The street and road network of the city is intended for the passage of traffic and pedestrian flows, the organization of drainage from the territory of the city, as well as the passage of engineering communications. The streets and roads of the city should be combined into a single rational scheme.

The main planning systems of urban street networks are radial, radial-ring, rectangular, rectangular-diagonal, triangular, combined and free.

Radial is not convenient to use. It is typical for some Eastern cities. (fig.10)

BUT b

a - radial scheme of streets; b - plan of Samarkand

Rice. 10 Radial street map

The radial-ring scheme is typical for many old cities in Europe and Russia. (fig.11, 12)

a b

a - radial-annular scheme; b - plan of the center of Vienna

Fig.11. Radial-ring scheme of streets

Fig.12. Moscow is an example of a radial-ring scheme of streets.

Rectangular and rectangular-diagonal are found in Europe and other parts of the world, but they are especially characteristic of the United States. (Fig. 13, 14).

a b

a - rectangular scheme; b - rectangular-diagonal scheme

Fig.13. Rectangular and rectangular-diagonal street patterns

Fig.14. Philadelphia plan

The triangular scheme is typical for the central part of Paris. (Fig. 15a, 16)

a b in

a - triangular scheme; b - combined circuit; ... c - free circuit

Fig.15. City street plans

Fig.16. Plan of the center of Paris

An example of a combined layout is London in its central part, where radial-annular, rectangular and triangular layouts are combined. (Fig. 15b, 17).

Rice. 17. Plan of the center of London.

Free planning, sometimes called landscape, is characteristic of cities with unusual landscapes and small settlements. (Fig. 15c,18)

Rice. 18. Plan of Venice

The classification and main parameters of city streets and roads are fixed in SNiP 2.07.01-89⃰ Urban planning. Planning and development of urban and rural settlements. In a small town, the project of which is carried out during the course work, in most cases three types of streets are designed:

- main streets of city-wide significance of regulated traffic;

- main streets of regional significance;

- Residential streets.

It is necessary to develop a classification of city streets and give them names. Present the results in tabular form, indicating: street category, name, length, width and area (in square meters, measuring the length of the street according to the general plan in accordance with the scale of the drawing). (Fig. 19)

Rice. nineteen. The street-road network of the city in the residential area. Table

№	Street category	Street name	By project
length	width	square
	A. Main streets of citywide significance (regulated traffic)	Ivanova
		Petrova
	B Main streets of district significance (transport and pedestrian)	Sidorova
	B Streets and roads of local importance (in residential areas)

The transport network of the city should ensure the speed, comfort and safety of movement between the functional areas of the city and within them. The tasks of designing a transport system are subject to the requirements of functionality, environmental protection and landscape features. On the transport scheme of a small town, it is necessary to place a railway station and a bus station, as well as to ensure their convenient connection with all areas of the settlement. It is also necessary to ensure a reliable connection between residential areas and the industrial zone, providing additional connections in case one road fails.

In the course work, it is necessary to develop several (at least three) public transport routes. Which would provide these main urban communications, as well as a convenient connection of residential areas with the urban center and recreational areas.

QUESTION 21. MAIN SCHEMES OF CITY STREET AND ROAD NETWORKS AND THEIR REFLECTION.

Classification of city streets and roads.

1. Radial.

2. Radial-annular.

3. Rectangular.

4. Rectangular-diagonal.

5. Triangular.

6. Free.

7. Combined.

Radial. Basically, such a scheme is found in old cities. Disadvantage: poor communication between peripheral areas (all roads go through the center). Advantages: good communication with the center. The scheme is applicable in small towns.

Radial-ring. The same radial scheme, but with the addition of ring highways. The number of ring highways depends on the size of the city. Ring highways relieve significant congestion from the center, create a convenient connection between areas. However, in large cities, traffic along the ring directions, located closer to the center, leads to overload. This scheme partially eliminates the disadvantages of the radial. Disadvantage: ring roads are loaded unevenly.

Rectangular. This scheme represents a system of parallel perpendicular streets. Applies to "young" cities. Advantages: simplicity and the possibility of distributing transport throughout the city. Disadvantage: long routes between diagonally located areas. With an elongated shape of the city, this scheme turns into a rectangular-linear one.

Rectangular-diagonal. It is a rectangular layout with the addition of diagonal directions. Strengths: Simplicity and improved communication between diagonally located peripheral areas. Flaw: a large number of intersections, and at the intersection one of the streets intersects at an angle of 90º (≈ 45º). It makes it difficult to organize traffic and place buildings.

Free and triangular. are found in the historically established conditions of old cities. A large number of nodes are formed with the intersection of many highways under acute angle Disadvantage: a large number of intersections at an acute angle. It does not apply in newly built cities.

Combined. It is a combination of two or more schemes, found in large cities, where in old districts it is radial-ring, and in new districts it is rectangular. This scheme is used to increase bandwidth and eliminate the shortcomings of the simplest schemes.

When considering the schemes of the transport network, their comparison is carried out according to the coefficient of straightness. The distance and time of the trip, convenience depend on this coefficient. For the main types of planning schemes, the coefficient of non-straightness is:

Rectangular with a square pattern - 1.41;

Rectangular - 1.27;

Radial-ring (at 12 radii) - 3.86;

Triangular - 1.1.

The streets of settlements are divided into:

1. Expressways

2. main streets and roads (citywide and regional significance)

3. streets and roads of local importance (residential, industrial and communal warehouse areas, driveways; settlement streets, pedestrian roads)

High-speed roads are of considerable length, designed to connect with highways. common network and for high-speed transport links between remote areas of settlements.

Main streets and citywide roads are designed to connect with express roads and roads of the general network, as well as to connect remote areas with the center.

Main streets and roads of district significance are intended for transport links within residential and industrial areas between themselves and main streets of citywide significance.

Residential streets serve as transport and pedestrian links between residential microdistricts and main streets.

Streets and roads of industrial and communal warehouse areas serve for transport and pedestrian connection of individual industrial enterprises and warehouses with the main streets.

Driveways are intended for transport communication within microdistricts, as well as for access to individual facilities in industrial areas.

Pedestrian roads are designed for movement in residential areas, for communication with places of work and recreation, stopping points, community centers.

Village streets serve for transport and pedestrian links within the villages, as well as for links with industrial zones and highways

Trunk streets and roads form the basis of street- road network cities. These are communication routes that provide passenger and freight connections between the functioning areas of the city.

Depending on the scale of connections, the main streets and roads are of citywide and regional significance.

Depending on the composition of the movement, they are divided into 3 groups:

1. predominantly with passenger traffic

2.predominantly freight traffic

3 with mixed traffic

Depending on the speed of movement, the main streets and roads are divided into:

1. adjustable

2. with continuous traffic

3. with high-speed traffic, streets and roads of local importance form the basis of the planning structure of individual areas. Serve for direct connection of individual objects. Must have access to main streets and roads.

→ Layouts of settlements

Planning structure of settlements

Types and elements of the planning structure. The following factors influence the decision of city plans: the place of the city in the settlement system; natural and climatic characteristics of the selected territory; profile and size of the city-forming group of enterprises; conditions for functional zoning of the urban area; organization of transport links between residential areas and places of employment; accounting perspective development cities; environmental protection requirements; conditions of the engineering equipment of the territory; the requirements of the economics of construction; architectural and artistic requirements. These factors are reflected in the planning structure of the city, i.e., in the combination of residential development with places of mass visitation (work, recreation, culture, life), connected by a network of main streets and squares.

The predominance of one of the factors or the total impact of several determines the type of planning structure: compact, dissected and dispersed. The compact type is characterized by the arrangement of all functional areas cities within a single area. The dissected type occurs when rivers, ravines or a transit railway cross the territory of the city. The dispersed type involves several urban planning formations interconnected by transport lines. The emergence of a dispersed type is determined by the nature of the city-forming group of enterprises in a given city (for example, the mining industry) or natural and climatic conditions.

The main planning elements of the city include: residential and industrial areas, objects that form the system of urban services (administrative and public, cultural and educational, medical and recreational, sports, commercial and public and mass recreation) and uniting them with a network of streets and squares.

Rice. 1. Schemes, planning structure:
a - compact: b - dissected; c - dispersed

Public service institutions and enterprises in modern city constitute a single system covering residential areas, places of application of labor and recreation areas. The modern urban planning trend is aimed at combining service facilities into public centers: citywide, planning areas, residential areas and microdistricts, industrial and industrial and residential areas, public recreation areas. In the largest cities, such as Moscow, Leningrad, Kyiv, the general planning structure includes planning zones with their own community centers.

Rice. 2. Scheme of placement of service centers and institutions in the new city for 500 thousand people.

Training centers include a vocational school, a technical school and a university cooperating on the same site, i.e. three links of special educational institutions. This makes it possible to organize a single sports center, an economic group, institutions of consumer, medical and cultural services, an integrated group of residential buildings with a kindergarten, a school. All cooperative elements of this complex are being enlarged, which allows them to be improved, better equipped, more expedient to operate (instead of several small first-aid posts - a polyclinic, instead of separate gyms - a sports complex with a swimming pool, etc.). At the same time, such cooperation gives a significant economic effect.

The centers of educational, scientific and industrial associations include a university, a group of research institutes of the same profile, pilot production, possibly also a vocational school, technical school, training center, as well as residential buildings, hostels and cultural and community institutions. Such associations are equipped with an enlarged computer station, a library, an information center, a design bureau, provide unified system economic, cultural and household, medical care and an enlarged sports center. Educational, scientific and production associations create conditions for the fruitful development of science, raising the scientific and production level educational process, contribute to the fastest introduction of scientific achievements into production, the involvement of faculty, graduate students and students in scientific work the entire association and into production.

Rice. 3. Planning zone of the educational center in Tobolsk (design proposal of TsNIIEP of educational buildings):
1 - educational zone of institutes and technical schools; 2 - zone of vocational schools; 3 - cooperative zone of sports facilities; 4- cooperative, residential area for students of institutes and technical schools; 5 - residential area for vocational school students

Educational centers and centers of educational-scientific-industrial associations are new promising urban formations.

Functional zoning of the territory. The modern city is a complex organism in which social, architectural and planning, engineering and economic principles. In order to conveniently and rationally organize the life of this complex organism, planning decision city, the zoning of its territory is laid on the basis of functional features and types of urban construction.

In accordance with SNiP 11-60-75 * the territory of the city in its own way functional purpose is divided into the following zones: a residential zone designed to accommodate residential areas, public centers (administrative, scientific, educational, medical, sports, etc.), as well as public green spaces;

An industrial zone used to house industrial enterprises and related facilities; a communal warehouse zone, which houses bases and warehouses, garages, tram depots, trolleybus and bus depots, laundry factories, dry cleaning factories, etc.; an external transport zone designed to accommodate transport devices and structures (passenger and freight stations, ports, marinas, etc.).

The industrial and municipal warehouse zones form a single industrial zone of the city. Research and production complexes can also be included here. With this in mind, the term production zone is introduced, covering all areas of material production, the service industry, warehouse and public services.

In some specific cases of urban development, it is possible to allocate a community center zone, as well as organize a separate communal zone or allocate an independent warehouse zone. In cities with a scientific profile, the zone of research institutes is also among the main zones, and in resort towns - resort area, which houses medical and recreational facilities, gardens, parks, beaches, etc. A separate place in urban development is occupied by large sports facilities, hospitals, and research institutes. Within the city there are also other lands on which the city subsidiary farms, nurseries, cemeteries, etc.

The territory of a rural settlement is divided into two main zones: residential and industrial. Right choice territories for the placement of a particular zone and the functionally justified mutual arrangement of the main zones largely determine the comfort of living for the people of a given settlement and the rational operation of its industrial (manufacturing) enterprises. The most important is the location of the residential and industrial zones, which establishes the relationship between the places of application of labor and housing, i.e. the main social cycle life of the city - "work - life".

Rice. 5. Educational and scientific complex in Rostov-on-Don (project):
a - scheme of the master plan; 1 - university and scientific research center high school; 2 - special laboratory and pilot production; 3 - design bureau; 4- branch and academic research institutes; 5 - scientific and educational zone (reserve); 6 - common communal - economic zone; 7 - general sports area; b - the main square of the Faculty of Natural Sciences; 1 - Research Institute; 2 - educational faculties; 3 - cooperative premises

Rice. 6. Functional zoning of cities: a - a small town with a manufacturing industry; b - small town - research center; in - a small resort town; d - a medium-sized city of scientific and industrial profile; D - a large city created on the basis of mining and metallurgical industry; "-residential zone; 2 - industrial zone; 3 - communal storage zone; 4 - research institute and design bureau zone; 5 - university zone; 6 - public centers; 7 - parks; 8 - sanitary protection zone; 9 - other green spaces ; 10 - resort zone; 11 - economic zone of the resort; 12 - ore deposit; 13 - mining and processing plants; 14 - transport areas; 15 - direction of development of the zone

The residential zone is located on the windward side for the prevailing winds, as well as upstream of the rivers in relation to industrial enterprises, which are sources of environmental pollution.

The production zone should be located in such a way that it is possible to organize convenient transport and pedestrian links with the places of residence of workers, that is, with the residential zone. Territories for industrial zones are chosen taking into account their unimpeded connection to external transport lines (railway, water, etc.). However, the crossing of industrial zones by transit railways and roads is undesirable.

Depending on the intensity of the release harmful substances manufacturing enterprises The industrial zone is located at different distances from the residential zone. Sanitary design standards divide industrial production into five classes, each of which has its own sanitary protection zone (m): I class - 1000; II - 500; II - 300; IV - 100;, V -50.

In accordance with this classification, in the practice of urban development, three characteristic cases of the relative position of industrial and residential zones were identified. In the first case, the residential zone is located at a considerable distance from the industrial zone, which includes enterprises of classes I and II: ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, petrochemical and chemical, large cement plants, large thermal power plants, etc. nuclear power plants) width protection zone increases to several kilometers. The second case is related to the location of industry near the boundaries of the residential area. With such placement in the industrial zone, it is allowed to include enterprises classified according to the sanitary classification to III and

IV classes, regardless of the size of the cargo turnover, as well as enterprises

Class V, which do not emit industrial hazards, but require the construction of railway tracks. The third case is characterized by the formation of industrial and residential areas in which industrial enterprises are located within the residential area. Such placement is allowed for enterprises of IV and V classes that do not require the installation of railway tracks.

When determining the relative position of industrial and residential areas, the noise level emitted certain types enterprises. It should be noted that modern trend in the field of reducing the effect of harmful emissions and noise, it consists in extinguishing and* sources at the enterprise by improving technology and installing trapping devices. This makes it possible to reduce the area of ​​sanitary protection zones and save expensive urban territory for more efficient use.

The communal warehouse zone of the city is located in a convenient connection with external transport networks. The determination of the approximate size of the territory of communal storage areas is based on the calculation of 2 m2 per 1 person. in the largest and largest cities and 3 m2 - in other settlements. In the communal warehouse zone, areas are allocated for communal and warehouse enterprises. In the largest, largest and big cities such areas should be placed dispersed-dotochenko. General warehouses and fruit and vegetable bases provide good transport links with residential areas and are located apart from the industrial areas of the city. Separate communal enterprises and warehouses (commercial distribution warehouses, supply and distribution warehouses, etc.) can be located in the residential area. For small cities, towns and rural settlements, warehouses are organized centralized and placed, as a rule, in near-station areas.

Rice. 7. Schematic diagram of the transport hub of the city served by various modes of transport:
1 - city boundary; 2 - expressway; 3 - railway; 4 - railway station, 5 - freight yard; 6 - railway station; 7 - river port; 8 - bus station; 9 - helipad; 10 - the same, station; 11 - airport; 12 - river station; 13 - cargo bus station; 14 - citywide center

The external transport zone includes the territories of railway, road, water and air transport. External transport lines are designed in organic connection with the street and road network of the city and its modes of transport. Such an integrated approach ensures a high level of comfort for passenger transportation, the rationality of local and transit freight traffic, and also contributes to the cost-effectiveness of the construction of transport facilities and their operation. A complex of transport devices and structures of external and urban significance, performing operations for long-distance, local and urban transportation of passengers and goods, forms a transport hub.

On the territory of the railway transport hub there are stations, passenger, cargo-passenger, cargo and marshalling stations, railway tracks, sidings and passing points. In practice, six basic schemes of railway junctions have developed, determined by operational, economic, geographical and geometric characteristics: with one station, with a series of stations, with parallel passages, triangular, ring, combined.

The station complex, which includes the station building, the passenger station with its platform tracks, postal and baggage facilities, as well as the station square, should be located from the side of the main part of the residential area, providing convenient transport links with the city center and its residential and industrial zones. Passenger stations are designed, as a rule, of a through type.The use of dead-end stations is allowed only in exceptional cases with an appropriate feasibility study.

Territory of buildings road transport includes intercity passenger bus stations, freight bus stations, motels, service stations, gas stations and highways.

Rice. 8. Basic schemes of railway junctions:
a - with one station; b - with a sequential arrangement of stations; in - with parallel moves; g - triangular; d - ring; e - combined; stations: 1 - passenger; 2 - cargo; 3- cargo-passenger; 4 - sorting; 5 - port; 6 - cargo yard; 7 - industrial area

External highways of the USSR are divided into roads of national, republican and local significance, and in relation to design standards - into five categories, depending on the estimated traffic intensity and their significance in the country's road network.

In urban development, intercity passenger bus stations are located near railway stations, which ensures the convenience of mass transfer of passengers from one mode of transport to another.

When choosing territories for water transport, it is taken into account that sea and river ports must be located outside residential areas. It is desirable to locate river ports and ship repair enterprises downstream of residential developments in order not to pollute the river section and embankments used by residents. Specific recommendations on the dimensions of the coastal area of ​​sea and river ports, as well as on the gaps between the main port facilities (berths, warehouses, ship repair enterprises, etc.) and the residential area are given in SNiP II-60-75 * and the designer's guide "Urban planning".

On the territory of air transport facilities located within the city, city air terminals, passenger agencies, and helicopter stations are located. Airports, including an airfield, passenger and service and technical areas, are located outside the cities. Choosing a location for a new airport beyond meeting technical requirements to the territory is associated with the solution of a number of urban planning tasks for organizing convenient transport links between the city and the airport and ensuring the protection of populated areas that fall within the zone of influence of the airport from aircraft noise and electromagnetic radiation radar stations.

Network of streets, squares and urban transport. The public centers of the city, residential and industrial areas, which form gravity zones for the population associated with mass visits by residents of the city and the emergence of large traffic flows, determine the development of urban transport and the organization of a network of streets and squares. In a modern city, several types of mass passenger transport are used: bus, trolleybus, tram, subway. To communicate with suburbs, recreation areas, airports, electrified rail transport is often used, and in the future, monorail transport is expected to be used for these purposes.

The bus is "the most maneuverable mode of transport with a wide range of capacity (from 10 to 120 passengers), frequency of movement (from 10 to 100 units per hour) and traffic volume (from 0.1 to 10 thousand passengers / h). Its disadvantage - significant emission of exhaust gases polluting the city air environment. The trolleybus is free from this shortcoming, but is less maneuverable, requires high-quality street surfaces and is cost-effective only for a sufficient period of time. long lines. The trolleybus transports up to 8,000 passengers per hour. The tram is recommended to be used on lines with passenger traffic of 8 ... 10 thousand people. during rush hour one way. This is due to the high initial investment. With a traffic volume of 12 ... 22 thousand passengers per hour, which occur in large and major cities, it is rational to use light rail at a speed of 25 ... 30 km / h with an increased number of cars and extended hauls. The subway, which requires very large initial investments, is used in cities with a population of more than 1 million inhabitants with passenger flows exceeding 20 thousand people. during rush hour in one direction.

Rice. 9. Schematic diagrams for building street networks:
a - radial; b - radial-annular; s - radial (fan); g - rectangular; d - combined; e - free

Fig 23. Scheme street network Moscow: _ historically established; b - according to the new master plan

The solution of the issue of integrated development of all types of urban transport is closely related to the construction of the city's street network, consisting of main streets, express roads, streets and roads of local importance.

In practice, there are six main schemes for constructing city street networks: radial, radial-circular, radial (fan), rectangular, combined and free. The first three are typical for historical cities that were formed around kremlins, monasteries and roads leading to them. These include the ancient Russian cities of Pereslavl-Zalessky, Rostov the Great, Pskov, Kostroma, the left-bank part of Novgorod.

The scheme of the Moscow street network changed in an interesting way. At first, Moscow had purely radial pattern, after the construction of the walls of the White City and Skorodum - a radial-ring scheme, and the implementation of the new master plan of the capital with the introduction of chord high-speed city roads turns the radial-ring scheme into a combined one.

The city of Leningrad has a pronounced ray scheme of the street network with its three main avenues - rays oriented towards the Admiralty.

The rectangular street grid pattern is used in many of the largest cities in the United States. The extreme rationalism of such a decision has a negative impact on the architectural and artistic composition of the city, the development of intracity spaces. The rectangular scheme can find a positive use in the master plans of medium and small towns, characterized by low buildings and good landscaping.

Rice. 10. Plan of the beam street system of the center of Leningrad

The practice of building new modern cities most often associated with the use of a free layout of street networks (Fig. 26). Such a scheme makes it possible to locate urban development without violating natural conditions (greenery, relief, water basins), and to minimize the cost of vertical planning of the territory.

The street network system is closely intertwined with the placement of city squares. City squares are classified by type: main (in front of public buildings and structures), transport, station, multifunctional transport hubs, pre-factory and collective farm markets.

The main squares are usually located in the central area of ​​the city. They serve for parades, demonstrations, folk festivals. Transit traffic through the main squares is not allowed. A striking example of this type of square is Moscow's Red Square.

Squares in front of large public buildings and structures (theaters, stadiums, exhibition halls, shopping centers, educational institutions, etc.) serve to organize the entrance of passenger transport, the distribution of pedestrian flows and the placement of parking lots. On the square in front of public buildings, green areas with fountains and pools are often provided, where visitors have the opportunity to relax.

Transport areas are intended for purely functional purposes - the distribution of often complexly intertwined traffic flows. Depending on the specific urban situation, such an intersection can be organized in one or more levels. Transport areas cannot be used for car parking and built up with residential and public buildings, the entrances of which face the square.

The main functional task of station squares is to organize a convenient connection between buildings and structures of external transport and urban transport network. When planning station areas, it is necessary to ensure a clear separation of pedestrian and traffic flows (as a rule, at different levels) and the separation of flows of arriving and departing passengers. At the station squares, places for public transport stops and car parks are provided, connected by safe shortest transitions with the station building.

Rice. 11. Plan of the central part of the city of New York. Manhattan Island
1 - urban highway; 2 - roads to the plant; 3 - highway of regional significance; 4 - interdistrict streets; 5 - residential streets; 6 - park road; 7 - expensive in the industrial area; 8 - pedestrian alleys; 9 - transit highway

Rice. 12. Pushkinskaya Square in Moscow

In recent years, there has been an increasing need to create areas for multifunctional transport hubs that combine suburban and urban transport stops in one point. Buildings and facilities that ensure the arrival, transfer and departure of passengers are most rationally located in a single multifunctional complex. iB in the case of a large throughput of the transport node that combines railway station, a bus station, a subway station, ground city transport stops, such a complex will have a multi-level composition that provides the shortest and most accurate connections for complex passenger flows. Complexes of multifunctional transport hubs may also include a number of public service institutions: shops, cafes, hotels, restaurants, post office, telegraph, intercity telephone hubs, savings bank, etc.

Rice. 13. Square in front of the building of Moscow University on the Lenin Hills

The squares of collective farm markets serve to organize the movement of buyers and freight transport, as well as to accommodate car parking and public transport stops.

The purpose of pre-factory areas is determined by the organization of approaches to the entrances of enterprises, traffic decoupling and placement stopping points transport and parking areas.

Development of the cladding structure. The most important moment in the formation of the planning structure of the city is to take into account its long-term development, associated primarily with the expansion of the main functional zones - industrial and residential. Accounting for the prospective development of the city begins at the stage of district planning, when given city considered as an integral part of the group system of settlements. The development of the main zones of the city is envisaged in such a direction that would not interfere with the development of neighboring cities and would not allow territorial merging with them.

Rice. 14. Traffic interchange area:
a - single-level (Star Square in Paris); b- multilevel

Rice. 15. Kursk Station Square:
a - basic planning scheme; b - general form stops; 1 - tram stop; 2 - the same. trolleybus; 3- the same, buses; 4- the same, cars; 5.6 - parking lots for cars and trucks, respectively

Special territories are reserved for the expansion of the city. Their size and location in the general planning structure of the city is determined on the basis of forecasts for the expansion of the city-forming base, the growth of the norm of living space per person, taking into account natural and climatic factors, the economic and geographical position of the city, its administrative, cultural and scientific significance. There are indicative standards for determining the prospective needs for the main areas of the city. They are determined per 1 thousand inhabitants. The area for all types of construction within the main array of urban development is provided based on 15...20 ha/thous. people, for residential areas - 10 ... 12 ha / thousand. people

In practice, several characteristic schemes of territorial and spatial development of the main zones of the city have developed: sectoral, parallel, with two industrial and residential complexes and in a group system of settlements.

In old cities, the scheme of prospective development is largely determined by the historically established structure of the city. In new cities, the scheme of territorial-spatial development is envisaged in the development of the master plan of the city on the basis of taking into account the factors noted above.

More than a hundred years in Russia and around the world there is a fight linear settlement systems with radial-ring systems. Naturally, this also applied to the planning of Moscow. I am a supporter of linear systems. Participated in competitions. Even won. However, the conviction administrative apparatus and architects making decisions, in the "genetic" predetermination of the radial-ring structure of Moscow was so great that linearity was systematically rejected.

Linear structures had to be created anew. It was necessary to spend huge amounts of money on the reconstruction of all types of transport, on roads, on the development of new urban planning concepts. And the radial-ring system grew as if by itself. Ultimately, by the end of the first decade of the 21st century, the "lightness" of the second solution led Moscow to a monstrous densification of buildings and a transport collapse. Moscow is the most striking example of a radial-ring city in the world practice. The fan of roads, especially on the Kremlin coast, has formed a radial structure for centuries. At the same time, city fortifications are turning into ring boulevards, and the intersections of radial roads with them into squares. The streets of Zamoskvorechye gathered towards the bridges flanking the Kremlin, contributing to the spread of radial planning in this direction as well. Gradually, a balance was formed between the equestrian-pedestrian size of Moscow and its radial-circular functioning. Despite the appearance railways, industrial suburbs and tram transport, most people moved on foot. Back in the twenties of the twentieth century, "going" to visit, work and spectacular places was the basis social contacts Muscovites. Even after the Second World War, in the presence of the metro, a lot of "private traders" with large-wheeled carts accumulated at the stations and heavy things were carried on foot for considerable distances - for example, from the Kiev (Bryansk) station to the Arbat or Nikitsky gates. At the same time, mushrooms and berries were gathered in the Neskuchny Garden; popular beaches were on the Frunzenskaya embankment in Luzhniki and on the site of the Novoarbatsky bridge; near the walls of the Novodevichy Convent there was a state farm; Fili and Sokolniki were summer cottages. While Moscow was, for the most part, pedestrian.

Fig 1.

The radial-ring system suited everyone. Since the mid-fifties, Moscow began to expand at an incredible rate. By the sixties, a ring road appeared and in just twenty years a gigantic territory, many times larger than the "old" city, was hastily filled with residential areas. The policy of actively attracting migrant workers brought the number of Moscow to eight million. Dozens of construction companies tried to provide this mass with typical housing. However, such powerful quantitative changes had practically no effect on the urban development concept of the city. "Holy" the principle of radial-annular growth was observed. The City Master Plan Institute built up rings and chords. Transport theorists (in particular, Professor V. Cherepanov) proved the advantage of the radial-ring scheme. Administrative districts were formed as sectors of the circle, following the "high" policy, since on the one hand they sought to "touch" the Kremlin and collect party contributions from the mighty of the world this, and on the other hand, the peripheral regions provided them with a connection with the working masses. The result of all this was the general plan of Moscow in the late seventies with a sectoral daisy-like structure. As conceived by its authors, the city had to develop completely evenly filling the entire territory within the Moscow Ring Road. A center (larger than Novy Arbat) was planned in each district. Green "wedges" were supposed to be between the districts. The industry was actively withdrawn. New highways were laid, prominences of the subway grew. It is interesting to trace the fate of this "work". By the 90s, that is, by the beginning of the era of capitalism, everything remained the same. Naturally, sector centers could not be created, since their locations were in no way connected with the life of the city, and their size did not correspond to any realities. The industry remained in its place (and sometimes expanded), the green "wedges" began to "overgrow" with housing, the third ring was "stuck" in Lefortovo. By the mid-eighties, it became clear that the master plan had failed. In a short article, it is not possible to conduct a broad analysis of this phenomenon.

Rice. 2. General plan for the development of Moscow in 1935 (central part). This document legalized the radial-ring system of the city

Here you can find political, economic and even social reasons, however, we will try to confine ourselves to analyzing only the urban foundations of this phenomenon. Theoretically radial-annular transport scheme has significant advantages over all others. But this is only if it is built ideally, that is, radial and ring tracks are equivalent in terms of speed; systems of turns, turns and exits are equally convenient; the central zone is complex road junction. It is obvious that this can be done in a historical city only through the systematic destruction of its past buildings. This is how it happened in Moscow, since all highways ended in dead ends in the city center.

Only a transition to a linear structure could save the situation. The idea of ​​Moscow's linear development arose during the construction of St. Petersburg, when Russia acquired a "double" capital. The construction of the railway stimulated the growth of the number of settlements along this route. At the beginning of the twentieth century, there are fantastic ideas to link these two cities in a linear system of garden cities. After the revolution, constructivists also actively worked in this direction. Linear cities of Milyutin; Ginzburg's de-urbanist projects; the undulating settlement system of Okhitovich and, finally, the great parabola of Ladovsky, demonstrating the “energy” surge of Moscow towards Leningrad (Fig. 1). All this was directed to one degree or another to the creation of a new planning structure of the capital. Before the war, several competitions were held for the reconstruction of Moscow. Many interesting schemes for the linear development of the city were proposed. But the radial-annular version won, and the General Plan of 1935 legalized this (Fig. 2). After that, the systematic destruction of the city center began in favor of transport requirements. Moreover, transport was supposed to be in the future. And then the streets were convenient only for the masses of people and the army going to the parade. While in Moscow there were 20 cars per 1000 inhabitants, the road network of the thirties satisfied everyone. The crisis came in the late nineties. In the sixties (in 1968) the first post-war competition was held for the reconstruction of the center of the capital. Of the fifteen projects, only the MAR-HI project (in the development of which I took an active part) in full degree went to the district planning and within the framework of this planning proposed the linear development of the city. Five main directions were proposed - Leningrad, Yaroslavl, Novgorod, Voronezh, Minsk.

Fig. 4. Another option for the development of Moscow, presented by MARZHI at the competition in 1968 (headed by Professor I.G. Lezhava). Two highways are visible, bypassing central part cities, partly by railway zones. Direction of bypass highways - to St. Petersburg.

Directions are formed by powerful double highways, between which two hundred thousand satellite cities were located. Thus, five linear residential and industrial formations were created, including some urban areas and a number of settlements near Moscow. Among them are Kuntsevo, Khoroshevo-Mnevniki, Timiryazev Tushino-Khimki-Khovrino, Zelenograd, Podolsk, Chekhov, Serpukhov, Novye Kuzminki, Kuskovo, Zhukovsky, Perovo, Balashikha, Izmailovo, Kaliningrad, Schelkovo-Mytishchi, etc. The newly formed residential and industrial areas were separated by created or already existing green areas, industrial territories and transport routes (Fig. 3.). Under these conditions, Moscow turned into many independent residential formations with their own production, business, social and cultural centers. Such transformations should have led to a sharp reduction in the Moscow agglomeration of labor and cultural trips. The center of Moscow was formed from two urban formations - the "old" city in Kamer-Kollezhsky ramparts with a traditional management function and the "new" city of the South-Western region with a scientific, industrial and recreational function. It was assumed that in these two "cities" will be located the control centers of Moscow, the Moscow region and Russia. business center Soviet Union formed between these centers along the bends of the Moskva River in the direction from northwest to southeast, in the direction of the district railway. Despite some fantasy, the logic of this project was impeccable. He received first prize. However, the radial-annular version went into the "case", which was legalized in the master plan of the seventies. It was the same “chamomile” that was mentioned at the beginning of the article. Since the chamomile master plan did not materialize, twenty years later, in the late eighties (1988), a new competition for the reconstruction of the central part of the capital, and again the project that I led proposed a variant of linear development (Fig. 4).

The project received the second prize, and the first - of course, the radial-ring. The "linearity" in the project was more modest than in the proposal of the 68th year. For 20 years, the territories through which our systems passed have been built up. In the new project, the center of Moscow was surrounded by powerful highways, forming a “fish” with their outlines. The concept of "fish", according to the authors, was supposed to stop the endless radial-circular growth of Moscow. The city switched to a linear system of development in directions - to the north - Tver, St. Petersburg; to the south - Serpukhov, Rostov-on-Don. Powerful highways bypassing the center were located in the railway zone, where there was a significant reserve of free territories. All "lateral" radial flows "rested" against the "fish" and thus the transport impact on the center was significantly weakened. It is interesting that another twenty years have passed, and now in 2006 powerful automobile routes are planned along the same routes, but already within the framework of a developed radial-ring system. With the introduction of capitalism in Russia, a new stage in the development of Moscow began.

At the end of the last century, another master plan was formed. He, of course, continued to improve the radial-annular structure. Following it, the third transport ring was laid in Moscow. Construction of the fourth has begun. A new ring road with giant interchanges was built. Many streets were covered with underground and overhead passages. The traffic lights are gone. But traffic has increased. All free urban areas, including factories, are densely built up with housing. Suburban areas are covered with villas, offices and gigantic shops are being built. All this causes huge morning and evening car traffic jams, accidents, land failures. In the near future, outbound routes will be duplicated. But any Moscow road has two ends and its second end (unlike the linear system) rests on the Kremlin. Now cars are already parked in the center in three rows, leaving a narrow lane for passage, and motorization is only gaining momentum... Why didn't linear systems win? There are many reasons. In a short article, it is not possible to conduct a broad analysis of this phenomenon. Here you can find political and economic, and even social reasons. But the main problem in the underdevelopment of transport and road networks in Russia. For decades in Moscow, the roads were bad, there were few cars. Could save a tram (especially high-speed) or a monorail. (Recall that at the beginning of the last century, it was the tram that was proposed as the basis for the linear city in Spain proposed by Soria Ymata). But after the war, trams began to disappear and cars rushed to the center. To all appearances, Moscow will forever remain a gigantic radial-annular monster.

In my opinion, radial cities will not emerge from the crisis. Even if cars shrink dramatically in size, Even if exhaust gases disappear and vehicles switch to hydrogen fuel. The situation can be improved by multi-level underground systems in the center zone, but the most difficult geological conditions, the presence of the metro and an extensive network of huge underground structures are unlikely to allow this. The hope is that in parallel with existing cities, linear settlement systems of an all-Russian scale will appear. The first such Moscow-Petersburg system is already beginning to take shape. The next might be a gigantic linear city from Petersburg to Vladivostok. (one)

Rice. 5. Linear cities of the future. Linear system Sibstream.

A new linear system settlements along the giant transport corridor linking Atlantic Ocean with water area Pacific Ocean. The term "transport corridor" has been used in world literature since the 1950s. At the Crete Congress, several European-scale transport corridors were identified. The corridor is a linear system that includes the main modes of transport, power lines, water pipes and communication links. But the project proposes not just a transport corridor, but a linear settlement system, that is, a city stretched out in a line with all its inherent elements. In this case, it is appropriate with living beings. Possessing the same vital organs, a hedgehog and a snake ( Old city and linear city) have completely different spatial layouts. Only the victory of the "snake" over the "hedgehog" is predicted. It should also be noted that the proposed linear settlement is not just streets stretched out in a line. This is a vast area along the transport corridor. This zone can cover an area of ​​up to five kilometers in each direction. This is a complex organism, including high-speed highways, landing sites for all types of aircraft, water transport, high-speed train lines, energy and information channels, as well as the movement of raw materials and goods, etc. Gardens, parks, reserves, forests, residential areas, towns, settlements, industrial, scientific and educational centers, supermarkets, offices, etc. are located in the transport corridor zones. In this zone, places of settlements, industry, reserves, scientific and educational institutions, centers of trade and culture, etc., should be formed, just as in any master plan of the city. In this case, the multistage transport system will have neither random intersections, nor slippery winter roads, nor emergencies, no traffic jams. Movement along the corridor should be quick and convenient. The train will cover 300 kilometers2 in half an hour (now during peak hours it can take up to two hours from one end of Moscow to the other). On the high-speed train, taking into account the stops, a person will be able to overcome the distance to Vladivostok in less than a day. From Moscow or St. Petersburg on Sunday it will be possible to go to Lake Baikal, and in a couple of hours you will be in the Urals. In addition, it should be not just a transport corridor, but the main city of Russia - the business capital of the country. New Moscow. We named this linear city Seabstream.

Rice. 6. Fragment of the Sibstream system. Transport Corridor Zone

It is natural that historical cities will remain in their places and retain their historical and cultural significance. Moscow will remain the political capital. But all active life can go to the highway. The linear highway of the Sibstream (Fig. 5) (new Moscow) will be the main, but not the only one. It can be crossed by seven transverse highways connecting the waters of the Northern Arctic Ocean with the southern border of Russia. These highways are Murmansk-Novorossiysk, Arkhangelsk-Astrakhan, Vorkuta-Omsk, Norilsk-Krasnoyarsk, Khatanga-Irkutsk, Tiksi-Skovorodovo, Anadyr-Vladivostok. Naturally, these crossing transport corridors are not invented by us. They have already developed and many of them exist. It is also natural that the Sibstream (new Moscow) will branch out and become more complex in many places (for example, the BAM section), but its main part will become by the end next century ridge future Russia and will be such for more than one century (Fig. 6). So, long live New Moscow, Moscow-Linear. City of the end of the century.

1" The project was created for the International Gas Congress in Tokyo in 2003 by Khazanov M.D., Lezhava I.G., Shubenkov M.V., Mulagildin R.M.

2 "The speed of experimental maglev trains is already reaching 600 km/h.

Lezhava I.G., academician of architecture

Chapter 2. Socialist resettlement. Urban concepts. Construction of new cities

40. Planning scheme of a dynamic city - N. Ladovsky's "parabola" (rocket city) and the problem of Moscow reconstruction

Among the works of N. Ladovsky there is one project that is known to almost every Soviet architect (in the 1930-1950s it was often used by critics as an example of extreme formalism in urban planning). It's about about the famous "parabola" of Ladovsky - the principal planning scheme for the development of the city developed by him. The most curious and at the same time tragic is that this project of N. Ladovsky was never appreciated by his contemporaries, although it is he who is one of the largest theoretical discoveries of the master.

Only after almost 30 years later Ladovsky's "parabola" was "rediscovered" by the famous Greek urban planner K. Doxiadis and widely published under the name of "dinapolis" (dynamic city) in the world architectural press (as an integral part of his urban planning theory - ekistics) , we finally remembered the project of N. Ladovsky.

When did Ladovsky's "parabola" appear and how was it theoretically substantiated?

The development of N. Ladovsky's concept of a developing city was preceded by a preparatory stage of search and reflection. At the end of the 1920s, in the workshops of N. Ladovsky and N. Dokuchaev, VKhUTEIN carried out a number of urban planning topics, among which it is necessary to note the work of a group of graduate students on the "problem of the new city" in 1928 (these projects have already been discussed above). For this topic, two projects are of greatest interest, which reflected different approaches to the search for the structure of a developing city: the city-line project of V. Lavrov (one of the first projects of this kind in Soviet architecture) and the project of T. Varentsov, in which an original planning scheme of a rational-ring system was proposed.

N. Ladovsky, having analyzed the advantages and disadvantages of the rational-ring and linear "he considered the old one as an extreme manifestation of a rectangular planning structure) city planning schemes, proposed a fundamentally new planning scheme. Figuratively speaking, Ladovsky's "parabola" can be considered either as a radially torn a ring system, or as Milyutin's flow-functional scheme bent into an arc.As a result, the resulting new planning scheme, as it were, combined the advantages of the radial-ring and linear schemes and at the same time did not have their shortcomings.

Ladovsky's "Parabola" made it possible to develop a city center while maintaining its role as a planning nucleus. The center developed along the axis of the parabola, adjacent to it were residential areas, behind which were located industrial and green areas.

N. Ladovsky. Analytical graphic diagrams and texts for the Moscow reconstruction project. 1929-1930. Scheme of Greater Moscow: "The outdated ring-shaped planning structure of the city creates impossible conditions for growth in general and, first of all, for the growth of its center. The center, trying to grow, encounters the resistance of rings that develop reverse centripetal forces"

N. Ladovsky. Analytical graphic diagrams and texts for the Moscow reconstruction project. 1929-1930. Scheme of Greater Moscow: "Scheme of the growth of a new socialist Moscow: "In order to direct growth, it is necessary to create new centers of gravity in the form of exemplary socialist construction. The nearest of them are marked with arrows 1 and 2 (Khodynka and Ostankino). The area of ​​the triangle between points 1, 2 and A, due to the formation of new centers of gravity, will quickly be built up, reorganizing the city and, first of all, its center. The center will move along the resultant between the new points of gravity, forming the axis of the new socialist Moscow. The "rings" of old Moscow will be broken in this place, and their bent branches will follow the new Moscow, forming its periphery. Further stratifications around Moscow in the form of holiday towns, given the growth of Moscow, will have to develop according to the indicated pattern, forming an "opened horseshoe shape"

Here is how N. Ladovsky assessed the radial-ring system in this article: “In terms of organizational content, the territories of the rings represent a vague conglomerate, not related to the shape of the rings, the growth of which is not foreseen at all and is not associated with general form rings. Such disconnection is natural, since the geometric nature of the ring territory predetermines its spatial static character, while the physical nature of its construction, at best, allows only compaction.

N. Ladovsky wrote about the city-line projects: "Being an expression of maximum dynamism, these planning structures will inevitably turn out to be weak organisms, since they reduce the three-dimensional space to "one-dimensional", putting the emphasis on linearity. All modern material culture and technology make it possible to solve town-planning problems in three dimensions, putting the emphasis on "horizontal two-dimensionality".

Ladovsky considered the existing city as an interconnected urban environment, and not as a conglomeration of streets, ensembles and squares. This manifested itself at all levels of his approach to the structure of the city - from the design of a single building to a renovation project.

It is no coincidence that it was Ladovsky who turned out to be the author of the theory of a flexible, dynamic city. He, for example, saw Moscow as a complex growing urban organism with its own laws that should not be neglected. As you know, there were many concepts in the approach to the reconstruction of Moscow: it was proposed to radically rebuild the entire structure of the city, develop it in new territories, mothball the center, etc. (more on this below). The point of view aimed at preserving the radial-circular planning structure of Moscow, while at the same time saturating the center with new social and political functions, won.

Moscow has not been the capital of Russia for more than 200 years, and it lacked a huge number of those buildings that were necessary for the capital city. It was clear that large volumes of construction in the city center would be required. At the same time, it was in Moscow that the most peculiar spatial and planning structure of the pre-Petrine capital of Russia turned out to be, as it were, mothballed. It is important to emphasize that not only the planning system of the city, but also its spatial structure was of value. Many understood this at the time, but few imagined what needs to be done to preserve this structure. It was Ladovsky, realizing the internal laws of the growth of the city, who warned that it was impossible, while maintaining the planning system, to oversaturate the city center with new functions. Such "new blood", in his opinion, having overfilled the "vessels" of the planning system and finding no way out, will break them. As a result, the planning scheme of the city will be preserved, but its volumetric and spatial structure will be destroyed, and the most valuable objects will suffer. architecturally fragments of buildings overlooking the red lines. (And so it happened: the volumetric-spatial structure of the central part of Moscow was radically disrupted in a short time). To prevent this from happening, N. Ladovsky suggested diverting part of the flow of "new blood" along the axis of a "parabola" - a concept diagram of a dynamic city developed by him.

In 1929, at a meeting of members of the ARU, Ladovsky made a report entitled "Moscow Historical and Socialist", which was then published. The report substantiated the principal scheme of the growth of the new Moscow.

“The concept of city growth,” Ladovsky said, “cannot be reduced to a simple mechanical increase in territory, the width of driveways, the number of floors, etc. Growth must be understood as organic, on different stages of its development, representing a different organism not only quantitatively, but also qualitatively. Meanwhile, all the projects of "Greater Moscow" that have been available so far consider the issue exclusively from the quantitative side and therefore suffer from the main flaw - "mechanism."

Medieval walled city, Howard's garden city, system of satellite cities of Unwin (R. Enwin - S. H.) and the proposal for the redevelopment of Paris by Corbusier - all these planning structures, despite their apparent difference in form and purpose, can be attributed to one category of static forms ... The grafting of these systems on growing and vibrant cities must inevitably cause painful phenomena as they grow ...

A specific sign of their mechanistic nature is the position that these systems can only make sense for an instantaneous period of time, provided that they are implemented in a holistic manner, at the very next moment of growth they will need to be destroyed - in short, they do not provide for growth from a “cell” into a system, from a lower system to a higher one, and so on. with a relatively slow pace of life and insufficient consideration of the coordinates of time, the ring system could still hold out in planning for some time, but with the development of capitalism, with the growth of cities, it was broken everywhere.

Let us now turn to the projects of the Greater Moscow. According to all these projects, Moscow is presented as a central core surrounded by two rings, and with the growth of suburbs that are not linked into a system by any project, naturally, a third ring will be formed in the near future.

All the projects of "Greater Moscow" proceeded basically from the position of population growth and, as a consequence, the growth of territory. But this growth is accepted by them without an analysis of the individual components and interacting forces, but only formally, as a rounding off of the generally anarchically growing organs of the city into a geometrically shaped territory. After all, a snowball rolling and increasing in its volume, we have no right to consider organically growing. The same increase is in all projects of the "Greater Moscow" and the increase in its area. The organic growth of the city must be called such that, with the growth of the whole, it ensures the growth of its individual various active parts- bodies united in a spatio-temporal economic system ...

If we imagine complete agreement, then the form, i.e. if the rings mean different organs, territories for different purposes, then the growth of one of them will occur at the expense of the death of the other. If, however, we discard the different functional significance of each ring, and accept their functional uniformity, then due to the economy of the dynamo-geometric principle, all other things being equal, a centripetal force will develop. which can be imagined as / the pressure of the rings on each other towards the center, while the central circle, trying to grow, thus encounters an enormous and insurmountable resistance of the rings (Fig. 3). This takes place in modern Moscow...

The picture given in Fig. 3, suggests that with the circular layout of Moscow, the center, striving for natural development in horizontal projection, meets the resistance of the rings that is difficult to overcome, and the resolution of the most basic moment in the life of the city - the dialectical process of its growth is not provided for by this design of the plan, since growth without crushing the neighboring (presumably, also the vital organs of the city) is impossible. And, indeed, we are already seeing this picture in reality in the capital of the USSR at the present time ...

We offer, primarily:

Break the ring system in one of the sections and allow the center to grow freely(Fig. 5). The center in the form of a planning point, even if it is the diameter of the ring "A", both theoretically and practically, is generally unacceptable. The city center should be able to grow not only upwards in the third dimension, but also in a horizontal projection progressively forward. Hence, the center of the city should not be a static point, but a dynamic line - the axis. By breaking the rings and bending them in the form of a horseshoe, we will enable the center, as well as the corresponding branches of the former rings, to grow. The city center takes the form of a fan. This form is most consistent with the function of the center, since as the city grows and its dynamics increase and the organization becomes more complex, the center does not remain clamped, but freely unfolds due to the area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe fan. According to this design, the whole city and the center are like a stream, gradually expanding.

N. Ladovsky, proposing to use his planning scheme of a developing city for the reconstruction of Moscow, believed that the axis of the "parabola" should be taken from the highway Tverskaya Street - Leningradskoe Shosse. He also used his "parabola" in a competition project for the idea of ​​reconstructing Moscow (1932). The project aroused interest. They argued with him, but noted the originality of thought.

"As a virtue, - wrote P. and B. Goldenbergs, - it should be noted the dynamism of the city whole and the possibility of implementing the system of highways proposed by N.A. Ladovsky not by breaking the Moscow system of highways, but by revealing its internal capabilities" .

V. Semenov wrote: "The simplest type of connection between urban zones can be considered the design of zones in the form of parallel strips; given the extreme schematism and inefficiency of the flow city, Ladovsky folds the flow city in half, so that the ribbons of planning zones go around the center of the city ("head") and form a row arcs open to the west...

The project is clear, interesting and original.