a radial-annular planning structure is 1.5 times higher than with a rectangular scheme. The high network density ensures the minimum length of pedestrian approaches to the main streets, but has such serious disadvantages as high capital investment in the network and its operation, as well as low traffic speeds due to frequent intersections at the same level.

The average density of the street network in St. Petersburg is 4.0-5.5 km/km2, including the density of the network of main streets and roads with controlled traffic - 2.5-3.5 km/km2, the density of the network of urban express roads and highways continuous movement - 0.4 km/km2.

The road network density in Moscow is 4.4 km/km2. In large cities of the world, the density of the SDR is higher: in London - 9.3, in New York - 12.4, in Paris - 15.0 km/km2.

There is a relationship between the population in the city and the density of the road network. In small towns (with a population of 100–250 thousand inhabitants), the density of the SDR 6 = 1.6–2.2 km/km2, in cities with a population of more than 2 million inhabitants δ = 2.4–3.2 km/km2.

The larger the city, the greater the density of the road network and the greater the length of the streets per inhabitant. In large cities of Russia, per inhabitant, there is the following amount of UDS area, m2: in Moscow - 12, in St. Petersburg - 10, in US cities: New York - 32, Los Angeles - 105.

2. Non-straightness index is characterized by the value of the coefficient of non-straightness, equal to the ratio of the actual path that the car passes along the road network from the starting point A to the end point of the route B, to the air distance between these points:

The coefficient of non-straightness largely depends on the planning structure of the road network and the adopted organization of traffic (primarily the volume of one-way traffic).

The coefficient of non-straightness varies from 1.1 to 1.4. The smallest coefficient of non-linearity has a radial-ring scheme, the largest - a rectangular one.

3. Throughput of the road network is determined by the maximum number of cars passing through the cross section per unit of time - hour.

The capacity of the road network depends on the level of loading of individual highways, the way traffic is regulated at intersections, the proportion of highways of continuous traffic, the composition of the traffic flow, the state of the coating and other reasons.

Throughput at the same density of the UDS of rectangular and rectangular-diagonal schemes is higher than others - due to the presence of parallel alternate streets.

4. Degree of difficulty of highway crossings characterized by the configuration of the intersections of the main streets.

The most rational, as experience shows, is the intersection of two main streets at a right angle. The presence of five or more converging directions in the node significantly complicates the organization of traffic, forcing the use of ring schemes that require large areas, or expensive interchanges at different levels. Crossings of main streets at an acute angle also complicate the organization of traffic and pedestrians.

5. Loading level of the central transport hub depends on the planning structure of the loading of the city center.

The radial network has the largest number of transport links through the city center, since transportation is actively carried out along the radial streets in the diametrical direction. The radial-ring scheme largely eliminates this disadvantage, since peripheral flows are carried out along the ring streets to bypass the center.

The rectangular scheme is devoid of this drawback, which allows dispersing traffic flows along parallel streets.

• SP 42.13330.2011 "Urban planning. Planning and development of urban and rural settlements". Updated edition of SNiP 2.07.01–89*.

The transport planning of cities and the outline of the street and road network is the urban framework of cities and determines their architectural appearance.

The formation of the transport network of the city is mainly determined by its historical development. Depending on the outline of the main-street network, the following planning schemes of cities are distinguished:

- rectangular (Fig. 10, c) the scheme is typical for modern cities with planned development. Its feature is the absence of a strictly defined center and the even distribution of passenger and transport flows in all areas. Many US cities have such a transport scheme. Possessing indisputable advantages in terms of the convenience of building corner sections and the presence of duplicate directions, it is also characterized by a significant drawback: the distance between two points of a transport line located on more than one highway is much greater than the shortest distance along an air straight line. The relation of these greatnesses is called coefficient of non-straightness

- triangular(Fig. 10e) During the reconstruction of cities with a rectangular transport scheme, there is often a need to punch diagonal lines. With a large number of diagonal streets, the scheme from a rectangular one turns into a triangular one with complex intersection nodes.

- radial(Fig. 10, a) This scheme is typical for old cities, the development of which began at the intersection of important trade routes. This scheme provides the shortest connection between peripheral areas and the city center, but at the same time, it makes it difficult for remote peripheral areas to communicate with each other. This leads to traffic congestion in the central core of the city. The radial scheme is characterized by an even greater coefficient of non-straightness compared to the rectangular scheme. As the territory of the city grows and the transport network develops, this scheme can turn into a radial-circular one. (Kharkov, Tashkent, Riga, etc.).

- radial-annular(fig.10, c) the scheme developed in old cities located at the intersection of important trade routes and having a system of ring fortifications around the center. This scheme provides a fairly convenient connection between remote areas of the city with the center - along radial directions and among themselves - along ring directions. However, radial directions, compared to circular ones, are overloaded with passenger and traffic flows, which also leads to a glut of the city center with transport;

- rectangular - diagonal(Fig. 10d) - typical for many old cities with planned development relative to the historical center. It has the same advantages and disadvantages as the radial-ring scheme, but it is characterized by a more even distribution of transport and passenger flows throughout the city;

- free(Fig. 10, e) the scheme is found in some old European and Asian cities, preserves the medieval layout and is distinguished by rather complex transport links between the regions.

Each real city is a combination of different schemes in different places, dogmas should not be applied, it is necessary to look for optimal solutions. For this reason, it is often used combined schemes.

The street and road network of cities is designed as a continuous system, taking into account the functional purpose of streets and roads, the intensity of transport and pedestrian traffic, architectural and urban planning solutions of the territory.

In large cities with radial, radial-ring and rectangular-diagonal street and road networks, they try to minimize the volume of ground transport through the territory of the historical core of the city center by constructing bypass main streets, as well as long deep-laid motor transport tunnels (underground highways) under the city center .

At the intersections of main streets and citywide roads, complete and incomplete junctions are arranged at different levels*. For this, road and pedestrian tunnels can be used.

Fig. 29 Schemes of transport networks: a - radial; b - radial - annular; c - rectangular; g - rectangular-diagonal; e - triangular; e is free.