ARRENIUS Svante(11/19/1859-02.X. 1927) was born in Sweden at the Veik estate, not far from Uppsala, where his father served as a manager. In 1878 he graduated from Uppsala University and received a Ph.D. in philosophy. In 1881 -1883. studied with Professor E. Edlund at the Physical Institute of the Academy of Sciences in Stockholm, where, along with other problems, he studied the conductivity of very dilute salt solutions.

In 1884, Arrhenius defended his dissertation on the topic "Investigation of the conductivity of electrolytes." According to him, it was the threshold of the theory electrolytic dissociation. The work did not receive the high marks that would open up the opportunity for Arrhenius to become an assistant professor of physics at Uppsala University. But the enthusiastic response of the German physical chemist W. Ostwald, and especially his visit to Arrhenius in Uppsala, persuaded the university authorities to establish an associate professorship in physical chemistry and provide it to Arrhenius. He worked in Uppsala for a year.

On the recommendation of Edlund, in 1885 Arrhenius was given a business trip abroad. At this time, he trained with V. Ostwald in the Riga polytechnic institute(1886), F. Kohlrausch in Würzburg (1887), L. Boltzmann in Graz (1887), J. van't Hoff in Amsterdam (1888).

Under the influence of van't Hoff, Arrhenius became interested in questions of chemical kinetics - the study of chemical processes and the laws of their course. He expressed the opinion that the rate of a chemical reaction is not determined by the number of collisions between molecules per unit time, as was believed at that time. Arrhenius argued (1889) that only a small fraction of collisions result in an interaction between molecules. He suggested that in order for a reaction to occur, the molecules must have an energy that exceeds its average value under given conditions. This additional energy he called the activation energy of this reaction. Arrhenius showed that the number of active molecules increases with increasing temperature. He expressed the established dependence in the form of an equation, which is now called the Arrhenius equation and which has become one of the basic equations of chemical kinetics.

Since 1891, Arrhenius has been teaching at Stockholm University. In 1895 he became a professor, and in 1896-1902. was the rector of this university.

From 1905 to 1927 Arrhenius was director of the Nobel Institute (Stockholm). In 1903 he was awarded the Nobel Prize "in recognition of the special significance of the theory of electrolytic dissociation for the development of chemistry."

Arrhenius was a member of academies in many countries, including St. Petersburg (since 1903), an honorary member of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1926).

BACH Alexey Nikolaevich(17.11.1857-13.VJ946) - biochemist and revolutionary figure. Born in Zolotonosha, a small town in the Poltava province, in the family of a distiller. Graduated from the Kyiv Second classical gymnasium, studied at Kiev University(1875-1878); was expelled from the university for participating in political gatherings and exiled to Belozersk, Novgorod province. Then, due to illness (a tuberculous process was found in the lungs), he was transferred to Bakhmut, Yekaterinoslav province.

In 1882, having returned to Kyiv, he was restored at the university. But he practically did not engage in scientific work, completely devoting himself revolutionary activity(was one of the founders of the Kyiv organization " People's Will"). In 1885 he was forced to emigrate abroad.

The first year of his stay in Paris was obviously the most difficult in his life. It wasn't until the end of the year that he was finally able to find a job: he translated articles for the Moniter Scientific (Scientific Bulletin) magazine. Since 1889 became a regular contributor to this journal, reviewing the chemical industry and patents.

In 1887, the tuberculous process sharply worsened. Bach's condition was very difficult. He later recalled that one of the members of the editorial board of the Moniter Scientific magazine even prepared an obituary in advance. His friends came out - medical students. In 1888, at the insistence of doctors, he went to Switzerland. Here he met 17-year-old A. A. Cherven-Vodali, who was also being treated for pulmonary tuberculosis. In 1890 they were married, despite the objections of the father of the bride. (As L. A. Bakh writes: “... the old man Cherven-Vodali did not want to agree that his daughter, a noblewoman, would marry a person of petty-bourgeois origin, a student who did not complete the course, a revolutionary, a state criminal ...”)

Since 1890, thanks to a happy meeting with Paul Schutzenberger (head of the department, not organic chemistry at the College de France, President of the French Chemical Society) A.N. Bach began working at the Collège de France, founded in 1530, the center of free scientific creativity in Paris. Many prominent scientists worked and lectured there, such as André Marie Ampère, Marcel Berthelot, and later Frederic Joliot-Curie. In order to conduct research in it, no diplomas are required. Work there at that time was not paid and did not give any rights to receive academic degrees.

At the College de France, Bach carried out the first experimental studies on the chemistry of carbon dioxide assimilation by green plants. Here he worked until 1894. In 1891, with his wife, he spent several months in the USA - he introduced an improved fermentation method at distilleries in the Chicago area. But for the work done, they paid less than what was supposed to be under the contract. Attempts to get a job elsewhere were unsuccessful, and the couple returned to Paris.

In Paris, Bach continued his work at the Collège de France and the magazine. After being arrested by the police in Paris, he was forced to move to Switzerland. He lived in Geneva from 1894 to 1917. On the one hand, this city suited him climatically (due to the periodically aggravated process in the lungs, doctors recommended that he live in a warm and mild climate). On the other hand, V. I. Lenin arrived and then visited repeatedly. In addition, there was a university in Geneva with natural faculties and a huge library.

Bach set up his home laboratory here, in which he conducted numerous experiments on peroxide compounds and their role in oxidative processes in a living cell. In part, he performed these works together with the botanist and chemist R. Shoda, who worked at the University of Geneva. Bach also continued his collaboration with the magazine Monitor Scientific.

Bach's scientific research brought him worldwide fame. The scientists of the University of Geneva also treated him with respect: he participated in meetings of the Department of Chemistry, was elected to the Geneva Society of Physical and Natural Sciences (and in 1916 he was elected chairman). In early 1917, the University of Lausanne awarded Bach honorary degree doctor honoris causa (according to the totality of works). "Honoris causa" is one of the types of awarding an honorary degree (translated from Latin - "for the sake of honor").

Soon a revolution took place in Russia, and Bach immediately returned to his homeland. In 1918, he organized in Moscow, in Armenian Lane, the Central Chemical Laboratory under the Supreme Economic Council of the RSFSR. In 1921, it was transformed into the Chemical Institute. L. Ya. Karpova (since 1931 - Physico- chemical institute them. L. Ya. Karpova). The scientist remained the director of this institute until the end of his life.

Bach considered it necessary to conduct special biochemical research in the framework of solving the problems of medicinal chemistry. Therefore, on his initiative, in 1921, the first Soviet Russia Biochemical Institute of the People's Commissariat for Health (on Vorontsovo Pole), where a group of employees from the Physico-Chemical Institute moved. The research was aimed mainly at meeting the practical needs of medicine and veterinary medicine. The institute had four departments: metabolism, enzymology, biochemistry of microbes and biochemical methods. Here Bach conducted research in the following areas: the first cycle of work concerned the study of blood enzymes, the second - the breakdown products of proteins in the blood serum. Together, these studies focused on the creation of methods for diagnosing various diseases. At the same time, he began to study the problem of "internal secretions", associated with the metabolism in the body and especially relevant for posing and solving the problem of the formation of enzymes in the process of embryonic development of a living organism. This line of work was mainly developed at the Institute after Bach's death.

In 1926, Bach was awarded the Prize. V. I. Lenin, and in 1929 he was elected a full member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR.

With the direct assistance of Bach, biochemical research in our country developed quite vigorously. There was an urgent need to create another scientific center capable of coordinating all activities in the country in the field of biochemistry. This center was organized by A. N. Bach together with his student and collaborator A. I. Oparin new Institute of Biochemistry of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, the opening of which took place in early 1935.

Bach was awarded the State Prize of the USSR (1941). In 1944, his name was given to the Institute of Biochemistry of the USSR Academy of Sciences. In 1945 Bach was awarded the title of Hero Socialist Labor"for outstanding services in the field of biochemistry, in particular for the development of the theory of the reaction of slow oxidation and the chemistry of enzymes, as well as for the creation of a scientific biochemical school."

Butlerov Alexander Mikhailovich(15.IX. 1828-17.VIII. 1886) was born in Chistopol, Kazan province, in the family of a small estate nobleman. Butlerov's mother died a few days after the birth of her only son. Initially, he studied and was brought up in a private boarding school at the first Kazan gymnasium. Then for two years, from 1842 to 1844, he was a gymnasium student, and in 1844 he entered Kazan University, which he graduated from in five years.

Butlerov early, already a 16-year-old boy, became interested in chemistry. At the university, his teachers in chemistry were K.K. Klaus, who studied the properties of platinum group metals, and N.N. Zinin, a student of the famous German chemist J. Liebig, who by 1842 had become famous for the discovery of the reaction for obtaining aniline by reducing nitrobenzene. It was Zinin who strengthened Butlerov's interest in chemistry. In 1847, Zinin moved to St. Petersburg, and Butlerov changed chemistry to some extent, seriously engaging in entomology, collecting and studying butterflies. In 1848, Butlerov was awarded the degree of candidate of natural sciences for his work “Daytime butterflies of the Volga-Ural fauna”. But on last courses University Butlerov again returned to chemistry, which happened not without the influence of Klaus, and at the end of the university he was left as a teacher of chemistry. The very first works of the scientist in the field of organic chemistry were mainly of an analytical nature. But starting from 1857, he firmly takes the path organic synthesis. Butlerov discovered new way obtaining methylene iodide (1858), methylene diacetate, synthesized urotropine (1861) and many derivatives of methylene. In 1861, he put forward a theory of chemical structure and began to conduct research aimed at developing ideas about the dependence of the reactivity of substances on the structural features of their molecules.

In 1860 and 1865 Butlerov was the rector of Kazan University. In 1868 he moved to St. Petersburg, where he took the chair of organic chemistry at the university. In 1874 he was elected a full member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. In 1878-1882. Butlerov was the chairman of the department of chemistry of the Russian Physical and Chemical Society. At the same time, he was an honorary member of many scientific societies.

VANT HOFF Jacob(30.VIII.1852 -01.111.1911) - Dutch chemist, was born in Rotterdam in the family of a doctor. He graduated from high school in 1869. To get the profession of chemical technologist, he moved to Delft, where he entered the Polytechnic School. Good initial training and intensive home studies allowed Jacob to complete a three-year course at the Polytechnic in two years. In June 1871, he received a diploma in chemical engineering, and already in October he entered the University of Leiden to improve his mathematical knowledge.

After a year of study at the University of Leiden, van't Hoff moved to Bonn, where he studied at the University's Chemical Institute with A. Kekule until the summer of 1873. In the autumn of 1873, he went to Paris, to the chemical laboratory of S. Wurtz. There he meets J. Le Bel. Wurtz's internship lasted a year. At the end of the summer of 1874 Van't Hoff returned to his homeland. At the end of this year, at the University of Utrecht, he defended his doctoral dissertation on cyanoacetic and malonic acids, published his famous work "Proposal to apply in space ..." In 1876 he was elected assistant professor at the Veterinary School in Utrecht.

In 1877 the University of Amsterdam invited van't Hoff as a lecturer. A year later he was elected professor of chemistry, mineralogy and geology. There van't Hoff set up his laboratory. Scientific research was mainly concerned with reaction kinetics and chemical affinity. He formulated the rule that bears his name: when the temperature rises by 10 °, the reaction rate increases by two to three times. Derived one of the basic equations chemical thermodynamics- the isochore equation, which expresses the dependence of the equilibrium constant on temperature and the thermal effect of the reaction, as well as the chemical isotherm equation, which establishes the dependence of chemical affinity on the equilibrium constant of the reaction at a constant temperature. In 1804, Van't Hoff published the book "Essays on Chemical Dynamics", in which he outlined the basic postulates of chemical kinetics and thermodynamics. In 1885-1886. developed the osmotic theory of solutions. In 1886-1889. laid the foundations of the quantitative theory of dilute solutions.

In 1888, Van't Hoff was elected an honorary member of the London Chemical Society. This was the first major international recognition of his scientific achievements. In 1889 he was elected an honorary member of the German Chemical Society, in 1892 - the Swedish Academy of Sciences, in 1895 - the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, in 1896 - the Berlin Academy of Sciences and further - a member of many other academies of sciences and scientific societies .

In 1901 Van't Hoff was awarded the first Nobel Prize in Chemistry.

Geneva was one of the centers of revolutionary emigration. A. I. Herzen, N. P. Ogarev, P. A. Kropotkin and others fled here from tsarist Russia.

WOELER Friedrich(31.VII.1800-23.IX.1882) was born in Eschersheim (near Frankfurt am Main, Germany) in the family of a ringmaster and veterinarian at the court of the Crown Prince of Hesse.

Interested since childhood chemical experiments. While studying medicine at the University of Marburg (1820), he set up a small laboratory in his apartment, where he conducted research on rhodanic acid and cyanide compounds. Moving a year later to the University of Heidelberg, he worked in the laboratory of L. Gmelin, where he received cyanic acid. On the advice of Gmelin, Wöhler decided to finally leave medicine and focus only on chemistry. He asked J. Berzelius to practice in his laboratory. So in the autumn of 1823 he became the first and only trainee for the famous Swedish scientist.

Berzelius instructed him to analyze minerals containing selenium, lithium, cerium and tungsten - little-studied elements, but Wöhler also continued his studies of cyanic acid. Acting with ammonia on cyan, he obtained, along with ammonium oxalate, a crystalline substance, which later turned out to be urea. Returning from Stockholm, he worked for several years at the Technical School in Berlin, where he organized a chemical laboratory; to this period and belongs to his discovery artificial synthesis urea.

At the same time, he obtained important results in the field of inorganic chemistry. At the same time as G. Oersted, Wöhler studied the problem of obtaining metallic aluminum from alumina. Although the Danish scientist was the first to solve it, Wöhler proposed a more successful method for isolating the metal. In 1827, he was the first to obtain metallic beryllium and yttrium. He was close to the discovery of vanadium, but here, due to accidental circumstances, he lost the palm to the Swedish chemist N. Söfström. In addition, he was the first to prepare phosphorus from burnt bones.

Despite the successes achieved in the field of mineral chemistry, Wöhler still went down in history as a first-class organic chemist. Here his achievements are quite impressive. So, in close collaboration with another great German chemist, J. Liebig, he established the formula of benzoic acid (1832); discovered the existence of a radical group C 6 H 5 CO - , called benzoyl and played important role in the formation of the theory of radicals - one of the first theories of the structure of organic compounds; received diethyltellurium (1840), hydroquinone (1844).

Subsequently, he repeatedly turned to research in the field of inorganic chemistry. Studied silicon hydrides and chlorides (1856-1858), prepared calcium carbide and - proceeding from it - acetylene (1862). Together with the French scientist A. St. Clair Deville, he obtained (1857) pure preparations of boron, boron and titanium hydrides, and titanium nitride. In 1852, Wöhler introduced the mixed copper-chromium catalyst CuO Cr 2 O 3 into chemical practice, which was used for the oxidation of sulfur dioxide. He conducted all these studies at the University of Göttingen, whose department of chemistry was considered one of the best in Europe (Wöhler became its professor in 1835).

Chemical laboratory at the University of Göttingen in the 1850s turned into a new chemical institute. Wöhler had to devote himself almost entirely to teaching (in the early 1860s, with the help of two assistants, he supervised the classes of 116 trainees). He had little time for his own research.

The death of J. Liebig in 1873 made a heavy impression on him. In the last years of his life, he completely withdrew from experimental work. Nevertheless, in 1877 he was elected president of the German Chemical Society. Wöhler was also a member and an honorary member of many foreign academies of sciences and scientific societies, including the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (since 1853).

GAY LUSSACK Joseph(06.XII.1778-09.V. 1850) - French naturalist. He graduated from the Polytechnic School in Paris (1800), in which he then worked as an assistant for some time. A student of A. Fourcroix, K. Berthollet, L. Vauquelin. Since 1809 - professor of chemistry at the Polytechnic School and professor of physics at the Sorbonne, professor of chemistry at botanical garden(since 1832).

He worked fruitfully in many areas of chemistry and physics. Together with his compatriot L. Tenar, he isolated free boron from boric anhydride (1808). He studied in detail the properties of iodine, pointed out its analogy with chlorine (1813). Set composition hydrocyanic acid and received cyan (1815). He was the first to plot the solubility of salts in water versus temperature (1819). Introduced new methods of volumetric analysis in analytical chemistry (1824-1827). Developed a method for obtaining oxalic acid from sawdust (1829). He made a number of valuable proposals in the field of chemical technology and in experimental practice.

Member of the Paris Academy of Sciences (1806), its president (1822 and 1834). Foreign honorary member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (1829).

HESS German Ivanovich (German Johann)(07.VIII. 1802-12.XII. 1850) was born in Geneva in the family of an artist. In 1805, the Hess family moved to Moscow, so Herman's entire subsequent life was connected with Russia.

In 1825 he graduated from Dorpat University and defended his dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Medicine.

In December of the same year, “as a particularly gifted and talented young scientist,” he was sent on a business trip abroad and worked for some time in the Stockholm laboratory of I. Berzelius; with him he subsequently maintained a business and friendly correspondence. Upon his return to Russia, he worked as a doctor in Irkutsk for three years and simultaneously carried out chemical and mineralogical research. They turned out to be so impressive that on October 29, 1828, the conference of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences elected Hess an adjunct in chemistry and gave him the opportunity to continue his scientific work in St. Petersburg. In 1834 he was elected an ordinary academician. At this time, Hess was already completely absorbed in thermo chemical research.

Hess contributed huge contribution in the development of Russian chemical nomenclature. Rightly believing that “in Russia now more than ever the need to study chemistry is felt ...”, and “until now there has not been a single even the most mediocre work in Russian devoted to the industry exact sciences Hess decided to write such a textbook himself. In 1831, the 1st edition of "Fundamentals of Pure Chemistry" was published (the textbook went through seven editions, the last in 1849). It became the best domestic textbook on chemistry for the first time. half of XIX in.; a whole generation of Russian chemists, including D. I. Mendeleev, studied it.

In the 7th edition of the Foundations, Hess, for the first time in Russia, made an attempt to systematize chemical elements, uniting all known non-metals into five groups and believing that in the future such a classification could be extended to metals.

Hess died in his prime creative forces, aged 48 years. The obituary dedicated to him contained the following words: “Hess had a direct and noble character, a soul open to the loftiest human inclinations. Being too receptive and quick in his judgments, Hess easily indulged in everything that seemed to him good and noble, with a passion as ardent as the hatred with which he pursued vice and which was sincere and adamant. We had the opportunity to be surprised more than once by the flexibility, originality and depth of his mind, the versatility of his knowledge, the truthfulness of his objections and the art with which he was able to direct and delight the conversation at will. Obituaries were penetratingly written in those distant times!

GERARD Charles(VIII.21.1816-VIII.19.1856) was born in Strasbourg (France) in the family of the owner of a small chemical enterprise. In 1831-1834. studied at the Higher Technical School in Karlsruhe and then at the Higher Commercial School in Leipzig, where he was sent by his father to receive the chemical engineering and economic education necessary to manage the family firm. But, becoming interested in chemistry, Gerard decided to work not in industry, but in science and continued his education, first at the University of Giessen with J. Liebig, and then at the Sorbonne with J. Dumas . AT 1841-1848 he was a professor at the University of Montpellier, in 1848-1855 he lived in Paris and worked in his own laboratory, and in the last years of his life, in 1855-1856, he was a professor at the University of Strasbourg.

Charles Gerard is one of the most prominent chemists of the 19th century. He left an indelible mark on the history of chemistry as a selfless fighter against conservatism in science and as a scientist who boldly paved new paths for the development of atomic and molecular science at a time when there were no clear distinctions in chemistry between the concepts of atom, molecule and equivalent, and also there were clear ideas about the chemical formulas of water, ammonia, acids, salts.

In Russia, earlier than in other countries, Gerard's doctrine of a unified classification of chemical compounds and his ideas about the structure of molecules were perceived as the fundamental principles of general and especially organic chemistry. The provisions put forward by him were developed in the works of D. I. Mendeleev, related to the ordering of views on chemical elements, and A. M. Butlerov, who proceeded from them when creating the theory of chemical structure.

Gerard's fruitful scientific activity began in the second half of the 1830s, when he managed to establish the correct formulas for many silicates. In 1842, he first described the method he proposed for determining the molecular weight of chemical compounds, which is still used today. In the same year, he introduced a new system of equivalents: H = 1, O = 16, C = 12, CI = 35.5, etc., i.e., a system that became one of the foundations of atomic and molecular science. Initially, these works of Gerard were met with hostility by the then venerable chemists. “Even Lavoisier would not have dared to make such innovations in chemistry,” said scientists, including such prominent ones as L. Tenard.

Overcoming the barriers of rejection of new ideas, Gerard nevertheless continued to solve the most cardinal issues of chemistry. In 1843, he first established the correct values ​​of molecular weights and formulas of water, metal oxides, nitric, sulfuric and acetic acids, which were included in the arsenal of chemical knowledge and are still used today.

In 1844-1845. he published a two-volume work "Essays in Organic Chemistry", in which he proposed a new, essentially modern classification of organic compounds; first pointed out homology as general pattern, linking all organic compounds in series, while establishing the homological difference - CH 2 and showing the role of "chemical functions" in the structure of molecules organic matter.

The most important result works of Gerard, performed in 1847-1848, - the creation of the so-called unitary theory, in which, contrary to dualistic theory J. Berzelius and the opinion of chemists of the middle of the last century, it was proved that organic radicals do not exist independently, and a molecule is not a summative set of atoms and radicals, but a single, integral, truly unitary system.

Gerard showed that the atoms in this system not only influence, but transform each other. So, for example, the hydrogen atom in the carboxyl group - COOH has some properties, in the alcohol hydroxyl group - others, and in the hydrocarbon residues CH-, CH 2 - and CH 3 - completely different properties. The unitary theory formed the basis general scientific theory systems. It became one of the starting points of the theory of the chemical structure of A. M. Butlerov.

In 1851, Gerard developed the theory of types, according to which all chemical compounds can be classified as derivatives of three types - hydrogen, water and ammonia. The development of this particular theory by A. Kekule led to the concept of valency. Guided by his theories, Gerard synthesized hundreds of new organic and dozens of inorganic compounds.

Zinin Nikolay Nikolaevich ( 25.VIII. 1812-11/18/1880 ) was born in Shusha (Nagorno-Karabakh). AT early childhood lost his parents and was brought up in the family of his uncle in Saratov. After studying at the gymnasium, he entered Kazan University in the mathematical department of the Faculty of Philosophy, from which he graduated in 1833.

During his studies, his interests were far from chemistry. He showed outstanding ability in the mathematical sciences. For his graduation essay "On the perturbations of the elliptical motion of the planets" he was awarded a gold medal. In 1833, Zinin was left at the university to prepare for a professorship in mathematics. Perhaps Zinin's creative fate would have turned out quite differently, and we would have had a first-class mathematician in him, if the university council had not instructed him to teach chemistry (at that time, teaching this science was very unsatisfactory). So Zinin became a chemist, especially since he always showed interest in her. In this area of ​​science, he defended in 1836 his master's thesis "On the phenomena of chemical affinity and on the superiority of the theory of Berzelius over the chemical statics of Berthollet." In 1837-1840. Zinin was on a business trip abroad, mainly in Germany. Here he had the good fortune to work for two years in the laboratory of J. Liebig at the University of Giessen. The famous German scientist had a decisive influence on the direction of further scientific activity Zinina.

Returning to Russia, he defended his doctoral dissertation at St. Petersburg University on the topic "On benzoyl compounds and on the discovered new bodies belonging to the benzoyl series." He developed a method for obtaining a benzoyl derivative, which consisted in the action of an alcoholic or aqueous solution of potassium cyanide on bitter almond oil (benzoic aldehyde).

It is curious that Zinin's studies of benzoyl derivatives, which lasted several years, were forced to a certain extent. The fact is that at the request of the Academy of Sciences, the customs transferred all the confiscated bitter-almond oil to its chemical laboratory. Subsequently, on this occasion, A. M. Butlerov wrote: “Perhaps we even have to regret this circumstance, which established too definitely the direction of Zinin’s work, whose talent would undoubtedly bring great results in other areas of chemistry if he devoted his time." But such a "situation" refers already to the period of Zinin's final return to St. Petersburg in 1848. For seven years (1841-1848) he worked in Kazan, decisively contributing to the creation of the Kazan school - the first Russian chemical school. In addition to obtaining aniline, he did a lot here important discoveries in organic chemistry: received, in particular, benzidine and discovered the so-called benzidine rearrangement (rearrangement of hydrazobenzene under the action of acids). She went down in history as "Zinin's regrouping".

The Petersburg period of his activity also turned out to be fruitful: the discovery of ureides (1854), the production of dichloro- and tetrachlorobenzene, topane and stilbene (1860s).

In 1865, Zinin was elected an ordinary academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences in technology and chemistry. In 1868 he became one of the organizers of the Russian Chemical Society and in the period 1868-1877. served as its first president. “The name of Zinin will always be. To honor those who are dear and close to the heart of the haste and greatness of science in Russia, ”Butlerov said after his death.

CURIE Pierre(15.V.1859-19.IV.1906). This talented French physicist at the beginning of his career did not know at all what lay ahead of him. He graduated from the University of Paris (1877). In 1878-1883. worked there as an assistant, and in 1883-1904. - at the Paris School of Industrial Physics and Chemistry. In 1895 he became the husband of M. Sklodovskaya. Since 1904 - professor at the Sorbonne. Tragically died under the wheels of an omnibus as a result of an accident.

Even before his studies of radioactivity, P. Curie carried out a number of important research who made him famous. In 1880, together with his brother J. Curie, he discovered the piezoelectric effect. In 1884-1885. developed the theory of symmetry of crystal formation, formulated general principle their growth and introduced the concept of surface energy of crystal faces. In 1894, he formulated a rule according to which it became possible to determine the symmetry of a crystal under external influence (the Curie principle).

When studying magnetic properties bodies established the independence of the magnetic susceptibility of diamagnets from temperature and the inverse proportionality of the dependence on temperature for paramagnets (Curie's law). He also discovered for iron the existence of a temperature higher than

which its ferromagnetic properties disappear (Curie's law). Even if P. Curie had not turned to the study of radioactive phenomena, he would have remained in history as one of the prominent physicists of the 19th century.

But the scientist felt the demands of the time and, together with his wife, began to study the phenomenon of radioactivity. In addition to participating in the discovery of polonium and radium, he was the first to establish (1901) the biological effect radioactive radiation. He was one of the first to introduce the concept of half-life, showing its independence from external conditions. He proposed a radioactive method for determining the age of rocks. Together with A. Laborde, he discovered the spontaneous release of heat by radium salts, having calculated the energy balance of this process (1903). Long-term chemical operations for the isolation of polonium and radium were mainly carried out by M. Curie. The role of P. Curie here was reduced to the necessary physical measurements (measurements of the activity of individual fractions). Together with A. Becquerel and M. Curie in 1903 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics.

Lavoisier Antoine(26.VIII.1743-08.V.1794). Born in Paris, in the family of a prosecutor. Unlike other outstanding chemists - his contemporaries - he received an excellent and versatile education. At first he studied at the aristocratic College of Mazarin, where he studied mathematics, physics, chemistry and ancient languages. In 1764 he graduated from the law faculty of the Sorbonne with the title of lawyer; there he simultaneously improved his knowledge in the field of natural sciences. In 1761 - 1764 listened to a course of lectures on chemistry, which was read by a prominent chemist Guillaume Ruel. Jurisprudence did not attract him, and in 1775 Lavoisier became director of the Office of Gunpowder and Saltpeter. He held this public position until 1791. At his own expense, he created his own chemical laboratory in Paris. The first years of his scientific activity were marked by notable successes, and already in 1768 he was elected a full member of the Paris Academy of Sciences in the class of chemistry.

Although Lavoisier is rightfully considered one of the greatest chemists of all time, he was also a prominent physicist. In an autobiographical note written shortly before his tragic death, Lavoisier wrote that he "mainly devoted his life to works related to physics and chemistry." In the words of one of his biographers, he attacked chemical problems from the standpoint of physics. In particular, he began systematic research in the field of thermometry. In 1782-1783. together with Pierre Laplace, he invented the ice calorimeter and measured the thermal constants of many compounds, calorific value different fuels.

Lavoisier was the first to start systematic physical and chemical research biological processes. He established the similarity of the processes of respiration and combustion and showed that the essence of respiration is the conversion of inhaled oxygen into carbon dioxide. Developing a taxonomy of organic compounds, Lavoisier laid the foundations organic analysis. This greatly contributed to the emergence of organic chemistry as an independent field of chemical research. The famous scientist became one of the many victims of the French Revolution. An outstanding creator of science, he was at the same time a prominent public and political figure, a staunch supporter of the constitutional monarchy. Back in 1768, he joined the General Farming Company of financiers, which received from the French government the right to monopoly trade in various products and collect duties. Naturally, he had to comply with the "rules of the game", which were far from always in trouble with the law. In 1794, Maximilien Robespierre brought heavy accusations against him and other tax-farmers. Although the scientist completely rejected them, it did not help him. May 8

"Antoine Laurent Lavoisier, former nobleman, member of the former Academy of Sciences, deputy deputy Constituent Assembly, a former general tax-farmer ... ", along with twenty-seven other tax-farmers, was accused of "conspiracy against the French people."

On the evening of the same day, the guillotine knife cut short Lavoisier's life.

MENDELEEV Dmitry Ivanovich(08.11.1834-02.11.1907) was born in Tobolsk, the seventeenth child in the family of the director of the gymnasium. A huge role in his upbringing was played by his mother, Marya Dmitrievna. In 1850 he entered the Main Pedagogical Institute in St. Petersburg, from which he graduated in 1855. In 1859 - February 1861 he was on a business trip abroad, worked in his own laboratory in Heidelberg, where he made his first significant scientific discovery- temperature of absolute boiling of liquids. He taught at a number of educational institutions in St. Petersburg, mainly at the university (1857-1890). From 1892 until the end of his life - the manager of the Main Chamber of Weights and Measures.

Mendeleev entered the history of world science as a scientist-encyclopedist. His creative activity was remarkable for its extraordinary breadth and depth. He himself once said about himself: "I wonder what I just did not do in my scientific life."

The most complete description of Mendeleev was given by the prominent Russian chemist L. A. Chugaev: “A brilliant chemist, a first-class physicist, a fruitful researcher in the field of hydrodynamics, meteorology, geology, in various departments of chemical technology ( explosives, oil, the doctrine of fuel, etc.) and other disciplines related to chemistry and physics, a deep connoisseur of the chemical industry and industry in general, especially Russian, an original thinker in the field of the doctrine of the national economy, a statesman who, unfortunately, was not destined become statesman but who saw and understood the tasks and future of Russia better than the representatives of our official government.” Chugaev adds: "He knew how to be a philosopher in chemistry, in physics and in other branches of natural science that he had to deal with, and a naturalist in the problems of philosophy, political economy and sociology."

In the history of science, Mendeleev is given credit as the creator of the theory of periodicity: it first of all made up his true glory as a chemist. But this far from exhausts the merits of the scientist in chemistry. He also proposed the most important concept of the limit of organic compounds, carried out a series of works on the study of solutions, developing the hydrate theory of solutions. Mendeleev's textbook Fundamentals of Chemistry, which went through eight editions during his lifetime, was a true encyclopedia of chemical knowledge of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Meanwhile, only 15% of the scientist's publications relate to chemistry proper. Chugaev rightly called him a first-class physicist; here he proved himself to be an excellent experimenter, striving for high measurement accuracy. In addition to the discovery of the "absolute boiling point", Mendeleev, studying gases in a rarefied state, found deviations from the Boyle-Mariotte law and proposed a new general equation of state ideal gas(Mendeleev-Clapeyron equation). Developed a new metric system temperature measurements.

Heading the Main Chamber of Weights and Measures, Mendeleev carried out an extensive program for the development of metrics in Russia, but was not limited to conducting applied research. He intended to conduct a series of works on the study of the nature of mass and the causes of universal gravitation.

Among natural scientists - Mendeleev's contemporaries - there was no one who would be so actively interested in issues of industry, agriculture, political economy and government. Mendeleev devoted many works to these problems. Many of the thoughts and ideas expressed by him are not outdated in our time; on the contrary, they take on a new meaning, because they, in particular, defend the originality of the ways of Russia's development.

Mendeleev knew and maintained friendly relations with many outstanding chemists and physicists of Europe and America, enjoying great prestige among them. He was elected a member and honorary member of more than 90 academies of sciences, learned societies, universities and institutes different countries peace.

Hundreds of publications - monographs, articles, memoirs, collections - are devoted to his life and work. But the fundamental biography of the scientist has not yet been written. Not because the researchers did not make such attempts. Because this task is incredibly difficult.

The materials are taken from the book “I'm going to a chemistry lesson.: Chronicle of the most important discoveries in chemistry of the 17th-19th centuries: Book. for the teacher. - M .: First of September, 1999.

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Target: development of cognitive activity of students, popularization of chemical knowledge.

Competition procedure:

Competitive questions are divided by subject into five groups:

CHAPTER " scientists chemists- Nobel Prize Winners

SECTION "Great chemists in art".

SECTION “Scientific chemists during the Great Patriotic War”

SECTION “Discoveries that changed the world”

SECTION “Great chemists of Russia”

Each thematic block contains five questions of varying difficulty. Questions of different difficulty levels are evaluated by different points.

Teams, in order, determined by lot, choose the topic and the level of difficulty of the question. The selected question is answered in writing. all commands at the same time. The time for a written response is 2 minutes. After the time has elapsed, the referee collects the answers on special forms. The correctness of the answers and the number of points scored is determined by the counting commission and announces the current results of the game every five questions. The final result of the competition is summed up by the jury of the competition.

1. SECTION “Scientific chemists - Nobel Prize winners”

1. Where and when is the Nobel Prize in Chemistry awarded?

Answer: The Nobel Prize in Chemistry is the highest award for scientific achievements in the field of chemistry, awarded annually by the Nobel Committee in Stockholm on December 10th.

2. Who, in what year and for what received the first Nobel Prize in Chemistry?

Answer: 1901 Van't Hoff Jacob Hendrik (Netherlands) Discovery of laws in the field of chemical kinetics and osmotic pressure.

3. What is the name of the Russian chemist who was the first to receive the Nobel Prize in Chemistry.

Answer: Nikolai Nikolaevich Semyonov, awarded this award in 1956 “for the development of the theory of chain chemical reactions.”

4. In what year D,I. Mendeleev was nominated for the award, and for what?

The creation of the periodic system of elements dates back to 1869, when the first article by Mendeleev appeared “Experience of a system of elements based on atomic weight and chemical similarity”. Nevertheless, in 1905, the Nobel Committee received the first proposals to award him a prize. In 1906, the Nobel Committee by a majority of votes recommended that the Royal Academy of Sciences award the prize to D. I. Mendeleev. In an extensive conclusion, the chairman of the committee, O. Petterson, emphasized that by now the resources of the periodic table have by no means been exhausted, and the recent discovery radioactive elements will further expand its scope. However, in case the academicians doubt the logic of their argument, the members of the committee named another candidate as an alternative - the French scientist Henri Moissan. In those years, academicians were never able to overcome the formal obstacles that existed in the charter. As a result, the 1906 Nobel Prize was awarded to Henri Moissan, who was awarded “for a large amount of research done, obtaining the element fluorine and introducing into laboratory and industrial practice the electric furnace named after him.”

5. Name the names of chemists twice Nobel Prize winners.

Answer: Three Nobel Prize winners have received the Nobel Prize twice. Maria Sklodowska-Curie was the first to receive such a high distinction. Together with her husband, the French physicist Pierre Curie, in 1903 she won the Nobel Prize in Physics “for their research on the phenomena of radiation discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel.” The second prize, now in chemistry, was awarded to Sklodowska-Curie in 1911 “for her services in researching the elements radium and polonium discovered by her, isolating radium and studying the nature and compounds of this amazing element.”

"For the study of nature chemical bond and an explanation with its help of the structure of complex compounds” in 1954, the American chemist Linus Carl Pauling became a Nobel laureate. His worldwide fame was promoted not only by outstanding scientific achievements, but also by active social activities. In 1946, after the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, he joined the movement to ban weapons of mass destruction. He received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1962.

Both prizes of the English biochemist Frederick Sanger are in chemistry. He received the first in 1958 "for establishing the structures of proteins, especially insulin." Having barely completed these studies and not yet waiting for a well-deserved reward, Sanger plunged into the problems of an adjacent field of knowledge - genetics. Two decades later, he, in collaboration with his American colleague Walter Gilbert, developed an effective method for deciphering the structure of DNA chains. In 1980, this outstanding achievement of scientists was awarded the Nobel Prize, for Sanger - the second.

2. SECTION "Great chemists in art".

1. To whom did Lomonosov dedicate these lines and in connection with what event?

Oh you who are waiting
Fatherland from its bowels
And wants to see those
What calls from foreign countries,
Oh, your days are blessed!
Be emboldened now
Show your trust
What can own Pluto
And quick-witted Newtons
Russian land to give birth!
The sciences feed young men, give joy to the old
In a happy life they decorate, in an accident they protect.
In domestic difficulties there is joy, and in distant wanderings it is not a hindrance,
Science is used everywhere: among nations and in the desert,
In the noise of the city and alone, in peace and sweetness in work!

Answer: Tsarina Elizaveta Petrovna favored Lomonosov. On the day of the empress' accession to the throne, in 1747, Lomonosov wrote an ode for her, in which he addressed the youth, urging them to acquire knowledge and serve the fatherland.

2. A fragment from the opera “Prince Igor” sounds - “Fly away on the wings of the wind”

Answer: (portrait) the great musician - chemist Alexander Porfiryevich Borodin.

3. A.P. Borodin considered chemistry his main profession, but, as a composer, he left a greater mark on the history of culture. Borodin the composer had a habit of writing the notes of his musical works with a pencil. But pencil notes are short-lived. To save them, Borodin the chemist covered the manuscript.........

Answer: gelatin solution or egg white.

• "Miraculous Savior"
• "Apostle Peter"
• "Alexander Nevskiy"
• "God is the Father"

Answer: Lomonosov devoted more than 17 years of his life to research in the field of glassmaking. Lomonosov was very interested in the work of Italian masters, mosaics, who managed to create thousands of shades, made of colored glass, smalt, as they were then called. Many mosaic paintings were created in his workshop. Lomonosov treated Peter I with great respect, even adoration. In memory of him, he wanted to create a mausoleum, where paintings, floors, walls, columns, tombs - everything had to be made of colored glass, but illness and death cut short his plans.

5. Throughout his life, Mendeleev traveled a lot: he visited more than 100 cities in the world, was in Europe, America. And he always found time to be interested in art. In the 1880s Mendeleev became close with representatives of Russian realistic art, the Wanderers: I.N. Kramskoy, N.A. Yaroshenko, I.E. Repin, A.I. Kuindzhi, G.G. Savitsky, K.E. Makovsky, V.M. Vasnetsovs; he was also close to the landscape painter I.I. Shishkin.

Everyone who was dear to him in science and art gathered in Mendeleev's house. And he himself visited exhibitions, workshops of artists. Mendeleev highly valued Kuindzhi's paintings.

Solving the problem of the durability of paints, finding out the possibilities of mixing them, Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev and Arkhip Ivanovich Kuindzhi did many experiments on the manufacture of paints.

He willingly shared his thoughts, which inspired him, a scientist, works of art. About this painting by Kuindzhi, on November 13, 1880, a note by Mendeleev appeared in the St. Petersburg newspaper “Voice”: “Before ...... A.I. the poet will speak in verse, but new concepts will be born in the thinker - she gives her own to everyone. The landscape of the picture seems to be a magical vision: moonlight illuminates the endless plain, the Dnieper shimmers with a silvery-greenish light, red lights burn in the windows of the huts. Name the picture.

Answer: "Moonlit night on the Dnieper".

3. SECTION “Scientific chemists during the Great Patriotic War”

1. The conduct of the war required an increased consumption of aluminum. In the Northern Urals, at the beginning of the war, a bauxite deposit was discovered under the leadership of Academician D.V. Nalivkin. By 1943, aluminum production had tripled compared to pre-war levels. Before the war, aluminum was used in the manufacture of household products. In the prewar years, there was an urgent need to create light metal alloys for the production of aircraft and some parts of the hulls of ships and submarines. Pure aluminum, despite its lightness (= 2.7 g/cm 3 ), did not possess the strength properties necessary for the manufacture of aircraft shells and ship structures - frost resistance, corrosion resistance, impact strength, ductility. Numerous studies of Soviet scientists in the 1940s. made it possible to develop alloys based on aluminum with impurities of other metals. One of them was used to create aircraft structures in the design bureaus of S.A. Lavochkin, S.V. Ilyushin, A.N. Tupolev. Name this alloy and its qualitative composition.

Answer: Such an alloy is duralumin (94% Al, 4% Cu, 0.5% Mg, 0.5% Mn, 0.5% Fe, 0.5% Si).

2. Many of our peers during the war years during the raids were on duty on the roofs of houses, extinguishing incendiary bombs. The filling of such bombs was a mixture of powders of Al, Mg and iron oxide, the detonator was mercury fulminate. When the bomb hit the roof, a detonator ignited the incendiary composition, and everything around began to burn. Write the equations for the reactions that take place, and explain why a burning incendiary composition cannot be extinguished with water.

Answer: the equations for the reactions that occur when a bomb explodes:

4Al + 3O 2 \u003d 2Al 2 O 3,

2Mg + O 2 \u003d 2MgO,

3Fe 3 O 4 + 8Al \u003d 9Fe + 4Al 2 O 3.

A burning incendiary composition cannot be extinguished with water, because. red-hot magnesium reacts with water:

Mg + 2H 2 O \u003d Mg (OH) 2 + H 2.

3. Why did American pilots take lithium hydride tablets on a flight?

Answer: LiH tablets served American pilots as a portable source of hydrogen. In case of accidents over the sea, under the action of water, the tablets instantly decomposed, filling life-saving equipment with hydrogen - inflatable boats, vests, signal balloons-antennas:

LiH + H 2 O \u003d LiOH + H 2.

4. Artificially created smoke screens helped save the lives of thousands of Soviet soldiers. These curtains were created using smoke-forming substances. Covering the crossings across the Volga at Stalingrad and during the crossing of the Dnieper, the smoke in Kronstadt and Sevastopol, the widespread use of smoke screens in the Berlin operation - this is not a complete list of their use during the Great Patriotic War. What chemicals were used to create smoke screens?

Answer: One of the first smoke-forming substances was white phosphorus. The smoke screen when using white phosphorus consists of particles of oxides (P 2 O 3, P 2 O 5) and drops of phosphoric acid.

5. Molotov cocktails were a common weapon of the partisans. The “combat score” of bottles is impressive: according to official data, during the war years, with their help, Soviet soldiers destroyed 2429 tanks, self-propelled artillery installations and armored vehicles, 1189 long-term firing points (bunkers), wood-and-earth firing points (bunkers), 2547 other fortifications, 738 vehicles and 65 military depots. The Molotov Cocktail has remained a unique Russian recipe. What were these bottles?

Answer: Ampoules containing concentrated sulfuric acid, Bertolet's salt, powdered sugar were attached to an ordinary bottle with an elastic band. Gasoline, kerosene or oil was poured into the bottle. As soon as such a bottle crashed against the armor, the components of the fuse entered into a chemical reaction, a strong flash occurred, and the fuel ignited.
Reactions illustrating the action of the fuse

3KClO 3 + H 2 SO 4 \u003d 2ClO 2 + KClO 4 + K 2 SO 4 + H 2 O,

2ClO 2 \u003d Cl 2 + 2O 2,

C 12 H 22 O 11 + 12O 2 \u003d 12CO 2 + 11H 2 O.

The three components of the fuse are taken separately, they cannot be mixed in advance, because. an explosive mixture is produced.

4. SECTION “Discoveries that changed the world”

1. Courtois had a favorite cat, who usually sat on his master's shoulder during dinner. Courtois often dined in the laboratory. One day during lunch, the cat, frightened of something, jumped to the floor, but fell on the bottles that stood near the laboratory table. In one bottle, Courtois prepared for the experiment a suspension of algae ash in ethanol C2H5OH, and in the other there was concentrated sulfuric acid H2SO4. The bottles shattered and the liquids mixed up. Clubs of blue-violet steam began to rise from the floor, which settled on surrounding objects in the form of tiny black-violet crystals with a metallic sheen and a pungent odor.

What chemical was discovered?

Answer: iodine

2. Indicators (from English indicate-indicate) are substances that change their color depending on the medium of the solution. With the help of indicators, the reaction of the environment is qualitatively determined. Here is how they were opened: Candles were burning in the laboratory, something was boiling in the retorts, when the gardener came in inopportunely. He brought a basket of violets. The scientist was very fond of flowers, but the experiment had to be started. He took some flowers, sniffed them and put them on the table. The experiment began, the flask was opened, caustic steam poured out of it. When the experiment was over, the Scientist accidentally looked at the flowers, they were smoking. To save the flowers, he dipped them into a glass of water. And - what a miracle - violets, their dark purple petals, turned red. The scientist ordered the assistant to prepare solutions, which were then poured into glasses and a flower was lowered into each. In some glasses, the flowers immediately began to turn red. Finally, the scientist realized that the color of violets depends on what solution is in the glass, what substances are contained in the solution. Then he became interested in what other plants would show, not violets. Experiments followed one after another. The best results were given by experiments with litmus lichen. Then the Scientist dipped ordinary paper strips into the infusion of litmus lichen. I waited until they were saturated with infusion, and then dried them. These cunning pieces of paper were called indicators, which means “pointer” in Latin, since they indicate the medium of the solution. Currently, the following indicators are widely used in practice: litmus, phenolphthalein, methyl orange. Name the scientist.

Answer: Indicators were first discovered in the 17th century by the English chemist and physicist Robert Boyle.

3. The explosive properties of potassium chlorate KClO 3 were discovered by accident. One scientist began to grind the KClO 3 crystals in a mortar, in which a small amount of sulfur remained on the walls, not removed by his assistant from the previous operation. Suddenly there was a strong explosion, the pestle was pulled out of the hands of the scientist, his face was burned. Thus, for the first time, a reaction was carried out, which would be used much later in the first Swedish matches. Name the scientist and write the equation for this reaction.

Answer: Berthollet

2KClO 3 + 3S \u003d 2KCl + 3SO 2. Potassium chlorate KClO 3 has long been called Bertolet's salt.

4. In 1862, the German chemist Wöhler tried to isolate metallic calcium from lime (calcium carbonate CaCO 3) by prolonged calcination of a mixture of lime and coal. He received a sintered mass of a grayish color, in which he did not find any signs of metal. With chagrin, Wöhler threw this mass as an unnecessary product into a dump in the yard. During the rain, Wöhler's laboratory assistant noticed the release of some kind of gas from the ejected rocky mass. Woehler was interested in this gas. An analysis of the gas showed that it was C 2 H 2 acetylene, discovered by E. Davy in 1836. What did Wehler throw into the trash? Write the equation for the reaction of this substance with water.

Answer: this is how calcium carbide CaC 2 was first discovered, interacting with water with the release of acetylene:

CaC 2 + 2H 2 O \u003d C 2 H 2 + Ca (OH) 2.

5. Modern way aluminum production was discovered in 1886 by a young American researcher, Charles Martin Hall. Having become a student at the age of 16, Hall heard from his teacher, F.F. Jewett, that if someone manages to develop a cheap way to obtain aluminum, then this person will not only provide a huge service to humanity, but also earn a huge fortune. Suddenly, Hall declared out loud: “I will get this metal!” Six years of hard work continued. Hall tried to obtain aluminum by various methods, but without success. Hall worked in a barn where he set up a small laboratory.

After six months of exhausting labor, a few small silver balls finally appeared in the crucible. Hall immediately ran to his former teacher to report on his success. “Professor, I got it!” he exclaimed, holding out his hand: in the palm of his hand lay a dozen small aluminum balls. This happened on February 23, 1886. Now the first balls of aluminum received by Hall are kept in the American Aluminum Company in Pittsburgh as a national relic, and in his college there is a monument to Hall, cast from aluminum.

Answer: In special baths at a temperature of 960–970 ° C, a solution of alumina (technical Al2O3) is subjected to electrolysis in molten cryolite Na3AlF6, which is partially mined in the form of a mineral, and partially specially synthesized. Liquid aluminum accumulates at the bottom of the bath (cathode), oxygen is released on carbon anodes, which gradually burn out. At low voltage (about 4.5 V), electrolyzers consume huge currents - up to 250,000 A! For a day, one electrolyzer produces about a ton of aluminum. Production requires large amounts of electricity: 15,000 kilowatt-hours of electricity are spent to produce 1 ton of metal.

Hall's method made it possible to obtain relatively inexpensive aluminum using electricity on a large scale. If from 1855 to 1890 only 200 tons of aluminum were obtained, then over the next decade, according to the Hall method, 28,000 tons of this metal were obtained all over the world! By 1930, the world annual production of aluminum had reached 300,000 tons. Now more than 15 million tons of aluminum are produced annually.

5. SECTION “Great chemists of Russia”

1. He was the last, seventeenth child in the family. The topic of his doctoral dissertation was “On the combination of alcohol with water” (1865). Working on the work "Fundamentals of Chemistry", he discovered in February 1869 one of the fundamental laws of nature.

In 1955, a group of American scientists discovered a chemical element and was named after it. His favorite opera is “Ivan Susanin” by M.I. Glinka; favorite ballet - "Swan Lake" by P.I. Tchaikovsky; favorite work- "Demon" by M.Yu. Lermontov.

Answer: Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev

2. Within the walls of the boarding school where he lived as a boy, his addiction to chemistry was accompanied by explosions. As punishment, he was taken out of the punishment cell with a black board on his chest with the inscription “Great Chemist”. He graduated from the university with a Ph.D. for an essay in zoology on the topic “Daytime butterflies of the Volga-Ural fauna”. He founded the school of organic chemists in Kazan. He is the creator of the classical theory of the chemical structure of substances.

Answer: Alexander Mikhailovich Butlerov

3. Born in the family of a rural dentist, a freed serf. While still studying at Moscow University, he began to conduct research on the properties of polyhydric alcohols in the laboratory of V.V. Markovnikov. He is a pioneer of a new branch of physical chemistry - the electrochemistry of non-aqueous solutions. He developed a method for obtaining bromine from the brine of Lake Saki in the Crimea.

Answer: Ivan Alekseevich Kablukov

4. In 1913 he graduated from a real school in Samara. Even in high school he was fond of chemistry, had a small home laboratory and read many books on chemistry and physics. In 1956, he was jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry with the Englishman Cyril Norman Hinshelwood for their work on the mechanism of chemical reactions. Awarded 9 orders of Lenin, the Order of the October Revolution, the Order of the Red Banner of Labor, medals. Laureate of the Lenin Prize, the Stalin Prize of the 2nd degree. He was awarded the Big Gold Medal named after M.V. Lomonosov of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR.

Answer Nikolai Nikolaevich Semenov

5. He is the founder of the Kazan School of Chemists. Alexander Mikhailovich Butlerov was his student. Our hero gave a name to the new metal

The discovered metal was named by him in honor of his country - ruthenium.

The news of the discovery of a new metal was met with distrust by foreign scientists. However, after repeated experiments, Jens Jakob Berzelius wrote to the author of the discovery: "Your name will be indelibly inscribed in the history of chemistry."

Answer: Karl Karlovich Klaus

Summarizing

Line UMK VV Lunin. Chemistry (10-11) (basic)

Line UMK VV Lunin. Chemistry (10-11) (U)

Line UMK VV Lunin. Chemistry (8-9)

Line UMK N. E. Kuznetsova. Chemistry (10-11) (basic)

Line UMK N. E. Kuznetsova. Chemistry (10-11) (deep)

Great Women: Research Chemists

“Chemistry spreads its hands wide in human affairs,” wrote Mikhail Lomonosov, and over the past two and a half centuries, the relevance of his words has only increased: every year at least 200 thousand organic substances alone are synthesized. For International Women's Day, we have prepared a material about the fate of six outstanding women chemists who have made a significant contribution to the development of the science of substances.

Maria Sklodowska was born in Warsaw, and lived Hard childhood: father, a teacher by profession, had to work very hard to treat his wife with tuberculosis and feed four children. Maria's passion for learning at times reached fanaticism. Having agreed with her sister to take turns earning for each other's higher education and finally having the opportunity to study, Maria brilliantly graduates from the Sorbonne with diplomas in chemistry and mathematics and becomes the first female teacher in the history of the university. Together with her husband, Pierre Curie, Maria discovered the radioactive elements radium and polonium, becoming the first in the field of radiochemistry research and twice Nobel laureate - in physics and chemistry. “Poetry is the same extraction of radium. In a gram, production, in years of work, ”- this is how the persistence of Sklodowska-Curie was reflected in Mayakovsky’s poems.

Other famous chemist and won the Nobel Prize eldest daughter Marie Sklodowska-Curie - Irene. Her grandfather on the paternal side was engaged in her upbringing, while her parents conducted intensive scientific activities. Like Maria, Irene graduated from the Sorbonne, and soon began working at the Institute of Radium, created by her mother. She made her main scientific achievement together with her husband, Frederic Joliot, also a chemist. The couple laid the foundation for the discovery of the neutron and became famous for developing a method for the synthesis of new radioactive elements based on the bombardment of substances with alpha particles.

The notebook is part of the educational complex in chemistry, the basis of which is the textbook by O. S. Gabrielyan “Chemistry. Grade 8”, revised in accordance with the Federal State Educational Standard. Tutorial includes 33 verification work on the relevant sections of the textbook and can be used both in the classroom and in the process of self-study.

Our compatriot Vera Balandina came from a family of merchants who lived in the small village of Novosyolovo, far away. Yenisei province. Parents were happy, seeing their child's craving for study: after graduating from the women's gymnasium with a gold medal, Vera entered the Higher Women's Courses in St. Petersburg in the department of physics and chemistry. She improved Balandin's qualifications already at the Sorbonne, while simultaneously working at the Pasteur Institute in Paris. Returning to Russia and getting married, Vera Arsenievna devoted a lot of time to the study of biochemistry and was engaged in the acclimatization of plants, crops new to the country, and the study of the nature of her native province. In addition, Vera Balandina is known as a philanthropist and philanthropist: she established a scholarship for students of the Besutzhev courses, founded private school and built a meteorological station.

The niece of the great Russian poet and daughter of General V. N. Lermontov, Yulia became one of the first female chemists in Russia. Her initial education was at home, and then she went to study in Germany - Russian educational establishments at that time, girls were denied the opportunity to receive higher education. After receiving her doctorate, she returned to her homeland. D. I. Mendeleev personally congratulated her, with whom she was in warm friendly relations. During her career as a chemist, Yulia Vsevolodovna published many scientific papers, studied the properties of oil, her research contributed to the emergence of the first oil and gas plants in Russia.

The manual is part of O. S. Gabrielyan's TMC, designed to organize thematic and final control of subject and meta-subject results of studying chemistry in the 8th grade. Diagnostic work will help the teacher to objectively assess the learning outcomes, students - to prepare for the final certification (GIA), resorting to self-examination, and parents - to organize work on mistakes when students do homework.

Margarita Karlovna was born in the family of a German officer of the Russian army, Karl Fabian, Baron von Wrangel. The girl's abilities for the natural sciences manifested themselves early, she had a chance to study in Ufa, and in Moscow, and even in Germany: her childhood and youth were spent on the road. For some time, Margarita was a student of Marie Sklodowska-Curie herself. Returning to Russia for several years after the Bolsheviks came to power, she was forced to flee again to Germany. There she had scientific authority and good connections, thanks to which Margarita Wrangel became the director of the Institute of Plant Industry at the University of Hohenheim. Her research was in the field of plant nutrition. In the last years of her life, she married - for Margarita they made an exception, allowing her to keep her scientific regalia after marriage - to her childhood friend Vladimir Andronikov, whom she considered dead for a long time.

Born and spending the first years of her life in Cairo, after the outbreak of the First World War, young Dorothy ended up in her parents' native England, where her passion for chemistry began. She helped her archaeologist father a lot in Sudan, doing quantitative analysis of local minerals under the direction of soil chemist A. F. Joseph. Educated at Oxford and Cambridge, Dorothy did a lot of x-ray diffraction analysis proteins, penicillin, vitamin B12, studied insulin for more than 30 years, proving its vital necessity for diabetic patients, and was awarded the Nobel Prize for her achievements.

Italian physicist and chemist. Laid the foundations of molecular theory. In 1811, he opened a law named after him. Avogadro is named after the universal constant - the number of molecules in 1 mole of an ideal gas. Created a method for determining molecular weights from experimental data. Amedeo Avogadro

Niels Henderik David Bohr Danish physicist. Created in 1913 quantum theory a hydrogen atom. Built models of atoms of other chemical elements. Connected the periodicity of the properties of elements with the electronic configurations of atoms. Nobel Prize in Physics in 1922

Jens Jacob Berzelius Swedish chemist. Scientific research covers everything global problems general chemistry first half of the 19th century Determined the atomic masses of 45 chemical elements. For the first time he received silicon, titanium, tantalum and zirconium in a free state. Summarized everything known results catalytic research.

Alexander Mikhailovich Butlerov Russian chemist. Creator of the theory of the chemical structure of organic substances. Synthesized polyformaldehyde, urotropine, the first sugary substance. He predicted and explained the isomerism of organic substances. Created a school of Russian chemists. He dealt with the biology of agriculture, horticulture, beekeeping, tea cultivation in the Caucasus.

John Dalton Mr. English physicist and chemist. He put forward and substantiated the main provisions of chemical atomism, introduced the fundamental concept of atomic weight, compiled the first table of relative atomic weights, taking the atomic weight of hydrogen as a unit. He proposed a system of chemical signs for simple and complex atoms.

Kekule Friedrich August. German chemist-organic. He proposed the structural formula of the benzene molecule. In order to test the hypothesis of the equivalence of all six hydrogen atoms in the benzene molecule, he obtained its halogen, nitro, amino, and carboxy derivatives. He discovered the rearrangement of diazoamino- to azoaminobenzene, synthesized triphenylmethane and anthraquinol

Antoine Laurent Lavoisier French chemist. One of the founders of classical chemistry. Introduced rigorous quantitative research methods into chemistry. Proved complex composition atmospheric air. Having correctly explained the processes of combustion and oxidation, he created the foundations of the oxygen theory. Laid the foundations of organic analysis.

Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov Creator of many chemical industries in Russia (inorganic pigments, glazes, glass, porcelain). Outlined in the years the foundations of his atomic-corpuscular doctrine, put forward the kinetic theory of heat. He was the first Russian academician to write textbooks on chemistry and metallurgy. Founder of Moscow University.

Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev An outstanding Russian chemist who discovered the periodic law and created the periodic system of chemical elements. Author of the famous textbook "Fundamentals of Chemistry". Conducted extensive studies of solutions, properties of gases. He took an active part in the development of the coal and oil refining industry in Russia.

Linus Carl Pauling American physicist and chemist. The main works are devoted to the study of the structure of substances, the study of the theory of the structure of chemical bonds. Participated in the development of the method of valence bonds and the theory of resonance, introduced the concept of relativity of the electronegativity of elements. Winner of the Nobel Prize (1954) and the Nobel Peace Prize (1962).

Carl Wilhelm Scheele Swedish chemist. The works cover many areas of chemistry. In 1774 he isolated free chlorine and described its properties. In 1777, he received and studied hydrogen sulfide and other sulfur compounds. Identified and described (gg.) More than half of the known in the XVIII century. organic compounds.

Emil Hermann Fischer Mr. German organic chemist. The main works are devoted to the chemistry of carbohydrates, proteins, purine derivatives. Developed methods for the synthesis of physiologically active substances: caffeine, theobromine, adenine, guanine. Carried out research in the field of carbohydrates and polypeptides, created methods for the synthesis of amino acids. Nobel Prize winner (1902).

Henri Louis Le Chatelier French physical chemist. In 1884, he formulated the principle of equilibrium shift, named after him. He designed a microscope for studying metals and other instruments for studying gases, metals and alloys. Member of the Paris Academy of Sciences, honorary member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (since 1913) and the USSR Academy of Sciences (since 1926)

Vladimir Vasilievich Markovnikov Research is devoted to theoretical organic chemistry, organic synthesis and petrochemistry. Formulated rules about the direction of reactions of substitution, elimination, addition along double bond and isomerization depending on the chemical structure (Markovnikov's rules). He proved the existence of cycles with the number of carbon atoms from 3 to 8; established mutual isomeric transformations of cycles in the direction of both increasing and decreasing the number of atoms in the ring. Introduced many new experimental techniques for the analysis and synthesis of organic substances. One of the founders of the Russian Chemical Society (1868).

Robert BOYLE

He was born on January 25, 1627 in Lismore (Ireland), and was educated at Eton College (1635-1638) and at the Geneva Academy (1639-1644). After that, he lived almost without a break at his estate in Stallbridge, where he conducted his chemical research for 12 years. In 1656 Boyle moved to Oxford, and in 1668 moved to London.

The scientific activity of Robert Boyle was based on experimental method and in physics, and in chemistry, and developed the atomistic theory. In 1660, he discovered the law of change in the volume of gases (in particular, air) with a change in pressure. He later received the name Boyle-Mariotte law: independently of Boyle, this law was formulated by the French physicist Edm Mariotte.

Boyle studied a lot of chemical processes - for example, those that occur during the roasting of metals, the dry distillation of wood, the transformations of salts, acids and alkalis. In 1654 he introduced the concept of body composition analysis. One of Boyle's books was called The Skeptic Chemist. It defined elements as " primitive and simple, not completely mixed bodies, which are not composed of each other, but are those constituent parts of which all so-called mixed bodies are composed and into which the latter can finally be resolved".

And in 1661, Boyle formulates the concept of " primary corpuscles " both elements and " secondary corpuscles like complex bodies.

He was also the first to give an explanation for differences in the aggregate state of bodies. In 1660 Boyle received acetone, distilling potassium acetate, in 1663 he discovered and applied in research an acid-base indicator litmus in a litmus lichen growing in the mountains of Scotland. In 1680 he developed a new method for obtaining phosphorus made of bones phosphoric acid and phosphine...

At Oxford, Boyle took an active part in the founding of a scientific society, which in 1662 was transformed into Royal Society of London(actually it English Academy Sciences).

Robert Boyle died on December 30, 1691, leaving future generations with a rich scientific legacy. Boyle wrote many books, some of them were published after the death of the scientist: some of the manuscripts were found in the archives of the Royal Society ...

AVOGADRO Amedeo

(1776 – 1856)

Italian physicist and chemist, member of the Turin Academy of Sciences (since 1819). Born in Turin. He graduated from the Faculty of Law of the University of Turin (1792). Since 1800, he independently studied mathematics and physics. In 1809 - 1819. taught physics at the Vercelli Lyceum. In 1820 - 1822 and 1834 - 1850. Professor of Physics at the University of Turin. Scientific works belong to various fields of physics and chemistry. In 1811, he laid the foundations of molecular theory, generalized the experimental material accumulated by that time on the composition of substances, and brought into a single system the experimental data of J. Gay-Lussac and the basic provisions of J. Dalton's atomistics that contradicted each other.

He discovered (1811) the law according to which the same volumes of gases at the same temperatures and pressures contain the same number of molecules ( Avogadro's law). named after Avogadro universal constant is the number of molecules in 1 mole of an ideal gas.

He created (1811) a method for determining molecular weights, by means of which, according to the experimental data of other researchers, he was the first to correctly calculate (1811-1820) the atomic masses of oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, chlorine and a number of other elements. He established the quantitative atomic composition of the molecules of many substances (in particular, water, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, ammonia, nitrogen oxides, chlorine, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony), for which he had previously been determined incorrectly. Indicated (1814) the composition of many compounds of alkali and alkaline earth metals, methane, ethyl alcohol, ethylene. He was the first to draw attention to the analogy in the properties of nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic and antimony - chemical elements that later formed the VA group Periodic system. The results of Avogadro's work on molecular theory were recognized only in 1860 at the First International Congress of Chemists in Karlsruhe.

In 1820-1840. studied electrochemistry, studied the thermal expansion of bodies, heat capacities and atomic volumes; at the same time, he obtained conclusions that are coordinated with the results of later studies by D.I. Mendeleev on the specific volumes of bodies and modern ideas about the structure of matter. He published the work "Physics of Weighted Bodies, or a Treatise on the General Construction of Bodies" (vols. 1-4, 1837 - 1841), in which, in particular, paths were outlined for ideas about the nonstoichiometric nature of solids and about the dependence of the properties of crystals on their geometry.

Jens Jakob Berzelius

(1779-1848)

Swedish chemist Jens Jakob Berzelius was born into the family of a school principal. The father died shortly after his birth. Jacob's mother remarried, but after the birth of her second child, she fell ill and died. The stepfather did everything to ensure that Jacob and his younger brother received a good education.

Jacob Berzelius became interested in chemistry only at the age of twenty, but already at the age of 29 he was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, and two years later - its president.

Berzelius experimentally confirmed many chemical laws known by that time. The efficiency of Berzelius is amazing: he spent 12-14 hours a day in the laboratory. During his twenty years of scientific activity, he investigated more than two thousand substances and accurately determined their composition. He discovered three new chemical elements (cerium Ce, thorium Th and selenium Se), and for the first time isolated silicon Si, titanium Ti, tantalum Ta and zirconium Zr in the free state. Berzelius did a lot of theoretical chemistry, compiled annual reviews of the progress of the physical and chemical sciences, and was the author of the most popular chemistry textbook in those years. Perhaps this was what made him introduce convenient modern designations of elements and chemical formulas into chemical use.

Berzelius married only at the age of 55 the twenty-four-year-old Johanna Elisabeth, the daughter of his old friend Poppius, the State Chancellor of Sweden. Their marriage was happy, but there were no children. In 1845, Berzelius' health deteriorated. After one particularly severe attack of gout, he was paralyzed in both legs. In August 1848, at the age of 70, Berzelius died. He is buried in a small cemetery near Stockholm.

Vladimir Ivanovich VERNADSKY

Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky, while studying at St. Petersburg University, listened to the lectures of D.I. Mendeleev, A.M. Butlerov and other famous Russian chemists.

Over time, he himself became a strict and attentive teacher. Almost all mineralogists and geochemists of our country are his students or students of his students.

The outstanding naturalist did not share the point of view that minerals are something immutable, part of the established "system of nature." He believed that in nature there is a gradual interconversion of minerals. Vernadsky created a new science - geochemistry. Vladimir Ivanovich was the first to note the enormous role living matter- all plant and animal organisms and microorganisms on Earth - in the history of movement, concentration and dispersion of chemical elements. The scientist drew attention to the fact that some organisms are able to accumulate iron, silicon, calcium and other chemical elements and can participate in the formation of deposits of their minerals, that microorganisms play a huge role in the destruction of rocks. Vernadsky argued that " the key to life cannot be obtained by studying the living organism alone. To resolve it, one must also turn to its primary source - to the earth's crust.".

Studying the role of living organisms in the life of our planet, Vernadsky came to the conclusion that the entire atmospheric oxygen is a product of the vital activity of green plants. Vladimir Ivanovich paid special attention environmental issues. He considered global environmental issues affecting the biosphere as a whole. Moreover, he created the very doctrine of biosphere– areas active life covering lower part atmosphere, hydrosphere and the upper part of the lithosphere, in which the activity of living organisms (including humans) is a factor on a planetary scale. He believed that the biosphere, under the influence of scientific and industrial achievements, is gradually moving into a new state - the sphere of reason, or noosphere. The decisive factor in the development of this state of the biosphere should be reasonable activity human, harmonious interaction of nature and society. This is possible only when taking into account close relationship laws of nature with the laws of thought and socio-economic laws.

John DALTON

(Dalton J.)

John Dalton born into a poor family, possessed great modesty and an extraordinary thirst for knowledge. He did not hold any important university position, he was a simple teacher of mathematics and physics at school and college.

Basic scientific research before 1800-1803. relate to physics, later - to chemistry. Conducted (since 1787) meteorological observations, investigated the color of the sky, the nature of heat, refraction and reflection of light. As a result, he created the theory of evaporation and mixing of gases. Described (1794) a visual defect called color blind.

opened three laws, which constituted the essence of his physical atomism gas mixtures: partial pressures gases (1801), dependencies volume of gases at constant pressure temperature(1802, independently of J.L. Gay-Lussac) and dependencies solubility gases from their partial pressures(1803). These works led him to the decision chemical problem the ratio of the composition and structure of substances.

Put forward and substantiated (1803-1804) atomic theory, or chemical atomism, which explained the empirical law of the constancy of composition. Theoretically predicted and discovered (1803) law of multiple ratios: if two elements form several compounds, then the masses of one element falling on the same mass of the other are related as integers.

Compiled (1803) the first table of relative atomic masses hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, sulfur and phosphorus, taking the atomic mass of hydrogen as a unit. Proposed (1804) chemical sign system for "simple" and "complex" atoms. Carried out (since 1808) work aimed at clarifying certain provisions and explaining the essence of atomistic theory. Author of the work "The New System of Chemical Philosophy" (1808-1810), which is world famous.

Member of many academies of sciences and scientific societies.

Svante ARRENIUS

(b. 1859)

Svante-August Arrhenius was born in the ancient Swedish city of Uppsala. In the gymnasium, he was one of the best students; it was especially easy for him to study physics and mathematics. In 1876, the young man was admitted to Uppsala University. And two years later (six months ahead of schedule) he passed the exam for the degree of candidate of philosophy. However, later he complained that the university education was conducted according to outdated schemes: for example, "one could not hear a single word about the Mendeleev system, and yet it was already more than ten years old" ...

In 1881, Arrhenius moved to Stockholm and joined the Physics Institute of the Academy of Sciences. There he began to study the electrical conductivity of highly dilute aqueous solutions of electrolytes. Although Svante Arrhenius is a physicist by training, he is famous for his chemical research and became one of the founders of a new science - physical chemistry. Most of all, he studied the behavior of electrolytes in solutions, as well as the study of the rate of chemical reactions. The work of Arrhenius was not recognized by his compatriots for a long time, and only when his conclusions received appreciated in Germany and France, he was elected to the Swedish Academy of Sciences. For development theories of electrolytic dissociation Arrhenius was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1903.

Cheerful and good-natured giant Svante Arrhenius, a real "son of the Swedish countryside", has always been the soul of society, attracted colleagues and just acquaintances. He was married twice; his two sons were Olaf and Sven. He became widely known not only as a physical chemist, but also the author of many textbooks, popular science and simply popular articles and books on geophysics, astronomy, biology and medicine.

But the path to world recognition for Arrhenius the chemist was not at all easy. The theory of electrolytic dissociation in the scientific world had very serious opponents. So, D.I. Mendeleev sharply criticized not only the very idea of ​​Arrhenius about dissociation, but also a purely "physical" approach to understanding the nature of solutions, which does not take into account chemical interactions between a solute and a solvent.

Subsequently, it turned out that both Arrhenius and Mendeleev were each right in their own way, and their views, complementing each other, formed the basis of a new - proton- Theories of acids and bases.

Cavendish Henry

English physicist and chemist, member of the London royal society(since 1760). Born in Nice (France). Graduated from the University of Cambridge (1753). Scientific research was carried out in his own laboratory.

Works in the field of chemistry relate to pneumatic (gas) chemistry, one of the founders of which he is. He isolated (1766) carbon dioxide and hydrogen in pure form, mistaking the latter for phlogiston, and established the basic composition of air as a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen. Received nitrogen oxides. By burning hydrogen, he obtained (1784) water by determining the ratio of the volumes of gases interacting in this reaction (100:202). The accuracy of his research was so great that, when receiving (1785) oxides of nitrogen, by passing an electric spark through humidified air, he allowed him to observe the presence of "dephlogisticated air", which is no more than 1/20 of the total volume of gases. This observation helped W. Ramsay and J. Rayleigh discover (1894) the noble gas argon. He explained his discoveries from the standpoint of the theory of phlogiston.

In the field of physics, in many cases he anticipated later discoveries. The law according to which the forces of electrical interaction are inversely proportional to the square of the distance between charges was discovered by him (1767) ten years earlier French physics Sh. Coulomb. Experimentally established (1771) the influence of the environment on the capacitance of capacitors and determined (1771) the value of the dielectric constants of a number of substances. He determined (1798) the forces of mutual attraction of bodies under the influence of gravity and calculated at the same time the average density of the Earth. Cavendish's work in the field of physics became known only in 1879, after the English physicist J. Maxwell published his manuscripts, which had been in the archives until that time.

The physical laboratory organized in 1871 at the University of Cambridge is named after Cavendish.

KEKULE Friedrich August

(Kekule F.A.)

German organic chemist. Born in Darmstadt. Graduated from Giessen University (1852). He listened to the lectures of J. Dumas, C. Wurtz, C. Gerapa in Paris. In 1856-1858. taught at the University of Heidelberg, in 1858-1865. - professor at the University of Ghent (Belgium), since 1865 - at the University of Bonn (in 1877-1878 - rector). Scientific interests were mainly concentrated in the field of theoretical organic chemistry and organic synthesis. Received thioacetic acid and other sulfur compounds (1854), glycolic acid (1856). For the first time, by analogy with the type of water, he introduced (1854) the type of hydrogen sulfide. Expressed (1857) the idea of ​​valence as an integer number of units of affinity that an atom has. Pointed to the "bibasic" (bivalent) sulfur and oxygen. Divided (1857) all elements, with the exception of carbon, into one-, two- and three-basic ones; carbon was classified as a four-basic element (simultaneously with L.V.G. Kolbe).

Put forward (1858) the position that the constitution of compounds is determined by "basicity", that is valency, elements. For the first time (1858) showed that the number of hydrogen atoms associated with n carbon atoms, equal to 2 n+ 2. Based on the theory of types, he formulated the initial provisions of the theory of valency. Considering the mechanism of double exchange reactions, he expressed the idea of ​​a gradual weakening of the initial bonds and presented (1858) a scheme, which is the first model of the activated state. He proposed (1865) a cyclic structural formula of benzene, thereby extending Butlerov's theory of chemical structure to aromatic compounds. Experimental work Kekule is closely related to his theoretical research. In order to test the hypothesis of the equivalence of all six hydrogen atoms in benzene, he obtained its halogen, nitro, amino and carboxy derivatives. Carried out (1864) a cycle of transformations of acids: natural malic - bromine - optically inactive malic. He discovered (1866) the rearrangement of diazoamino- to aminoazobenzene. Synthesized triphenylmethane (1872) and anthraquinone (1878). To prove the structure of camphor, he undertook work to convert it into oxycymol, and then into thiocymol. He studied the crotonic condensation of acetaldehyde and the reaction for obtaining carboxytartronic acid. He proposed methods for the synthesis of thiophene based on diethyl sulfide and succinic anhydride.

President of the German Chemical Society (1878, 1886, 1891). One of the organizers of the I International Congress of Chemists in Karlsruhe (1860). Foreign Corresponding Member Petersburg Academy of Sciences (since 1887).

Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier

(1743-1794)

French chemist Antoine Laurent Lavoisier A lawyer by training, he was a very wealthy man. He was a member of the Farming Company, an organization of financiers that farmed state taxes. From these financial transactions, Lavoisier acquired a huge fortune. The political events that took place in France had sad consequences for Lavoisier: he was executed for working in the "General Farm" (a joint-stock company for collecting taxes). In May 1794, among other accused tax-farmers, Lavoisier appeared before a revolutionary tribunal and was sentenced the next day to death penalty"as an instigator or accomplice in a conspiracy, seeking to promote the success of the enemies of France by extortion and illegal exactions from the French people." On the evening of May 8, the sentence was carried out, and France lost one of its most brilliant heads ... Two years later, Lavoisier was found unfairly convicted, however, this could no longer return the remarkable scientist to France. Still studying at law faculty University of Paris, the future general farmer and an outstanding chemist at the same time studied the natural sciences. Lavoisier invested part of his fortune in the arrangement of a chemical laboratory, equipped with excellent equipment for those times, which became the scientific center of Paris. In his laboratory, Lavoisier conducted numerous experiments in which he determined changes in the masses of substances during their calcination and combustion.

Lavoisier was the first to show that the mass of the combustion products of sulfur and phosphorus is greater than the mass of the burned substances, and that the volume of air in which phosphorus burned decreased by 1/5 part. By heating mercury with a certain volume of air, Lavoisier obtained "mercury scale" (mercury oxide) and "suffocating air" (nitrogen), unsuitable for combustion and breathing. Calcining mercury scale, he decomposed it into mercury and "vital air" (oxygen). With these and many other experiments, Lavoisier showed the complexity of the composition of atmospheric air and for the first time correctly interpreted the phenomena of combustion and roasting as a process of combining substances with oxygen. This could not be done by the English chemist and philosopher Joseph Priestley and the Swedish chemist Karl-Wilhelm Scheele, as well as other naturalists who reported the discovery of oxygen earlier. Lavoisier proved that carbon dioxide (carbon dioxide) is a combination of oxygen with "coal" (carbon), and water is a combination of oxygen with hydrogen. He experimentally showed that when breathing, oxygen is absorbed and carbon dioxide is formed, that is, the breathing process is similar to the combustion process. Moreover, the French chemist established that the formation of carbon dioxide during respiration is the main source of "animal heat". Lavoisier was one of the first to try to explain the complex physiological processes occurring in a living organism in terms of chemistry.

Lavoisier became one of the founders of classical chemistry. He discovered the law of conservation of substances, introduced the concepts of "chemical element" and " chemical compound", proved that breathing is like a combustion process and is a source of heat in the body. Lavoisier was the author of the first classification of chemicals and the textbook "Elementary Chemistry Course". At the age of 29, he was elected a full member of the Paris Academy of Sciences.

Henri-Louis LE CHATELIER
(Le Chatelier H.L.)

Henri-Louis Le Chatelier was born on October 8, 1850 in Paris. After graduating from the Polytechnic School in 1869, he entered the Higher National Mining School. The future discoverer of the famous principle was a widely educated and erudite person. He was interested in technology, natural sciences, and social life. He devoted a lot of time to the study of religion and ancient languages. At the age of 27, Le Chatelier became a professor at the Higher Mining School, and thirty years later, at the University of Paris. Then he was elected a full member of the Paris Academy of Sciences.

The most important contribution of the French scientist to science was associated with the study chemical equilibrium, research balance shift under the influence of temperature and pressure. The students of the Sorbonne, who listened to Le Chatelier's lectures in 1907-1908, wrote in their notes as follows: " A change in any factor that can affect the state of chemical equilibrium of a system of substances causes a reaction in it that tends to counteract the change being made. An increase in temperature causes a reaction that tends to lower the temperature, that is, going with the absorption of heat. An increase in pressure causes a reaction that tends to cause a decrease in pressure, that is, accompanied by a decrease in volume...".

Unfortunately, Le Chatelier was not awarded the Nobel Prize. The reason was that this prize was awarded only to authors of works performed or recognized in the year the prize was received. The most important works of Le Chatelier were completed long before 1901, when the first Nobel Prizes were awarded.

LOMONOSOV Mikhail Vasilievich

Russian scientist, academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (since 1745). Born in the village of Denisovka (now the village of Lomonosov, Arkhangelsk region). In 1731-1735. studied at the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy in Moscow. In 1735 he was sent to St. Petersburg to an academic university, and in 1736 to Germany, where he studied at the University of Marburg (1736-1739) and in Freiberg at the School of Mining (1739-1741). In 1741-1745. - Adjunct of the Physical class of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, since 1745 - professor of chemistry of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, since 1748 he worked in the Chemical Laboratory of the Academy of Sciences established on his initiative. Simultaneously, from 1756, he conducted research at the glass factory he founded in Ust-Ruditsy (near St. Petersburg) and in his home laboratory.

Lomonosov's creative activity is distinguished both by the exceptional breadth of interests and the depth of penetration into the secrets of nature. His research relates to mathematics, physics, chemistry, earth sciences, astronomy. The results of these studies laid the foundations modern natural science. Lomonosov drew attention (1756) to the fundamental importance of the law of conservation of the mass of matter in chemical reactions; outlined (1741-1750) the foundations of his corpuscular (atomic-molecular) doctrine, which was developed only a century later; put forward (1744-1748) the kinetic theory of heat; substantiated (1747-1752) the need to involve physics to explain chemical phenomena and proposed the name "physical chemistry" for the theoretical part of chemistry, and "technical chemistry" for the practical part. His works became a milestone in the development of science, delimiting natural philosophy from experimental natural science.

Until 1748, Lomonosov was mainly engaged in physical research, and in the period 1748-1757. his works are devoted mainly to the solution of theoretical and experimental problems of chemistry. Developing atomistic ideas, he was the first to express the opinion that bodies consist of "corpuscles", and those, in turn, of "elements"; this corresponds to modern concepts of molecules and atoms.

He pioneered the use of mathematics and physical methods research in chemistry and was the first to teach an independent "course of true physical chemistry" at the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. An extensive program of experimental research was carried out in the Chemical Laboratory of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences headed by him. Developed accurate weighing methods, applied volumetric methods quantitative analysis. Conducting experiments on firing metals in sealed vessels, he showed (1756) that their weight does not change after heating and that R. Boyle's opinion about the addition of thermal matter to metals is erroneous.

Studied liquid, gaseous and solid states of bodies. He determined the expansion coefficients of gases quite accurately. Studied the solubility of salts at different temperatures. He studied the effect of electric current on salt solutions, established the facts of a decrease in temperature during the dissolution of salts and a decrease in the freezing point of a solution compared to a pure solvent. He distinguished between the process of dissolving metals in acid, accompanied by chemical changes, and the process of dissolving salts in water, which occurs without chemical changes soluble substances. Created various instruments (viscometer, vacuum filtration device, hardness tester, gas barometer, pyrometer, boiler for the study of substances at low and high pressures), accurately calibrated thermometers.

He was the creator of many chemical industries (inorganic pigments, glazes, glass, porcelain). He developed the technology and formulation of colored glass, which he used to create mosaic paintings. Invented porcelain mass. He was engaged in the analysis of ores, salts and other products.

In the work "The first foundations of metallurgy, or ore affairs" (1763), he considered the properties of various metals, gave their classification and described methods of obtaining. Along with other works in chemistry, this work laid the foundations of the Russian chemical language. Considered the formation of various minerals and non-metallic bodies in nature. He expressed the idea of ​​the biogenic origin of soil humus. Proved organic origin oils, coal, peat and amber. He described the processes of obtaining iron sulphate, copper from copper sulphate, sulfur from sulfur ores, alum, sulfuric, nitric and hydrochloric acids.

He was the first Russian academician to start preparing textbooks on chemistry and metallurgy (Course of Physical Chemistry, 1754; The First Foundations of Metallurgy, or Mining, 1763). He is credited with the creation of Moscow University (1755), the project and training program which he personally compiled. According to his project, in 1748 the construction of the Chemical Laboratory of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences was completed. From 1760 he was a trustee of the gymnasium and university at the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. Created the foundations of modern Russian literary language. He was a poet and an artist. Wrote a number of works on history, economics, philology. Member of a number of academies of sciences. The Moscow University (1940), the Moscow Academy of Fine Chemical Technology (1940), the city of Lomonosov (former Oranienbaum) are named after Lomonosov. The Academy of Sciences of the USSR established (1956) the Gold Medal. M.V. Lomonosov for outstanding work in the field of chemistry and other natural sciences.

Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev

(1834-1907)

Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev- the great Russian scientist-encyclopedist, chemist, physicist, technologist, geologist and even a meteorologist. Mendeleev possessed surprisingly clear chemical thinking, he always clearly understood the ultimate goals of his creative work: foresight and benefit. He wrote: "The closest subject of chemistry is the study of homogeneous substances, from the addition of which all the bodies of the world are composed, their transformations into each other and the phenomena accompanying such transformations."

Mendeleev created the modern hydrate theory of solutions, the ideal gas equation of state, developed the technology for producing smokeless powder, discovered the Periodic Law and proposed the Periodic Table of Chemical Elements, and wrote the best chemistry textbook of its time.

He was born in 1834 in Tobolsk and was the last, seventeenth child in the family of the director of the Tobolsk gymnasium, Ivan Pavlovich Mendeleev, and his wife, Maria Dmitrievna. By the time of his birth, two brothers and five sisters survived in the Mendeleev family. Nine children died in infancy, and three of them did not even have time to give names to their parents.

The study of Dmitri Mendeleev in St. Petersburg at the Pedagogical Institute was not easy at first. In his first year, he managed to get unsatisfactory grades in all subjects except mathematics. But in senior years, things went differently - Mendeleev's average annual score was four and a half (out of five possible). He graduated from the institute in 1855 with a gold medal, having received a diploma of a senior teacher.

Life was not always favorable to Mendeleev: there was a break with the bride, and the malevolence of colleagues, an unsuccessful marriage and then a divorce ... Two years (1880 and 1881) were very difficult in Mendeleev's life. In December 1880, the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences refused to elect him as an academician: nine academicians voted in favor, and ten academicians voted against. A certain Veselovsky, the secretary of the academy, played a particularly unseemly role in this. He frankly declared: "We do not want university students. If they are better than us, then we still do not need them."

In 1881, with great difficulty, Mendeleev's marriage to his first wife was annulled, who did not understand her husband at all and reproached him for his lack of attention.

In 1895, Mendeleev went blind, but continued to lead the Chamber of Weights and Measures. Business papers were read aloud to him, he dictated orders to the secretary, and blindly continued to glue the suitcases at home. Professor I.V. Kostenich removed the cataract in two operations, and soon his vision returned ...

In the winter of 1867-68, Mendeleev began to write the textbook "Fundamentals of Chemistry" and immediately ran into difficulties in systematizing actual material. By mid-February 1869, while pondering the structure of the textbook, he gradually came to the conclusion that the properties simple substances(and this is a form of existence of chemical elements in a free state) and the atomic masses of the elements are connected by a certain regularity.

Mendeleev did not know much about the attempts of his predecessors to arrange the chemical elements in order of increasing their atomic masses and about the incidents that arose in this case. For example, he had almost no information about the work of Chancourtois, Newlands, and Meyer.

Mendeleev had an unexpected idea: to compare close atomic masses of various chemical elements and their Chemical properties.

Without thinking twice, reverse side Khodnev's letters he wrote down the symbols chlorine Cl and potassium K with fairly similar atomic masses, equal to 35.5 and 39, respectively (the difference is only 3.5 units). On the same letter, Mendeleev sketched symbols of other elements, looking for similar "paradoxical" pairs among them: fluorine F and sodium Na, bromine Br and rubidium rb, iodine I and cesium Cs, for which the mass difference increases from 4.0 to 5.0, and then to 6.0. Mendeleev then could not know that the "indefinite zone" between the obvious non-metals and metals contains elements - noble gases, the discovery of which in the future will significantly modify the Periodic Table. Gradually, the appearance of the future Periodic Table of chemical elements began to take shape.

So, first he put a card with the element beryllium Be (atomic mass 14) next to the element card aluminum Al (atomic mass 27.4), according to the then tradition, taking beryllium for an analog of aluminum. However, then, comparing the chemical properties, he placed beryllium over magnesium mg. Having doubted the then generally accepted value of the atomic mass of beryllium, he changed it to 9.4, and changed the formula of beryllium oxide from Be 2 O 3 to BeO (like magnesium oxide MgO). By the way, the "corrected" value of the atomic mass of beryllium was confirmed only ten years later. He acted just as boldly on other occasions.

Gradually, Dmitry Ivanovich came to the final conclusion that the elements, arranged in ascending order of their atomic masses, show a clear periodicity in physical and chemical properties.

Throughout the day, Mendeleev worked on the system of elements, taking short breaks to play with his daughter Olga, have lunch and dinner.

On the evening of March 1, 1869, he whitewashed the table he had compiled and, under the title "Experiment of a system of elements based on their atomic weight and chemical similarity," sent it to the printer, making notes for typesetters and putting the date "February 17, 1869" (this is according to the old style). So it was opened Periodic Law...