Introduction

AT modern world, a lie is so natural that it has long penetrated into all spheres human activity. Every person can be deceived at least once in his life and he himself has deceived others more than once.

There is no difference in what social stratum, what race a person belongs to. The problem of lies was relevant even in the days of ancient philosophers and sages and still remains topical. After all, our society cannot exist without deception. No matter how much the world around us changes, the lie was in the past and flourishes in our days. One of the main and unresolved issues what remains is that not every deceit can be exposed and not every lie can be recognized. Although people are concerned about this problem in very different ways: some are interested in how to determine lies, while others are more interested in learning to skillfully lie, the question of lies and truth is of eternal importance for humanity. Despite the interest in this problem and many studies different authors, there is no unambiguous formula for recognizing lies or the law of ideal deception.

AT domestic psychology the phenomenon of lies was studied in the works of D.I. Dubrovsky, in foreign psychology Paul Ekman's studies are famous, describing in detail all the subtleties of deception.

The purpose of the work: to give a meaningful description of the category of lies and some features of understanding this phenomenon, as well as to explore lies, untruth and deceit as a phenomenon of human relations.

Subject of study: lies, deceit and untruth.

psychology lie deceit personality

Lie

Basic concepts, definitions

Paul Ekman, in The Psychology of Lies, defines lying as the act by which one person deceives another, doing so intentionally, without prior notice of their goals, and without a clear request from the victim not to reveal the truth.

AT explanatory dictionary IN AND. Dahl gives the following definition: "A lie is what is lied, words, speeches that are contrary to the truth. To lie is to lie, speak or write a lie, lie, contrary to the truth."

AT general view, deception - disinformation, a false message transmitted to a specific subject. Being deceived, the subject takes for true, genuine, true, fair, correct, beautiful (and vice versa) what is not such. The concept of deceit is logically opposed to the concept of truth. Untruth is a deliberate lie, but at the same time, it can be an unintentional delusion, and a cunning falsification, and refined hypocrisy, and the hypocrisy of a cultivated layman, and the "truth" of the previous one. historical stage.

Ekman in his scientific work begins with the definition of the concepts used, arguing that deception is always an intentional act, and if a person lies unintentionally, although he tells a lie, then he cannot be called a liar. The concept of "lie" includes not only a distortion of the truth (reporting false information), but also silence about something significant in a given situation (concealment of the truth).

Deception, as a deliberate act, most often expresses selfish isolation, rupture, disruption of community, distrust, hostility towards others, or inauthentic communication dominated by pragmatic goals. Deceit is a vice that destroys every virtue.

Deception is an immoral form of defense own interests, in which the appearance of observance of moral and other social norms is created.

Deception is a false, incorrect message that can mislead the person to whom it is addressed. However, one should distinguish between deception as an action of a subject pursuing certain interests, and deception as a result, i.e. as an action that has achieved its goal, because often this action turns out to be ineffective: deception is recognized, exposed.

Thus, we can conclude that psychologists share the concepts of lies, deceit and untruth as separate categories with different functions. But in general, despite the variety of concepts, one can single out one main characteristic, then that this is a distortion of the truth for the purpose of personal gain.

If a person is asked how he feels about lies, then you can definitely hear the answer that the attitude is negative. However, the paradox remains that there is not a single person who would not lie. Having a negative attitude towards deception, a person resorts to it himself. What is this - a phenomenon called a lie?

As you consider the issue, you can find out that it is human nature to lie. What is it connected with? In addition to superficial reasons, which are often rooted in self-interest or anxiety, there are natural needs which lie in the fact that a person during a deception does all this in order to maintain his psychological balance.

The unequivocal attitude of people to deceit is quite natural. Nobody likes to be deceived. However, the deceived themselves often sin by the same behavior. We will talk about all the features of lies in the article in order to better understand this phenomenon.

Lie

How many people live, so many lies exist. This concept denotes a belief that a person consciously spreads, presenting as true information. A lie is something that is not true. J. Mazila defined a lie as fabricated or an attempt to hide information in order to create an opinion among others, which is false.

Mankind has known lies since ancient times. At all times, people have lied, in this way trying to achieve the desired goal. Each in his own way justifies why he resorts to lies. However, without this phenomenon a person could not achieve much, no matter how it sounds.

Lies and truth are the fruits of the creation of man himself. In nature, neither the first nor the second exists. The universe is guided by facts, events, truth, which cannot be changed. All this is stable and natural. As for lies and truth, these are the fruits of the actions of a person who himself controls the process of the emergence of the first and second.

What is a lie? It is an unwillingness to see reality as it is. This is a distortion (both intentional and unconscious) of reality in an effort to do well only for oneself (the one who deceives). A person lies when he strives for only one goal - not to reveal the truth, which can harm him in some way or bring pain. By and large, a lie is a desire to avoid what a person is afraid of. In other words, fear makes you lie.

At the same time, a lot depends on some characteristics of a person. However, this only affects what his lie will be, and not whether it will occur or not. All people lie, but they do it in different ways. What does it depend on? From the physiological parameters of a person, from his mental and intellectual development, upbringing, values, desires and everything that makes up his life. All that life experience, through which a person has passed, forces one to resort to certain lies. That's why people lie, but they do it in different ways.

At the same time, a person loves to be deceived. Many prefer sweet lies than the bitter truth, because this way they live more calmly, comfortably and comfortably. Few are willing to hear the truth, so they are happy to be deceived. And other people are happy to deceive those who are ready to be deceived. It turns out a vicious circle in which each of the parties receives some benefit from the lie. But the question still remains: what will people do when the lie is revealed? After all, sooner or later it will happen. Are people who deceive and are deceived ready for this?

What is a lie?

Since any person is faced with a lie, trainings, books and other literature are becoming popular that help determine how to recognize a lie. However, in order to learn to recognize it, it is necessary to start with the meaning of the word. What is a lie? It is a method of communication in which a person can give out false information for real.

The books of Paul Ekman, who teaches lie recognition, have become popular. Many viewers also fell in love with the series “Lie to me”, where, by facial expression the protagonist recognized false information. A special apparatus was even invented, known as a lie detector.

Many modern people already learned how to lie skillfully. If inept representatives begin to blush, get nervous, get confused in testimony, then good manipulators, liars can external level(facial expressions, habits) behave in such a way that you cannot recognize deception behind their words.

Why do people lie? This is a common question that often arises in a lie detection situation. "Why did you lie to me?" asks the deceived man. In fact, there can be a lot of reasons for this:

1. A person is used to playing a role that fits perfectly positive features his character. He enjoys acting.
2. A person is driven by the desire to achieve a goal. As they say, he does everything for a selfish purpose. It may seem to many that the individual takes pleasure in the fact that he deceives. In fact, a conscious lie is not always pleasant for the one who produces it. A person is forced to deceive, because otherwise he will not achieve the desired goal.

This reason is one of the most common. To tell the truth means to bring the situation to the impossibility of fulfilling your goal. Lies exist only because the truth does not always help people achieve what they want. Often people here hide behind good intentions, they say, “I did everything for you”, “I care about you”, “I didn’t want to worry you”, etc. In fact, a person always initially proceeds from his own motives when he is safe and have a more or less desired outcome.

Try to tell the truth to a person who, what you know for certain, will yell at you in response, will not understand, will accuse you of terrible sins etc. Everyone calculates in advance the consequences of telling the truth. If the result is unpleasant, undesirable, then the person will definitely start looking for ways to distort information.

The deception will be either slightly distorted or completely modified. It all depends on the results that a person sees in front of him if he tells this or that information. Of course, it does not always calculate the results correctly. Often, one deception is followed by another lie that supports the legend that has begun. Skillful deceivers can maintain the created illusion for a long time. Other people are quickly "pierced", they are taken to clean water.

Many experts believe that lying is an extremely destructive phenomenon:

1. Or a person is constantly in suspense because of the need to remember his lie and come up with a new one in order to support the legend.
2. Either a person develops negative traits character, so that lying becomes a natural phenomenon for him.

pathological lies

As they say, all people lie. However, a pathological lie is singled out separately, which is clearly considered a negative phenomenon.

An ordinary person resorts to lies, understanding why he does it and for what purposes. He is ready to support this lie in order to save his emotional balance and continue your game. Such lies are common. To some extent, each person plays a certain role in which he is better than he would demonstrate his true food.

Can this lie be called bad? It all depends on the results that are achieved. If a person smiles so as not to simply spoil the mood of those around him, then rather this is a good lie aimed at ridding himself and others of unpleasant topics.

However, there is pathological lie. What it is? This is a deception that manifests itself in everything and everywhere. A person is ready to promise anything to others, just to win over or not provoke a conflict, which otherwise may arise. Pathological lies develop when a person is driven by two desires:

• Feel own significance for those around you.
• Get attention.

Pathological lies are sometimes invisible. Its feature is constancy. The liar promises to come home at 8 o'clock, and returns at 11. The liar promises to help, and then finds other things to distract him. He never keeps his word. We can say that the subconscious desire of a pathological liar is the desire not to make a problem until it has happened, not to upset people with their refusal or an unpleasant answer.

Pathological lies are classified as brain lesions or congenital mental illness. However, pathological lying as a personality disorder is becoming increasingly common. This is associated with an injury that was inflicted on a person when he was small. His parents punished or ignored him when he showed himself, thereby sending the idea: “We don’t need the way you are!”. And a person begins to build a legend where he is different, gradually losing touch with himself and reality.

The pathological liar gets used to the role he plays. Even he starts believing what he says when he lies. That is why the lie detector may not detect abnormalities that would indicate that pathological liar tells a lie.

Types of lies

Consider the most common types of lies, of which there are 20 pieces:

1. Silence is the understatement of the true truth.
2. A half-truth is a misrepresentation of a piece of information.
3. Ambiguity is the pronunciation of information in such a way that an ambiguous impression is created. This does not allow you to correctly perceive the information.
4. Understatement or exaggeration - a distortion of the assessment of the object in question.
5. Substitution of concepts - one concept is issued for another.
6. Embellishment is the presentation of an object in a more attractive form than it really is.
7. Bringing to the point of absurdity - inflation, distortion of information. It manifests itself in the form of an emotional game.
8. Simulation is acting when a person expresses emotions that he does not actually experience.
9. Fraud is a lie that is prosecuted by law and is based on the desire to take possession of other people's property, to gain profit.
10. Falsification is the substitution of a real, genuine, original object for another and the issuance of the second for the first.
11. Mystification is a fiction about a non-existent phenomenon.
12. Gossip is the issuance of information about another person without his knowledge in a distorted form: guesswork, speculation, heard somewhere, saw something, this happened to others, etc. Distortion of information about another person.
13. Slander is distorted information about another person, in advance aimed at harming him.
14. Flattery is an expression to his interlocutor positive qualities in an exaggerated form or even in a distorted form (a person does not have such qualities).
15. Dodge (subterfuge) - an excuse, a trick that helps to avoid a direct answer to a question.
16. Bluffing is giving the impression that a liar has something that he doesn't really have.
17. Artificial empathy is a manifestation of the emotions that the addressee wants to see, without true emotional inclusion.
18. Lying out of politeness is a socially acceptable and permissible type of lie, when a person allows himself to deceive another by telling him what he wanted to hear.
19. White lies are another form of lying that is approved, when a person deceives in order to benefit another person or all participants in the process.
20. Self-deception is a lie directed at oneself. Deluding yourself. Often manifested due to unwillingness to accept reality and the desire to believe in a better outcome of events.

Outcome

Is lying good or bad? People often give unequivocal answers to this question the word "no". However, facts show that despite negative attitude to lie, absolutely all people resort to it. The bottom line remains the same: deception has existed and will continue to exist.

Since it is unpleasant to be deceived, a person will continue to study the question of how to recognize a lie. This is a completely normal desire, because there is no escape from deception. At the same time, people improve their skills in lying when they themselves can mislead someone in order to gain some benefit or achieve a goal.

Psychology of lies and deceit [How to expose a liar] Evgeny Spiritsa

Chapter 4

Chapter 4

We have already determined that our lie detection model is not based on a philosophical, sociocultural or logical approach. The basis of our system is pragmatics, which is why we pay great attention not to abstract categories, but to practical points. For us, such a concept as “truth” is not very important, it is important for us whether the person sitting opposite deliberately hides information or not.

In psychology, there are such concepts as a recipient (perceiving) and an inductor (producing), we will use a different terminology - a liar and a victim of deception, since two people most often take part in deception: the subject and the object of lies.

When speaking about the subject of a lie, that is, about the person whom we call a liar, we must take into account that psychological properties The phenomenon of hidden information will manifest itself in the following:

The subject of the lie is preparing, he intends to lie, that is, he knows that he is lying;

Experiencing pleasant/unpleasant emotions;

Creates the appearance of truth, plans a lie;

I am sure / not sure of a favorable outcome for myself.

As for the object of lies, the psychological properties of the phenomenon of deliberately concealed information in the representation of the victim of deception are manifested in the following:

The object of the lie thinks/does not think that given message true;

Perceives/does not perceive the appearance of truth;

Expects/does not expect honest behavior from the liar.

I have listed the main points that need to be considered when analyzing the behavior of a liar and a victim of deception.

Before starting the review various classifications, it should be remembered that any distribution, any categorization is conditional and depends on what criterion lies at the basis.

If we talk about the genesis, that is, the emergence of the phenomenon of false information, then it is necessary to mention that any information can be classified according to a number of positions.

Firstly, rent information can be considered from the point of view of who this information is intended for, whether it is intended specific person, are associated with the solution of one specific or a number of different problems of a liar.

Secondly, rent information can be classified according to the methods and time of its storage. In terms of time, rental information can be permanent, or it can be temporary, that is, having relevance for certain period. Storage methods include audio, video, paper media, photographs should also be included here, since in some cases they may be an important carrier information about the crime.

Thirdly, lies can be viewed from the standpoint of preparedness. Here we single out a prepared lie, an unprepared lie, and a creative fantasy lie, which we call Ostap's strategy.

Of course, the lie that we call spontaneous, creative-fantasy, can be classified as an unprepared lie, but autonomic nervous manifestations and behavioral stereotypes in the implementation of this strategy are very different from the behavior of people who got into the situation unprepared, experience a state of fear and do not have acting skills. gift or the like. As a rule, creative-fantasy strategies are implemented by people who are excellent manipulators, for example, they play poker. This also includes actors, magicians and, of course, swindlers who must convince us that they are telling the truth.

Fourth, if we consider false information from the point of view of completeness, then we can distinguish between partial, complete and complex, the latter creating the so-called systemic effect, when a well-trained liar deftly alternates between true and false messages.

Fifth, according to the degree of reliability, false information can be divided into reliable and probabilistic. The probabilistic nature is due to the fundamental impossibility of obtaining other, really reliable information from a liar.

In addition, false information can be classified by volume, source, age, methods of transmission, distribution, however, from my point of view, such a classification is not very necessary, since it is a pragmatic approach that is important for us. Obviously, when conducting research, you immediately evaluate a person: gender, age, psychotype, behavioral stereotypes, so we consider it inappropriate to give such a classification.

If we analyze the process of formation of the phenomenon of false information, then it is necessary to say about such three main forms as:

Loss of reliable elements of information;

Attaching elements of false information to reliable;

The emergence of a systemic effect, when the structure of the former, generally reliable information image is transformed.

These are the three main ways that you need to consider when dealing with intentionally hidden information.

By the number of participants involved in the process of lying, the following types of deception can be distinguished:

Self-deception, that is, both the liar and the victim of deception, are one person;

The false message is conveyed to the victim of the deception, i.e. two people are involved;

A liar broadcasts false information to a group of people;

A group of people misleads another group of people;

Two people are misleading each other. An example is the behavior of the investigator and the criminal during interrogation;

Mutual self-deception. This deception is usually based on strong mutual feelings - love and hate, for example, in which negative or positive emotions distort mutual perception of people. As a result, objectification is impossible. In this situation, there is classic model, as the “Karpman triangle”, since there is a transfer of responsibility to real or unreal people in this act of communication. To deal with this situation, it is sometimes necessary to use various ways lie detection - from a polygraph to the distribution of the area of ​​​​responsibility, which can be given both by the court and third-party people: intermediaries, mediators, etc., their task is to figure out who is right and who is wrong in this case.

The following classification is based on the concept of intent and benefit from rental information.

The deceiver benefits from harming another person. Examples of this type of lie would be:

The promise of high dividends in some fraudulent structures, for example, in a financial pyramid;

Withholding information about where the stolen money is stored;

Concealment of the fact of infidelity of a husband or wife.

The deceiver takes advantage without harming the other person. For example, a late student justifies his delay by the lack of transport. Lies are present, but they do not harm the other person.

Fraud without profit. This is a lie out of harmfulness, envy, adventurism, nationalism, civic duty, vanity, frivolity. Boasting can also be included here as a form of deceit, suggesting envy on the part of the other person.

Deception in favor of another person, lie for the good. For example, a doctor tells an incurable patient that he will get better. Similar example describes P. Ekman: rescuers found a boy who suffered in aviation accident and lay for several days in the cold, wrapped in a sleeping bag. When the child asked: “How are my parents? Are they alive? - the rescuers answered: “Yes”, although they knew for sure that the parents of this boy were already dead.

Nobody benefits from deceit. These include fantasies, dreams, visualizations. Self-deception is not a lie in this case. For example, a person of a schizophrenogenic or autistic type does not understand what a lie is, and often believes in those values, those behavioral stereotypes that he professes. With self-deception, there is no victim of deception in the usual sense. A person deceives himself, this is a kind of psychological defense.

In The Psychology of Deception, Charles Ford classifies lies based on the motives that guide a person:

The saving lie is the observance of the social contract;

Hysterical lies - attracting attention to yourself;

A defensive lie is a way out of a difficult situation;

Compensatory lie - to impress the interlocutor;

Malevolent lie - benefit, selfish interest;

Gossip - exaggeration, rumors;

Hidden lies - misrepresentation by telling part of the truth;

Lying out of love intoxication is an idealistic exaggeration;

A pathological lie is a constant lie, even to the detriment of oneself.

Despite the variety that exists in the intentions of a liar, everything listed species lies will appear in speech either as a default or as a distortion, therefore, following P. Ekman, we argue that these two forms of lies are the main ones.

Unlike many other authors who detail various forms lies, we believe that there is no practical sense in this, since silence and distortion, as experience shows, for the most part are very clearly manifested in the behavioral stereotypes of a liar.

However, it must be taken into account that in the practice of lie detection, these forms in pure form almost never occur, more often they are combined with each other. This circumstance allows us to introduce a third form of lies - combined, hybrid.

Let's take a closer look at these forms.

By default, a liar hides true information, but does not report false information, so given form lying is less energy intensive and therefore more profitable. Many deceivers prefer to remain silent when choosing a form of lie, because, firstly, there is no need to create some kind of legend; secondly, do not strain your memory (remember Abraham Lincoln, who said that he did not have enough good memory to lie); thirdly, silence is less reprehensible than distortion, since it is passive. However, silence is a lie, because there is rent information and the intent is to hide it.

When distorted, the liar takes additional actions. He not only hides the truth, but also provides false information in return for the victim of deception, passing it off as true. The distortion is more energy-intensive and more reprehensible, so the signs of deception leakage are more noticeable, since the liar has to think, plan his actions and use certain mechanisms, spend his resources on conveying the information the liar needs to the victim of deception, which leads to incongruent behavior. And therefore, the main task of a professional verifier is to do everything possible so that the participle goes from default to distortion.

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Every person strives to make their life better. However, everyone has their own idea of ​​how to achieve well-being. Wherever human interaction begins, lies and deception take place.

Philosophical concepts

The question "what is a lie" in philosophy and psychology is given a lot of attention. The answer to this question begins with an analysis key concepts explaining this phenomenon. According to many scientists, truth is a reflection of the reality around us.

However, due to individual features a person, this reality can be perceived distorted. Then we say that the person is deluded about his reality. But if he intentionally expresses something that does not correspond to the truth, in order to create a conviction in another person, this is a lie.

For a better understanding, we should also consider the concept of "truth". In its content, it is wider than truth and means not only the adequacy of knowledge, but also their meaningfulness for the subject. To better understand what is true and false, you can turn to Academic Dictionary Russian language. It says that deliberate distortion of the truth; deception".

Lies: from antiquity to the present

Perhaps, for the first time the question "what is a lie" was asked by the ancient philosophers Plato and Aristotle, and they agreed that this is something negative, causing disapproval of other people. However, over time, views have divided, and two completely opposite approaches to the permissibility of lying have emerged.

Some explained what a lie is based on Christian morality. They argued that lying is what undermines trust between people and destroys values. The fact that a person deliberately distorts reality, trying to benefit from it, is called sin in Christianity.

Representatives of a different approach were of the opinion that a certain proportion false statements not only acceptable, but desirable. In their opinion, statesmen it is necessary to resort to lies to ensure security and maintain order. They also leave the right to deliberately distort the truth to doctors for reasons of humanity. Thus, a new interpretation of the concept appeared - a lie for good or for salvation.

Modern position

Modern researchers also do not give an unambiguous answer to the question "what is a lie." Rather, the concept itself has not changed, but the attitude towards it still remains different. Therefore, today it is customary to look for and justify the reasons why people resort to lies.

First, it can be viewed from the point of view of morality. For example, when a person tries to hide or embellish negative actions. This form is often used by children. But do we always condemn them for it? Rather, we condemn, explain why it is not necessary to do this and that everything that is bad can be recognized and corrected.

Secondly, lies can be used as a tool in the pursuit of a certain result. And this is a completely different form of lies. If a person deliberately distorts information in order to disorientate another in a situation and thus gain a benefit for himself, this already characterizes a lie as a volitional act.

And thirdly, it may appear in the form of a simple misrepresentation of the facts. Simply put, a person may simply not tell the whole truth, hiding only part of it. This is also done by the individual intentionally, in order to achieve his goals.

Thus, we have come closer to explaining what lies and deceit are. At first glance, these terms are synonymous. But still it is not so. A lie, as mentioned above, is a conscious distortion of the truth. Deception is the intentional misleading of another. Deception can be interpreted as one of the forms social contradictions. It can help not only in achieving selfish goals, but also, for example, in keeping secrets.

Lies and their signs

Western psychologists today increasingly agree that lying in most cases causes moral condemnation. But if it is replaced by "deception" or "untruth", then the attitude towards the distorted truth becomes neutral. Although, if you look at it, a lie means only a distortion of the truth or its concealment. Whereas cheating is a deliberate act.

Trying to figure out what a lie is, we can distinguish several of its signs:

• firstly, lies are always used in order to obtain some benefit;
• secondly, the person is aware of the falsity of the statement;
• thirdly, the distortion of information acquires significance when it is expressed.

But from the point of view positive psychology lying is a sign of weakness. Only those who are not confident in their abilities resort to it. And, using a lie on the way to his goal, a person must understand that it does not strengthen, but weakens his position.

Lying is the ability to deceive another person. While no one likes to be deceived, we have all fallen victim to this unpridetable skill. Surprisingly, lies are quite recognizable. Just pay close attention to the body language of your interlocutor.

What is a lie

Lie is a deliberate concealment of the truth. From the point of view of psychology, a lie is an oral statement containing information that is incompatible with actual events. The definition of a lie, therefore, shows it as conscious, intentional action aimed at recipient fraud information.

And although many people believe that deception of loved ones, in matters of little importance, that is, the so-called little white lie, is a completely normal and innocent thing, but, in accordance with the definition of a lie, it is always a fraud, that is, a manifestation of dishonesty and dishonesty towards others.

How to understand that someone is lying

When you lie, our body has the task of hiding the truth, which makes us feel uncomfortable and tense. In this regard, with our body language, we reveal hidden intentions.

Here lying symptoms:

• Redness on the face.
• Desire to scratch the body.
• Absence eye contact with an interlocutor.
• Constricted pupils.
• Overexpression of the body.
• Strict facial expression.

Lies can also betray way of speaking. AT stressful situations increases the rate of speech, volume and tone of voice. A lying person very often does not finish sentences and is faced with the problem of expressing thoughts - he speaks chaotically and indistinctly.

Why do we lie to other people

We lie in order to achieve a certain goal. Simply put, people lie to get some benefit- for example, material, social or political.

According to psychologists, lies are often resorted to people with low self-esteem who are trying to raise their importance in the eyes of others. It happens that you lie for noble reasons, for example, we do not tell the child about a serious illness, because in this way we want to protect him from great mental suffering.