The specific range of phenomena that psychology studies are sensations, perceptions, thoughts, feelings. Those. everything that makes up the inner world of man.

The problem of psychology is the ratio of the inner world of man and the phenomena of the material world. Philosophers have also dealt with these questions. Understanding the subject of psychology in science did not develop immediately. The process of its formation took place in four stages.

Stage 1 (5th century BC) - the subject of study was the soul. Ideas about the soul were both idealistic and materialistic.

Idealism considers consciousness, the psyche as a primary substance that exists independently of the material world. The representative of this trend is Plato. From the point of view of materialism, mental phenomena are the result of the vital activity of the matter of the brain. Representatives of this trend are Heraclitus, Democritus, Aristotle. The duality of the soul is dualism. It was presented in the most developed form in the teachings of Rene Descartes.

The 2nd stage (17th century) was marked by the rapid development of the natural sciences and consciousness became the subject of psychology. It was understood as the ability to feel, desire, think. The material world has not been studied. The method of studying consciousness was introspection, that is, self-observation, self-understanding, and the scientific direction became known as introspective psychology. The representative of this trend was the English scientist John Locke. Within the framework of introspective psychology in 1879. In Leipzig, Wilhelm Wundt created the first experimental psychological laboratory. This event marked the emergence experimental method in psychology, and 1879 was the birth year of scientific psychology. The criticism of introspection that began (the impossibility of simultaneously performing an action and analyzing it; ignoring the unconscious, etc.) prepared the transition to the next stage.

3rd stage (19th century) - in connection with advances in medicine, experiments on animals, behavior becomes the subject of psychology. The main scientist of psychology in this direction is John Watson. There was a powerful scientific direction in American psychology, which was called behaviorism. Behavior was explained by the nature of the stimulus that causes the response (behavior). At this time, there are a number of attempts to explain behavior not by stimuli, but by other factors. This is how the basic psychological concepts appear:

Gestalt psychology - Wolfgang Köhler, Max Wertheimer. The subject of study is the features of perception.

Psychoanalysis and neo-Freudianism - Sigmund Freud, Carl Gustav Jung, Alfred Adler. The subject of study is the unconscious.

Cognitive Psychology - Ulrich Neisser, Jerome Simon Bruner. The subject of study was cognitive processes.

Genetic psychology - Jean Piaget. The subject of psychology is the development of thinking.

The Gestalt psychology movement took shape after the publication in 1910. M. Wertheimer of the results of the study of “illusory movement. Starting with the study of the processes of perception, Gestalt psychology quickly expanded its subject matter, including the problems of the development of the psyche, the analysis of the intellectual behavior of higher primates, the consideration of memory, creative thinking, the dynamics of the needs of the individual, etc. Representatives of Gestalt psychology suggested that all the various manifestations of the psyche obey the laws of Gestalt . Since in the early years the main object of their research was the processes of perception, they extrapolated the principles of the organization of perception to the psyche in general: the attraction of parts to form a symmetrical whole, the grouping of parts in the direction of maximum simplicity, closeness, balance, the tendency of each mental phenomenon to take a definite, complete form.

Within the framework of Gestalt psychology, a lot of experimental data was obtained, which remain relevant to this day. The most important law is the law of constancy of perception, fixing the fact that the integral image does not change when its sensory elements change. The principle of a holistic analysis of the psyche made scientific knowledge possible the toughest problems mental life, which until then were considered inaccessible to experimental research.

In the teachings of Z. Freud, the phenomenon of the unconscious has become the main subject of psychological research. Freud created a dynamic concept of the human psyche, the formation of which was greatly influenced by the physical picture of the world that dominated at the time.

The psychoanalytic approach as a whole has had an enormous impact on the attitude of the twentieth century. It can be noted that psychoanalysis has become the worldview of modernity and has penetrated into all spheres of life. For psychological science However, despite the mythological nature of psychoanalytic constructions, the reorientation of research on the problems of motivation, emotions and personality turned out to be valuable.

Cognitive psychologists are working on creating models various functions human psyche (sensations, perception, imagination, memory, thinking, speech). Models of cognitive processes allow a fresh look at the essence of human mental life. Cognitive activity is the activity associated with the acquisition, organization and use of knowledge. Such activity is typical for all living beings, and especially for humans. For this reason, research cognitive activity is part of psychology. The research of cognitive psychologists covers both conscious and unconscious processes of the psyche, while both of them are interpreted as various ways information processing.

Currently, cognitive psychology is still in its infancy, but has already become one of the most influential areas of world psychological thought.

Behaviorism. The origins of behaviorism should be sought in the study of the psyche of animals. Behaviorism as an independent scientific trend is based on the work of E. Thorndike, who, based on the study of cat behavior, formulated two basic "learning laws". The law of exercise says that the more often actions are repeated, the more firmly they are fixed. The law of effect indicates the role of rewards and punishments in building or destroying various forms of behavior. At the same time, Thorndike believed that rewards are more effective regulators of behavior than punishments. However, J. Watson is considered the real father of the behaviorist. He saw the task of psychology in studying the behavior of living beings adapting to the physical and social environment. The goal of psychology is to create means to control behavior. Pedagogy has become the center of interest of psychologists in this area. Proper upbringing can direct the formation of a child along any strictly directed path.

The foundations of Russian scientific psychology were also laid in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. There is a formation of "reflexology" - Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev, Boris Gerasimovich Ananiev.

The 4th stage (20th century) is marked by the appearance in Russian psychology of the dialectical-materialistic concept, which is based on the philosophical theory of reflection. The subject of study was the psyche. At this time, a great contribution to the development of science was made by Pavel Petrovich Blonsky, Konstantin Nikolayevich Kornilov. One of the most important trends that emerged in the 1920s and 1930s was the “cultural-historical theory” developed by Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky, then the psychological theory of activity associated with the name of Alexei Nikolaevich Leontiev. The subject of study was mental activity.

Cultural-historical approach in psychology. L.S. Vygotsky suggested the existence of two lines of development of the psyche: natural and culturally mediated. In accordance with these two lines of development, "lower" and "higher" mental functions are distinguished.

Examples of lower, natural, mental functions are involuntary memory or involuntary attention child. The child cannot control them: he pays attention to the fact that vividly, unexpectedly, what is remembered by chance is remembered. Lower mental functions are a kind of rudiments from which higher mental functions grow in the process of education. The transformation of lower mental functions into higher ones occurs through the mastery of special tools of the psyche - signs and is of a cultural nature. The cultural-historical approach in psychology continues to fruitfully develop even now, both in our country and abroad. This approach proved to be especially effective in solving the problems of pedagogy and defectology.

Activity approach in psychology. In the activity approach, the question of the origin of the psyche in the animal world was first raised. To explain how and why the psyche arose in phylogeny, A.N. Leontiev put forward the principle of the unity of the psyche and activity. Activity is described as consisting of three structural units: activities - actions - operations. Activity is determined by motive, action by purpose, and operation by specific conditions.

Activity forms the human psyche and manifests itself in activity.

The humanistic psychology of Carl Rogers appears in the West, Abraham Maslow. The subject of study is personality traits.

Humanistic psychology. Representatives of this direction are A. Maslow, K. Rogers, V. Frankl. the main postulates of this direction are: 1. The holistic nature of human nature; 2. The importance of the role of conscious experience; 3. Recognition of free will, spontaneity, responsibility and creative power of man. Humanistic psychologists denied the existence of an initial conflict between man and society and argued that it is social success that characterizes the fullness of human life.

The merit of humanistic psychology lies in the fact that it has brought to the fore the study critical issues personality of being and development, gave psychological science new worthy images of both the person himself and the essence of human life.

In the 60s, a new direction attracts attention - the transpersonal psychology of Stanislav Grof, which studies the limiting possibilities of the human psyche.

Integration is underway different directions. Psychologists use the concepts and methods of one direction or another, depending on the characteristics of the problems and tasks being solved. There is no single concept of the subject of psychology.

Like, originates in the depths of millennia. The term "psychology" (from the Greek. psyche- soul, logos- doctrine, science) means "the doctrine of the soul." Psychological knowledge has historically developed - some ideas were replaced by others.

The study of the history of psychology, of course, cannot be reduced to a simple enumeration of the problems, ideas and ideas of various psychological schools. In order to understand them, it is necessary to understand their internal connection, the single logic of the formation of psychology as a science.

Psychology as the doctrine of the human soul is always conditioned by anthropology, the doctrine of man in its entirety. Studies, hypotheses, conclusions of psychology, no matter how abstract and private they may seem, imply a certain understanding of the essence of a person, they are guided by one or another of his image. In turn, the doctrine of man fits into the general picture of the world, formed on the basis of the synthesis of knowledge, worldview attitudes of the historical era. Therefore, the history of the formation and development of psychological knowledge is seen as a completely logical process associated with a change in the understanding of the essence of man and with the formation on this basis of new approaches to explaining his psyche.

The history of the formation and development of psychology

Mythological ideas about the soul

Humanity started with mythological picture of the world. Psychology owes its name and first definition to Greek mythology, according to which Eros, the immortal god of love, fell in love with the beautiful mortal woman Psyche. The love of Eros and Psyche was so strong that Eros managed to convince Zeus to turn Psyche into a goddess, making her immortal. Thus, the lovers are united forever. For the Greeks, this myth was a classic image of true love as the highest realization of the human soul. Therefore, Psycho - a mortal who has gained immortality - has become a symbol of the soul, looking for its ideal. At the same time, in this beautiful legend about the difficult path of Eros and Psyche towards each other, a deep thought is guessed about the difficulty of a person mastering his spiritual beginning, his mind and feelings.

The ancient Greeks initially understood the close connection of the soul with its physical basis. The same understanding of this connection can be traced in Russian words: “soul”, “spirit” and “breathe”, “air”. Already in ancient times, the concept of the soul combined into a single complex inherent in external nature (air), the body (breath) and an entity independent of the body that controls life processes (the spirit of life).

In early ideas, the soul was endowed with the ability to go free from the body while a person is sleeping, and live its own life in his dreams. It was believed that at the moment of death of a person, the soul leaves the body forever, flying out through the mouth. The doctrine of the transmigration of souls is one of the most ancient. It was presented not only in ancient India, but also in ancient Greece, especially in the philosophy of Pythagoras and Plato.

The mythological picture of the world, where bodies are inhabited by souls (their "doubles" or ghosts), and life depends on the arbitrariness of the gods, has reigned in the public consciousness for centuries.

Psychological knowledge in the ancient period

Psychology as rational knowledge of the human soul originated in antiquity in the depths on the basis of the geocentric picture of the world, placing man at the center of the universe.

Ancient philosophy adopted the concept of the soul from previous mythology. Almost all ancient philosophers tried to express the most important essential principle of living nature using the concept of the soul, considering it as the cause of life and knowledge.

For the first time a man, his inner spiritual world becomes the center of philosophical reflection in Socrates (469-399 BC). Unlike his predecessors, who dealt mainly with the problems of nature, Socrates focused on the inner world of man, his beliefs and values, the ability to act as a rational being. Socrates assigned the main role in the human psyche mental activity, which was studied in the process of dialogic communication. After his research, the understanding of the soul was filled with such ideas as "good", "justice", "beautiful", etc., which physical nature does not know.

The world of these ideas became the core of the doctrine of the soul of the brilliant student of Socrates - Plato (427-347 BC).

Plato developed the doctrine of immortal soul inhabiting a mortal body, leaving it after death and returning to the eternal supersensible world of ideas. The main thing with Plato is not in the doctrine of immortality and the transmigration of the soul, but in the study of the content of its activities(in modern terminology in the study of mental activity). He showed that the inner activity of souls gives knowledge about realities of supersensible being, the eternal world of ideas. How, then, does the soul, which is in mortal flesh, join the eternal world of ideas? All knowledge, according to Plato, is memory. With appropriate efforts and preparation, the soul can remember what she had a chance to contemplate before her earthly birth. He taught that man is "not an earthly planting, but a heavenly planting."

Plato first identified such a form of mental activity as inner speech: the soul reflects, asks itself, answers, affirms and denies. He was the first to try to reveal the inner structure of the soul, isolating its triple composition: the higher part is the rational principle, the middle part is the volitional principle, and the lower part of the soul is the sensual principle. The rational part of the soul is called upon to coordinate the lower and higher motives and impulses coming from different parts of the soul. Such problems as the conflict of motives were introduced into the sphere of the study of the soul, and the role of the mind in its resolution was considered.

Disciple - (384-322 BC), arguing with his teacher, returned the soul from the supersensible to the sensible world. He introduced the concept of the soul as functions of a living organism rather than some independent entity. The soul, according to Aristotle, is a form, a way of organizing a living body: “The soul is the essence of being and the form is not of such a body as an ax, but of such a natural body, which in itself has the beginning of movement and rest.”

Aristotle singled out different levels of activity abilities in the body. These levels of ability constitute a hierarchy of levels of soul development.

Aristotle distinguishes three types of soul: vegetable, animal and reasonable. Two of them belong to physical psychology, since they cannot exist without matter, the third is metaphysical, i.e. the mind exists separately and independently of physical body like divine intelligence.

Aristotle was the first to introduce into psychology the idea of ​​development from the lower levels of the soul to the highest forms. At the same time, each person, in the process of turning from an infant into an adult being, passes through the steps from the plant to the animal, and from it to the rational soul. According to Aristotle, the soul or "psyche" is engine allowing the organism to realize itself. The center of the "psyche" is in the heart, where the impressions transmitted from the senses come.

When characterizing a person, Aristotle put forward in the first place knowledge, thinking and wisdom. This setting in the views of man, inherent not only to Aristotle, but also to antiquity as a whole, was largely revised within the framework of medieval psychology.

Psychology in the Middle Ages

When studying the development of psychological knowledge in the Middle Ages, a number of circumstances must be taken into account.

Psychology as an independent field of research did not exist during the Middle Ages. Psychological knowledge was included in religious anthropology (the doctrine of man).

The psychological knowledge of the Middle Ages was based on religious anthropology, which was especially deeply developed by Christianity, especially by such "fathers of the church" as John Chrysostom (347-407), Augustine Aurelius (354-430), Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) and others.

Christian anthropology comes from theocentric picture world and the main principle of Christian dogma - the principle of creationism, i.e. creation of the world by the divine mind.

It is very difficult for modern scientifically oriented thinking to understand the teachings of the holy fathers, which are predominantly symbolic character.

Man in the teachings of the Holy Fathers appears as central creature in the universe the highest step in the hierarchical ladder of the theater, those. created by God peace.

Man is the center of the universe. This idea was also known to ancient philosophy, which considered man as a "microcosm", a small world, embracing the entire universe.

Christian anthropology has not abandoned the idea of ​​a "microcosm", but the holy fathers have significantly changed its meaning and content.

The "Church Fathers" believed that human nature is connected with all the main spheres of being. Man is connected with the earth with his body: “And the Lord God formed man from the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and man became a living soul,” the Bible says. Through feelings, a person is connected with the material world, the soul - with the spiritual world, the rational part of which is capable of ascending to the Creator Himself.

Man, the holy fathers teach, is dual in nature: one of his components is external, bodily, and the other is internal, spiritual. The human soul, nourishing the body with which it was created together, is everywhere in the body, and is not concentrated in one place. The Holy Fathers introduce a distinction between "inner" and "outer" man: "God created inner man and blinded external; the flesh is molded, but the soul is created. In modern language, the outer man is a natural phenomenon, and the inner man is a supernatural phenomenon, something mysterious, unknowable, divine.

Unlike the intuitive-symbolic, spiritual-experimental way of knowing a person in Eastern Christianity, Western Christianity followed the path rational comprehension of God, the world and man, having developed such a specific type of thinking as scholasticism(of course, along with scholasticism in Western Christianity, there were also irrational mystical teachings, but they did not determine the spiritual climate of the era). The appeal to rationality ultimately led to the transition of Western civilization in modern times from a theocentric to an anthropocentric picture of the world.

Psychological thought of the Renaissance and Modern times

Humanist movement that originated in Italy in the 15th century. and spread in Europe in the 16th century, was called "Renaissance". Reviving the ancient humanistic culture, this era contributed to the liberation of all sciences and arts from the dogmas and restrictions imposed on them by medieval religious ideas. As a result, the natural, biological and medical sciences began to develop quite actively and made a significant step forward. A movement began in the direction of forming psychological knowledge into an independent science.

A huge influence on the psychological thought of the XVII-XVIII centuries. provided by mechanics, which became the leader of the natural sciences. Mechanical picture of nature led to a new era in the development of European psychology.

The beginning of a mechanical approach to explaining mental phenomena and reducing them to physiology was laid by the French philosopher, mathematician and naturalist R. Descartes (1596-1650), who was the first to develop a model of an organism as an automaton or a system that works like artificial mechanisms in accordance with the laws of mechanics. Thus, a living organism, which was previously considered as animated, i.e. gifted and controlled by the soul, freed from its defining influence and interference.

R. Descartes introduced the concept reflex which later became fundamental for physiology and psychology. In accordance with the Cartesian scheme of the reflex, an external impulse was transmitted to the brain, from where a response occurred, setting the muscles in motion. They gave an explanation of behavior as a purely reflex phenomenon without referring to the soul as the force that moves the body. Descartes hoped that over time, not only simple movements - such as the defensive reaction of the pupil to light or hands to fire - but also the most complex behavioral acts could be explained by the physiological mechanics he had discovered.

Before Descartes, it was believed for centuries that all activity in the perception and processing of mental material is carried out by the soul. He also argued that the bodily device and without it is able to successfully cope with this task. What are the functions of the soul?

R. Descartes considered the soul as a substance, i.e. an entity independent of anything else. The soul was defined by him according to a single sign - the direct awareness of its phenomena. Its purpose was to knowledge of the subject about his own acts and states, invisible to anyone else. Thus, there was a turn in the concept of "soul", which became the reference for the next stage in the history of the construction of the subject of psychology. From now on, this subject becomes consciousness.

Descartes, on the basis of a mechanistic approach, set theoretical question about the interaction of "soul and body", which later became the subject of discussion for many scientists.

Another attempt to construct a psychological doctrine of man as whole being was made by one of the first opponents of R. Descartes - the Dutch thinker B. Spinoza (1632-1677), who considered the whole variety of human feelings (affects) as motivating forces of human behavior. He substantiated the general scientific principle of determinism, which is important for the understanding of psychic phenomena—universal causality and the natural scientific explainability of any phenomena. He entered science in the form of the following statement: "The order and connection of ideas are the same as the order and connection of things."

Nevertheless, a contemporary of Spinoza, the German philosopher and mathematician G.V. Leibniz (1646-1716) considered the correlation of spiritual and bodily phenomena on the basis of psychophysiological parallelism, i.e. their independent and parallel coexistence. He considered the dependence of mental phenomena on bodily phenomena an illusion. The soul and body act independently, but between them there is a pre-established harmony based on the Divine mind. The doctrine of psychophysiological parallelism found many supporters during the formative years of psychology as a science, but at the present time belongs to history.

Another idea of ​​G.V. Leibniz that each of the countless monads (from the Greek. monos- one) of which the world consists, "mental" and endowed with the ability to perceive everything that happens in the Universe, has found unexpected empirical confirmation in some modern concepts of consciousness.

It should also be noted that G. W. Leibniz introduced the concept "unconscious" into the psychological thought of the New Age, designating unconscious perceptions as “small perceptions”. Awareness of perceptions becomes possible due to the fact that a special mental act is added to a simple perception (perception) - apperception, which includes memory and attention. Leibniz's ideas significantly changed and expanded the concept of the mental. His concepts of the unconscious psyche, small perceptions and apperceptions have become firmly established in scientific psychological knowledge.

Another direction in the formation of new European psychology is associated with the English thinker T. Hobbes (1588-1679), who completely rejected the soul as a special entity and believed that there is nothing in the world but material bodies moving according to the laws of mechanics. Psychic phenomena were brought under the action of mechanical laws. T. Hobbes believed that sensations are a direct result of the impact of material objects on the body. According to the law of inertia, discovered by G. Galileo, representations appear from sensations in the form of their weakened trace. They form a sequence of thoughts in the same order in which the sensations were replaced. This connection was later called associations. T. Hobbes proclaimed reason to be the product of association, which has as its source the direct influence of the material world on the sense organs.

Before Hobbes, rationalism reigned in psychological teachings (from lat. pacationalis- reasonable). Starting with it, experience was taken as the basis of knowledge. Rationalism T. Hobbes opposed empiricism (from the Greek. empeiria- experience), from which arose empirical psychology.

In the development of this direction, a prominent role belonged to the compatriot of T. Hobbes - J. Locke (1632-1704), who in the experiment itself identified two sources: feeling and reflection, by which he understood the internal perception of the activity of our mind. concept reflections firmly established in psychology. The name of Locke is associated with such a method of psychological knowledge as introspection, i.e. internal self-observation of ideas, images, representations, feelings, as they are to the “internal gaze” of the subject observing him.

Starting with J. Locke, phenomena become the subject of psychology consciousness, which generate two experiences - external emanating from the sense organs, and interior accumulated by the individual's own mind. Under the sign of this picture of consciousness, the psychological concepts of subsequent decades were formed.

The birth of psychology as a science

At the beginning of the XIX century. new approaches to the psyche began to be developed, based not on mechanics, but on physiology, which turned the organism into an object experimental study. Physiology translated the speculative views of the previous era into the language of experience and investigated the dependence of mental functions on the structure of the sense organs and the brain.

The discovery of differences between sensory (sensory) and motor (motor) nerve pathways leading to the spinal cord made it possible to explain the mechanism of nerve communication as "reflex arc" the excitation of one shoulder of which naturally and irreversibly activates the other shoulder, generating a muscular reaction. This discovery proved the dependence of the functions of the organism, concerning its behavior in the external environment, on the bodily substrate, which was perceived as refutation of the doctrine of the soul as a special incorporeal entity.

Studying the effect of stimuli on the nerve endings of the sense organs, the German physiologist G.E. Müller (1850-1934) formulated the position that no other energy than famous physics, nervous tissue does not possess. This position was elevated to the rank of law, as a result of which mental processes moved in the same row as the nervous tissue visible under a microscope and dissected with a scalpel, which generates them. True, the main thing remained unclear - how the miracle of the generation of psychic phenomena is accomplished.

German physiologist E.G. Weber (1795-1878) identified the relationship between a continuum of sensations and a continuum of physical stimuli that elicited them. In the course of experiments, it was found that there is a well-defined (for various organs feelings different) the relationship between the initial stimulus and the subsequent one, in which the subject begins to notice that the sensation has become different.

The foundations of psychophysics as a scientific discipline were laid by the German scientist G. Fechner (1801-1887). Psychophysics, without touching upon the issue of the causes of mental phenomena and their material substratum, revealed empirical dependencies on the basis of the introduction of experiment and quantitative research methods.

The work of physiologists on the study of the sense organs and movements prepared a new psychology, different from traditional psychology, which is closely connected with philosophy. The ground was created for the separation of psychology from both physiology and philosophy as a separate scientific discipline.

At the end of the XIX century. Almost simultaneously, several programs for the construction of psychology as an independent discipline took shape.

The greatest success fell to the share of W. Wundt (1832-1920), a German scientist who came to psychology from physiology and was the first to collect and combine into a new discipline created by various researchers. Calling this discipline physiological psychology, Wundt took up the study of problems borrowed from physiologists - the study of sensations, reaction times, associations, psychophysics.

Having organized the first psychological institute in Leipzig in 1875, W. Wundt decided to study the content and structure of consciousness on a scientific basis by isolating the simplest structures in the internal experience, laying the foundation for structuralist approach to consciousness. Consciousness was divided into mental elements(sensations, images), which became the subject of study.

A unique subject of psychology, not studied by any other discipline, was recognized as "direct experience". The main method is introspection, the essence of which was to observe the subject of the processes in his mind.

The method of experimental introspection has significant shortcomings, which very quickly led to the abandonment of the consciousness research program proposed by W. Wundt. The disadvantage of the method of introspection for the construction of scientific psychology is its subjectivity: each subject describes his experiences and sensations, which do not coincide with the feelings of another subject. The main thing is that consciousness is not made up of some frozen elements, but is in the process of development and constant change.

To late XIX in. The enthusiasm that Wundt's program once awakened has dried up, and the understanding of the subject of psychology inherent in it has lost credibility forever. Many of Wundt's students broke with him and took a different path. At present, the contribution of W. Wundt is seen in the fact that he showed which way psychology should not go, since scientific knowledge develops not only by confirming hypotheses and facts, but also by refuting them.

Realizing the failure of the first attempts to build a scientific psychology, the German philosopher W. Dilypey (1833-1911) put forward the idea of ​​"two hesychologies": an experimental one, related in its method to the natural sciences, and another psychology, which, instead of an experimental study of the psyche, deals with the interpretation of the manifestation of the human spirit. He separated the study of the connections of mental phenomena with the bodily life of an organism from their connections with the history of cultural values. He called the first psychology explanatory, second - understanding.

Western psychology in the 20th century

Western psychology of the 20th century. It is customary to distinguish three main schools, or, using the terminology of the American psychologist L. Maslow (1908-1970), three forces: behaviorism, psychoanalysis and humanistic psychology. In recent decades, the fourth direction of Western psychology has been developed very intensively - transpersonal psychology.

Historically the first was behaviorism, which got its name from the understanding of the subject of psychology proclaimed by him - behavior (from the English. behavior - behavior).

The American zoopsychologist J. Watson (1878-1958) is considered the founder of behaviorism in Western psychology, since it was he who, in the article “Psychology as the behaviorist sees it”, published in 1913, called for the creation of a new psychology, stating the fact that for half a century of its existence as an experimental discipline of psychology has failed to take its rightful place among the natural sciences. Watson saw the reason for this in a false understanding of the subject and methods of psychological research. The subject of psychology, according to J. Watson, should be not consciousness, but behavior.

The subjective method of internal self-observation should be replaced accordingly objective methods external observation of behavior.

Ten years after Watson's keynote article, behaviorism came to dominate almost all of American psychology. The fact is that the pragmatic orientation of research into mental activity in the United States was due to requests from the economy, and later from the mass media.

Behaviorism included the teachings of I.P. Pavlov (1849-1936) about the conditioned reflex and began to consider human behavior from the point of view of conditioned reflexes formed under the influence of the social environment.

The original scheme of J. Watson, explaining behavioral acts as a reaction to presented stimuli, was further improved by E. Tolman (1886-1959) by introducing an intermediate link between the stimulus from the environment and the individual's response in the form of the individual's goals, his expectations, hypotheses, cognitive map peace, etc. The introduction of an intermediate link somewhat complicated the scheme, but did not change its essence. The general approach of behaviorism to man as animal,verbal behavior, remained unchanged.

In the work of the American behaviorist B. Skinner (1904-1990) “Beyond Freedom and Dignity”, the concepts of freedom, dignity, responsibility, morality are considered from the standpoint of behaviorism as derivatives of the “system of incentives”, “reinforcement programs” and are evaluated as “a useless shadow in human life."

The most powerful influence on Western culture was psychoanalysis, developed by Z. Freud (1856-1939). Psychoanalysis introduced into Western European and American culture the general concepts of "psychology of the unconscious", ideas about the irrational moments of human activity, conflict and splitting of the inner world of the individual, the "repressiveness" of culture and society, etc. etc. Unlike behaviorists, psychoanalysts began to study consciousness, build hypotheses about the inner world of the individual, introduce new terms that claim to be scientific, but not amenable to empirical verification.

In psychological literature, including educational literature, Z. Freud's merit is seen in his appeal to the deep structures of the psyche, to the unconscious. Pre-Freudian psychology took a normal, physically and mentally healthy person as an object of study and paid the main attention to the phenomenon of consciousness. Freud, having begun to explore, as a psychiatrist, the inner mental world of neurotic personalities, developed a very simplified a model of the psyche, consisting of three parts - conscious, unconscious and superconscious. In this model, 3. Freud did not discover the unconscious, since the phenomenon of the unconscious has been known since antiquity, but swapped consciousness and the unconscious: the unconscious is a central component of the psyche, on which the consciousness is built up. The unconscious itself was interpreted by him as a sphere of instincts and drives, the main of which is the sexual instinct.

The theoretical model of the psyche, developed in relation to the psyche of sick individuals with neurotic reactions, was given the status of a general theoretical model explaining the functioning of the psyche in general.

Despite the obvious difference and, it would seem, even the opposite of approaches, behaviorism and psychoanalysis are similar to each other - both of these areas built psychological ideas without resorting to spiritual realities. Not without reason, representatives of humanistic psychology came to the conclusion that both main schools - behaviorism and psychoanalysis - did not see a person as specifically human, ignored the real problems of human life - the problems of goodness, love, justice, as well as the role of morality, philosophy, religion, and were nothing else, as "slandering a person." All of these real problems are seen as derived from basic instincts or social relationships and communications.

“Western psychology of the 20th century,” as S. Grof writes, “created a very negative image of a person - some kind of biological machine with instinctive impulses of an animal nature.”

Humanistic psychology represented by L. Maslow (1908-1970), K. Rogers (1902-1987). V. Frankl (b. 1905) and others made it their task to introduce real problems into the field of psychological research. Representatives of humanistic psychology considered a healthy creative personality to be the subject of psychological research. The humanistic orientation was expressed in the fact that love, creative growth, higher values, meaning were considered as basic human needs.

The humanistic approach departs furthest from scientific psychology, assigning the main role to the personal experience of a person. According to humanists, the individual is capable of self-esteem and can independently find a way to the flowering of his personality.

Along with the humanistic trend in psychology, dissatisfaction with attempts to build psychology on the worldview basis of natural-scientific materialism is also expressed by transpersonal psychology, which proclaims the need for a transition to a new paradigm of thinking.

The first representative of the transpersonal orientation in psychology is the Swiss psychologist K.G. Jung (1875-1961), although Jung himself called his psychology not transpersonal, but analytical. Attribution to K.G. Jung to the forerunners of transpersonal psychology is held on the basis that he considered it possible for a person to overcome the narrow boundaries of his "I" and personal unconscious, and connect with the higher "I", the higher mind, commensurate with all of humanity and the cosmos.

Jung shared the views of 3. Freud until 1913, when he published a policy article in which he showed that Freud had completely wrongly reduced all human activity to a biologically inherited sexual instinct, while human instincts are not biological, but entirely symbolic in nature. K.G. Jung did not ignore the unconscious, but paying great attention to its dynamics, he gave a new interpretation, the essence of which is that the unconscious is not a psychobiological dump of rejected instinctive tendencies, repressed memories and subconscious prohibitions, but a creative, rational principle that connects a person with all of humanity, with nature and space. Along with the individual unconscious, there is also the collective unconscious, which, being supra-personal, transpersonal in nature, forms the universal basis of the spiritual life of every person. It was this idea of ​​Jung that was developed in transpersonal psychology.

American psychologist, founder of transpersonal psychology S. Grof states that the worldview based on natural-scientific materialism, which has long been outdated and has become an anachronism for theoretical physics of the 20th century, still continues to be considered scientific in psychology, to the detriment of its future development. "Scientific" psychology cannot explain the spiritual practice of healing, clairvoyance, the presence of paranormal abilities in individuals and entire social groups, conscious control internal states etc.

The atheistic, mechanistic and materialistic approach to the world and existence, S. Grof believes, reflects a deep alienation from the core of being, the lack of a true understanding of oneself and the psychological suppression of the transpersonal spheres of one's own psyche. This means, according to the views of supporters of transpersonal psychology, that a person identifies himself with only one partial aspect of his nature - with the bodily "I" and chilotropic (ie, associated with the material structure of the brain) consciousness.

Such a truncated attitude towards oneself and one's own existence is ultimately fraught with a sense of the futility of life, alienation from the cosmic process, as well as insatiable needs, competitiveness, vanity, which no achievement can satisfy. On a collective scale, such a human condition leads to alienation from nature, to an orientation towards "limitless growth" and obsession with the objective and quantitative parameters of existence. As experience shows, this way of being in the world is extremely destructive both on a personal and collective level.

Transpersonal psychology considers a person as a cosmic and spiritual being, inextricably linked with all of humanity and the Universe, with the ability to access the global information field.

In the last decade, a lot of work has been published on transpersonal psychology, and in textbooks and manuals this direction is presented as the latest achievement in the development of psychological thought without any analysis of the consequences of the methods used in the study of the psyche. The methods of transpersonal psychology, which claims to cognize the cosmic dimension of man, meanwhile are not connected with the concepts of morality. These methods are aimed at the formation and transformation of special, altered states of a person with the help of dosed use of drugs, various options hypnosis, hyperventilation of the lungs, etc.

There is no doubt that the research and practice of transpersonal psychology discovered the connection of a person with the cosmos, the exit of human consciousness beyond the usual barriers, overcoming the limitations of space and time during transpersonal experiences, proved the very existence of a spiritual sphere, and much more.

But in general, this way of studying the human psyche seems to be very pernicious and dangerous. The methods of transpersonal psychology are designed to break down the natural defenses and penetrate into the spiritual space of the individual. Transpersonal experiences occur in a state of drug intoxication, hypnosis or increased breathing and do not lead to spiritual purification and spiritual growth.

Formation and development of domestic psychology

I.M. Sechenov (1829-1905), and not the American J. Watson, since the first in 1863 in the treatise "Reflexes of the Brain" came to the conclusion that self-regulation of behavior organism through signals is the subject of psychological research. Later I.M. Sechenov began to define psychology as the science of the origin of mental activity, which included perception, memory, and thinking. He believed that mental activity is built according to the type of reflex and includes, after the perception of the environment and its processing in the brain, the response work of the motor apparatus. In the works of Sechenov, for the first time in the history of psychology, the subject of this science began to cover not only the phenomena and processes of consciousness and the unconscious psyche, but also the entire cycle of interaction of the organism with the world, including its external bodily actions. Therefore, for psychology, according to I.M. Sechenov, the only reliable method is the objective, not the subjective (introspective) method.

Sechenov's ideas had an impact on world science, but they were mainly developed in Russia in the teachings I.P. Pavlova(1849-1936) and V.M. ankylosing spondylitis(1857-1927), whose works approved the priority of the reflexological approach.

AT Soviet period Russian history in the first 15-20 years of Soviet power, an inexplicable, at first glance, phenomenon was revealed - an unprecedented rise in a number of scientific fields - physics, mathematics, biology, linguistics, including psychology. For example, in 1929 alone, about 600 titles of books on psychology were published in the country. New directions are emerging: in the field of the psychology of education - pedology, in the field of the psychology of labor activity - psychotechnics, brilliant work was carried out on defectology, forensic psychology, zoopsychology.

In the 30s. Devastating blows were dealt to psychology by the decisions of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks, and almost all basic psychological concepts and psychological research outside the framework of Marxist guidelines were banned. Historically, psychology itself has contributed to this attitude towards research in the field of the psyche. Psychologists - at first in theoretical studies and within the walls of laboratories - as if relegated to the background, and then completely denied a person's right to an immortal soul and spiritual life. Then theoreticians were replaced by practitioners and began to treat people as soulless objects. This arrival was not accidental, but prepared by a previous development in which psychology also played its part.

By the end of the 50s - the beginning of the 60s. a situation arose when psychology was assigned the role of a section in the physiology of higher nervous activity and a complex of psychological knowledge in Marxist-Leninist philosophy. Psychology was understood as a science that studies the psyche, the patterns of its emergence and development. The understanding of the psyche was based on the Leninist theory of reflection. The psyche was defined as the property of highly organized matter - the brain - to reflect reality in the form of mental images. Mental reflection was considered as an ideal form of material existence. The only possible worldview new psychology was dialectical materialism. The reality of the spiritual as an independent entity was not recognized.

Even under these conditions, Soviet psychologists such as S.L. Rubinstein (1889-1960), L.S. Vygotsky (1896-1934), L.N. Leontiev (1903-1979), D.N. Uznadze (1886-1950), A.R. Luria (1902-1977), made a significant contribution to world psychology.

In the post-Soviet era, new opportunities opened up for Russian psychology and new problems arose. The development of domestic psychology in modern conditions no longer corresponded to the rigid dogmas of dialectical materialist philosophy, which, of course, provides freedom for creative search.

Currently, there are several orientations in Russian psychology.

Marxist-oriented psychology. Although this orientation has ceased to be dominant, unique and mandatory, however, for many years it has formed the paradigms of thinking that determine psychological research.

Westernized psychology represents an assimilation, adaptation, imitation of Western trends in psychology, which were rejected by the previous regime. Usually, productive ideas do not arise on the paths of imitation. In addition, the main currents of Western psychology reflect the psyche of a Western European person, and not a Russian, Chinese, Indian, etc. Since there is no universal psyche, the theoretical schemes and models of Western psychology do not possess universality.

Spiritually Oriented Psychology, aimed at restoring the “vertical of the human soul”, is represented by the names of psychologists B.S. Bratusya, B. Nichiporova, F.E. Vasilyuk, V.I. Slobodchikova, V.P. Zinchenko and V.D. Shadrikov. Spiritually oriented psychology relies on traditional spiritual values ​​and the recognition of the reality of spiritual being.

Psychology interacts with many branches of scientific knowledge. Many branches of psychology arose at the intersection with other sciences and are related, applied branches of scientific knowledge that explore the patterns of objective reality from the standpoint of the subject of psychology. On fig. 1.8 shows the relationship between individual industries psychology and related scientific disciplines.

Rice. 1.8.

1.4. The history of the development of psychological knowledge

Let us briefly consider the main stages in the emergence and development of psychology as a science.

Individual(from lat. individuum - indivisible, individual) or individual- This

• an individual person as a unique combination of his innate and acquired properties;
• the individual person as a social being that is more than a combination of innate qualities;
• a person as a separate person in the environment of other people.

Subject(from lat. subiectum - subject; subject, individual) is

• a person, as a carrier of any properties, personality;
• a concrete carrier of subject-practical activity and cognition, a carrier of the active;
• a person whose experience and behavior are the subject of consideration; all other people are objects for this person.

Personality- This

• man as a carrier of consciousness (K.K. Platonov);
• social individual, object and subject of the historical process (B.G. Ananiev, [ , C. 232]);
• "a social individual, the subject of social relations, activities and communication" [, p. 122];
• "the qualities of an individual acquired by him in social and objective activity and inherent only to this individual" (AV Petrovsky, );
• "a distinctive and characteristic pattern of thinking, emotions and behavior that forms the personal style of interaction of an individual with his physical and social environment" [ , p. 416];
• "a set of individual psychological characteristics, which determine the attitude towards oneself, society and the surrounding world as a whole, which is peculiar for a given person" (Yu.V. Shcherbatykh, [S. 199]).

Individuality- this is the uniqueness, the uniqueness of human properties.

Psychology of Personality(eng. personality psychology) - a section of psychology in which the nature and mechanisms of personality development are studied, various personality theories are built.

Brief summary

Psychology is a field of scientific knowledge that studies the patterns of emergence, formation and development of mental processes, states and properties of humans and animals.

The purpose of psychological research is to study the role of mental functions in individual and social behavior, as well as the physiological and neurobiological processes that underlie cognitive activity and behavior of people.

The object of psychology is the psyche, the subject is the main laws of the generation and functioning of mental reality.

Psyche - general concept denoting the totality of all mental phenomena. There are four groups of mental phenomena: processes, states, personality traits and mental formations.

Define the terms "psyche" and "psychic phenomena", describe the main groups of mental phenomena and approaches to their classification.

Analyze the methods of psychological research, indicate the areas of their application.

Expand the place of psychology in the system of scientific knowledge, describe the relationship between individual branches of psychological science and related scientific disciplines.

Describe the main stages in the formation and development of psychology, name scientists who have made a significant contribution to the development of psychological knowledge at each stage.

Give definitions of the basic categories of psychology: individual, subject, personality, individuality; describe their characteristics.

Plan.

1. The concept of psychology as a science. The psyche as a subject of psychology research.

2. The main stages in the development of psychology as a science.

3. The structure of modern psychology.

4. The place of psychology in the system of sciences.

Literature.

1. Atlas of General Psychology. / Ed. M.V. Gamezo.- M., 2003.

2. Gurevich P.S. Psychology. Textbook. Publishing house "Urayt". - M., 2012.

3. Krysko V.G. General psychology in schemes and comments. Tutorial. - St. Petersburg, 2008.

4. Nemov R.S. General psychology. Short course. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2008. -304 p.

5. Romanov K.M., Garanina Zh.G. Workshop on General Psychology. - Voronezh - 2008

1. The concept of psychology as a science. The psyche as a subject of psychology research.

Psychology- this is a field of knowledge about the inner (mental) world of a person.

The subject of psychology are the facts of mental life, the mechanisms and patterns of the human psyche and the formation of the psychological characteristics of his personality as a conscious subject of activity and an active figure in the social historical development society.

The behavior of a person with a normal psyche is always conditioned by the influences of the objective world. Reflecting the external world, a person not only learns the laws of development of nature and society, but also exerts a certain influence on them in order to adapt the world to the best satisfaction of their material and spiritual needs.

In real human activity mental manifestations(processes and properties) do not arise spontaneously and in isolation from each other. They are closely interconnected in a single act of socially conditioned conscious activity of the individual. In the process of development and formation of a person as a member of society, as a personality, diverse mental manifestations, interacting with each other, gradually turn into relatively stable mental formations, consciously regulated actions that a person directs to resolve the vital tasks that confront them. Consequently, all mental manifestations of a person as a social being, as a person, are conditioned by his life and activity.

Psychology as the science of the soul originated in ancient Greece. Psyche means "soul" in Greek. So, the ancient Greek natural philosophers Thales (VII-VI centuries BC), Anaximenes (V century BC) and Heraclitus (VI-V centuries BC) considered the soul as a form of an element that forms the beginning of the world (water, fire, air). Later, the atomists Democritus (5th century BC), Epicurus (4th-3rd centuries BC) and Lucretius (1st century BC) considered the soul as a material organ, guided by reason, spirit . Spirit and soul were interpreted by them as material objects consisting of atoms. In addition to materialistic views on the soul, there were idealistic views, one of the creators of which was Plato (428-347 BC).

He believed that the soul is an intangible object, which, before it enters the human body, is in the sphere of the ideal, higher world. Once in the body at birth, the soul remembers what it saw. Plato was the founder of dualism in philosophy, considering the material and the spiritual as two opposite principles. Plato's disciple Aristotle (384-322 BC) created a materialistic doctrine of the soul, in which for the first time in history he put forward the idea of ​​the inseparability of the soul and the living body. He believed that the mental is derived from the action of the physical body, and the soul manifests itself in activity. Aristotle put forward a theory about the formation of character in real activity.

The teachings of the ancient Greek philosophers became the basis for the development of psychological ideas in the next era. Gradually, the concept of the soul began to apply only to the mental level of the manifestation of life. Further development biological and psychological sciences has revolutionized the views on the body and soul. So, in the XVII century. The French scientist Descartes discovered the reflex nature of behavior. The concept of a reflex included the body's motor response to external influences. Descartes believed that mental phenomena are similar to mechanical ones and occur as a result of the reflection of external influences by the muscles of the body. But along with the mechanistic views on the reflex nature of behavior, Descartes considered the soul to be an ideal entity that exists separately from the body. His views were dualistic, that is, dualistic.

Subsequently, the doctrine of reflexes was continued by the Russian scientist I. M. Sechenov (1829-1905). He considered mental phenomena not as properties of the soul as an incorporeal entity, but as reflex processes, that is, he connected them with the work of the nervous system and the brain. He assigned a large role in the origin of the psyche to movements and practical actions. The provisions on the reflex nature of the psyche were confirmed by IP Pavlov. He created the doctrine of higher nervous activity and discovered very important physiological mechanisms of mental activity.

Currently, there are many different areas of psychology both in our country and abroad. Each of them singles out some separate aspects in the psyche and considers them the most important. One of these areas is behaviorism. Within the framework of this approach, any organism is considered as a neutral-passive system, the behavior of which is entirely determined by the influence of the environment, that is, stimulation from the outside. It is based on the teaching of J. Watson that psychology studies not consciousness, but behavior, that is, what is available for objective observation.

Another direction, the founder of which was 3. Freud, received the name psychoanalysis. Freud singled out the sphere of the unconscious in the individual, which is the source of a person's drives and desires, prompts him to action and plays a very important role in his mental life.

In connection with the latest developments in the field of science and technology, in particular cybernetics and programming, such a direction as cognitive psychology has been developed. It considers human cognition of the surrounding world as a process, a necessary component of which are special psychological means - cognitive schemes that are formed as a result of learning. They allow in a certain way to perceive, process and store information. Within the framework of this direction, the psyche is considered, by analogy with a computer, as an apparatus that receives and processes information.

Developed by Russian psychologists S. L. Rubinshtein, V. S. Vygotsky and A. N. Leontiev activity approach considers a person as an active activity being, the formation and development of consciousness of which occurs in the process of mastering various types of activity. It is realized in activity. The social environment plays a very important role in the development of consciousness.

AT last years received widespread humanistic psychology. It emphasizes the special value of the subjective experience of a person and the uniqueness of each person. They are the subject of research. In the context of this direction, a critical analysis of traditional psychology as a natural science discipline is given.

Modern psychology considers psyche as a property of matter organized in a special way, as a subjective image of the objective world, as an ideal reflection of reality, but they cannot be identified with the psyche, which always has a certain content, that is, what it reflects in the surrounding world. Therefore, the human psyche should be considered not only from the point of view of its constituent processes, but also from the point of view of their content.

The task of psychology as a science is to study the basic laws of mental life. Knowledge of these laws is necessary for every modern person. The task of any branch of psychological science is to facilitate and improve the work of a person in the corresponding types of labor activity.

The study of psychology helps to better understand other people, take into account their mental states, see the positive aspects, find out how and why people have certain individual characteristics, and establish contacts with others.

The main stages in the development of psychology as a science.

The basis for the emergence of psychology as a science was the everyday empirical experience of people. Everyday knowledge arises spontaneously in a person. They are developed on the basis of individual experience of communicating with other people, self-observation, reading fiction, watching films, and can also be learned from others.

They are distinguished by the following features: low level of accuracy, subjectivism, excessive individualization, increased dependence on the mood of the subject and his attitude to knowable person, high emotional richness, figurativeness, excessive concreteness and situationality, low level of verbality (rhetoric) and awareness, logical inconsistency, practical orientation, poor systematization, early origin, high stability.

This knowledge is not recorded anywhere and exists in every person only in a functional form. Most often, they are quite suitable for solving purely ordinary, simple psychological problems.

Scientific psychological knowledge is recorded in the relevant books, textbooks and reference books. They are transmitted in the learning process and acquired through learning activities. Such knowledge is more high level accuracy, objectivity, logical sequence, systematization, awareness, verbalization, generalization, abstractness.

They are more independent of the emotional-need sphere of a person. However, despite the obvious advantages of scientific knowledge over everyday knowledge, they still have some drawbacks, such as excessive abstraction, academicism, formalization, isolation from the individual personal experience of their carriers. Therefore, they sometimes make it difficult to understand other people and even themselves.

The most effective are psychological knowledge, which is a synthesis of scientific and worldly knowledge. The formation of such knowledge is one of the tasks of the psychological training of specialists.

The age of psychology is 2400 years. Psychology as the science of the soul originated in ancient Greece. Psyche means "soul" in Greek. Aristotle is considered the founder of psychology (treatise "On the Soul"). Only to mid-nineteenth century psychology from disparate knowledge has become an independent science. This does not mean at all that in previous eras, ideas about the psyche (soul, consciousness, behavior) were devoid of signs of scientific character. They erupted in the depths of natural science and philosophy, pedagogy and medicine, in various phenomena of social practice.

1879 is considered the year of birth of scientific psychology. This year, first a laboratory was opened, and then an institute in Leipzig, the founder of which was W. Wundt (1832-1920). According to Wundt, the subject of psychology is consciousness, namely the states of consciousness, the connections and relationships between them, the laws to which they obey. Wundt built psychology as experimental science on the model of contemporary natural scientific disciplines - physics, chemistry, biology. Soon, in 1885, V. M. Bekhterev organized a similar laboratory in Russia.

For centuries, problems were recognized, hypotheses were invented, concepts were built that prepared the ground for modern science of the human mental organization. In this eternal search, scientific and psychological thought outlined the boundaries of its subject.

In the history of the development of psychological science, the following stages are distinguished:

Stage I - psychology as the science of the soul. This definition of psychology was given more than two thousand years ago. The presence of the soul tried to explain all the incomprehensible phenomena in human life.

Stage II - psychology as a science of consciousness. It arises in the 17th century in connection with the development of the natural sciences. The ability to think, feel, desire is called consciousness. The main method of study was the observation of a person for himself and the description of the facts.

Stage III - psychology as a science of behavior. Arises in the 20th century: The task of psychology is to experiment and observe what can be directly seen, namely: behavior, actions, reactions of a person (motives that cause actions were not taken into account).

1. The history of psychology as a science - its subject, method, tasks and functions

2. Basic historical stages development of psychology. Development of ideas about the subject and methods of psychological research

3. The history of the development of psychological thought in the era of antiquity and the Middle Ages

4. The history of the development of psychological thought in the Renaissance and modern times (XVII century)

5. The development of psychological thought in the Age of Enlightenment (XVIII century) and the first half of the XIX century. Natural science prerequisites for the formation of psychology as a science

6. The development of psychology as an independent science in the second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries. Development of experimental psychology and branches of psychology

7. Structuralism and functionalism

8. French sociological school and descriptive psychology.

9. The development of psychology during the open crisis (10-30s of the XX century). Main psychological schools (general characteristics)

10. Classic behaviorism by J. Watson

11. Non-classical behaviorism: Skinner's theory of "operant behaviorism" and E. Tolman's "intermediate variables"

12. Social behaviorism of J. Mead, D. Dollard, A. Bandura and others.

13. Classical psychoanalysis 3. Freud

14. Analytical psychology of C. Jung

15. Individual psychology A. Adler

16. Neo-Freudianism (general characteristics)

17. The theory of basal anxiety K. Horney

18. "Humanistic psychoanalysis" by E. Fromm

19. Egopsychology E. Erickson

20. Transactional analysis by E. Bern

21. Gestalt psychology, its development and turn to gestalt therapy.

22. Dynamic theory personalities and groups of K. Levin

23. State of the art foreign psychology(main development trends). Intercultural Studies in Psychology

24. Humanistic psychology. Theoretical and psychotherapeutic concepts of A. Maslow and K. Rogers

25. V. Frankl's logotherapy

26. Cognitive psychology. The concept of personal constructs D. Kelly

27. Transpersonal psychology

28. Development of domestic psychology (general characteristics). Ideology and psychology.

29. Behavioral direction in domestic psychology. Contribution of Sechenov and Pavlov.

30. Cultural and historical school of L.S. Vygotsky and its development.

31. Development of the activity approach in domestic psychology.

32. Comprehensive and systematic approaches in domestic psychology.

33. Psychology of installation.

34. Theory of planned formation of mental actions

Psychology as a science studies the facts, mechanisms and patterns of mental life. The history of psychology describes and explains how these facts and laws were revealed to the human mind.

Tasks of the history of psychology:

To study the patterns of development of knowledge about the psyche

To reveal the relationship of psychology with other sciences on which its achievements depend.

Find out the dependence of the origin and perception of knowledge on the socio-cultural context

To study the role of the individual, his individual path in the development of science itself.

Psychology has gone through several stages in its development. The pre-scientific period ends around the 7th-6th centuries. BC, i.e. before the start of objective, scientific studies of the psyche, its content and functions. During this period, ideas about the soul were based on numerous myths and legends, on fairy tales and initial religious beliefs that connected the soul with certain living beings (totems). The second, scientific period begins at the turn of the 7th-6th centuries. BC. Psychology during this period developed within the framework of philosophy, and therefore it received the conditional name of the philosophical period. Also, its duration is somewhat conditionally established - until the appearance of the first psychological school (associationism) and the definition of proper psychological terminology, which differs from that accepted in philosophy or natural science.

In connection with the conditional periodization of the development of psychology, which is natural for almost any historical research, some discrepancies arise in establishing the time limits of individual stages. Sometimes the emergence of an independent psychological science is associated with the school of W. Wundt, that is, with the beginning of the development of experimental psychology. However, psychological science was defined as independent much earlier, with the realization of the independence of its subject, the uniqueness of its position in the system of sciences - as a science both humanitarian and natural at the same time, studying both internal and external (behavioral) manifestations of the psyche. Such an independent position of psychology was also recorded with the appearance of it as a subject of study in universities already at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. Thus, it is more correct to speak of the emergence of psychology as an independent science precisely from this period, referring to the middle of the 19th century. development of experimental psychology.

The time of existence of psychology as an independent science is much shorter than the period of its development in the mainstream of philosophy. Naturally, this period is not homogeneous, and for more than 20 centuries, psychological science has undergone significant changes. The subject of psychology, the content of psychological research, and the relationship of psychology with other sciences have changed.

Psychology has come a long way of development, there has been a change in the understanding of the object, subject and goals of psychology. Let us note the main stages of its development.

Stage I - psychology as the science of the soul. This definition of psychology was given more than two thousand years ago. The presence of the soul tried to explain all the incomprehensible phenomena in human life.

Stage II - psychology as a science of consciousness. It arises in the 17th century in connection with the development of the natural sciences. The ability to think, feel, desire is called consciousness. The main method of study was the observation of a person for himself and the description of the facts.

Stage III - psychology as a science of behavior. Arises in the 20th century. The task of psychology is to set up experiments and observe what can be directly seen, namely: behavior, actions, reactions of a person (motives that cause actions were not taken into account).

Stage IV - psychology as a science that studies the objective patterns, manifestations and mechanisms of the psyche.

Psychology is both one of the most ancient and one of the youngest sciences. Already in the 5th century BC. e. Greek thinkers were interested in many problems that psychology is still working on - memory, learning, motivation, perception, dreams, pathologies of behavior. But, although the forerunner of psychology was the science of antiquity, it is believed that the modern approach began to take shape from 1879.

Modern psychology is distinguished from the "old" philosophy, first of all, by research methods. Before last quarter In the 19th century, philosophers studied human nature based on their own limited experience, through reflection, intuition, generalizations, and then began to use carefully controlled observation and experimentation, honing research methods in order to achieve greater objectivity.

The process of development of psychology can be interpreted in different ways. On the one hand, from the standpoint of a "personalistic" approach, the history of psychology can be viewed as a chain of achievements of individuals: all changes in science are due to the influence of unique people who alone can determine and change the course of history. On the other hand, from the standpoint of the "naturalistic" approach, the "zeitgeist" determines the possibility or impossibility of self-realization of a particular genius; science exists in the context of a spiritual environment.

Until now, psychology has been developing as a kind of system of psychological schools. The psychological school is a group of scientists who share a theoretical orientation and work on common problems based on a certain system of ideas. Thus, psychology is still in the pre-paradigmatic stage of development: so far, none of the points of view has been able to unite all existing platforms.

Each new school arose initially as a protest movement against the prevailing belief system. The flourishing and dominance of most doctrines was temporary, but they all played an important role in the development of psychology.

The first ideas about the psyche were associated with animism (from the Latin "anima" - spirit, soul) - the most ancient views, according to which everything that exists in the world has a soul. The soul was understood as an entity independent of the body, controlling all living and inanimate objects.

Later in philosophical teachings ancient times, psychological aspects were touched upon, which were solved in terms of idealism or in terms of materialism. Thus, the materialistic philosophers of antiquity Democritus, Lucretius, Epicurus understood the human soul as a kind of matter, as a bodily formation, consisting of spherical, small and most mobile atoms.

According to the ancient Greek idealist philosopher Plato (427-347 BC), who was a student and follower of Socrates, the soul is something divine, different from the body, and the human soul exists before it enters into union with body. It is the image and outflow of the world soul. The soul is an invisible, sublime, divine, eternal principle. Soul and body are in complex relationship with each other. According to its divine origin, the soul is called upon to control the body, to direct the life of a person. However, sometimes the body takes the soul into its fetters.

The great philosopher Aristotle in his treatise "On the Soul" singled out psychology as a kind of field of knowledge and for the first time put forward the idea of ​​the inseparability of the soul and the living body. Aristotle rejected the view of the soul as a substance. At the same time, he did not consider it possible to consider the soul in isolation from matter (living bodies). The soul, according to Aristotle, is incorporeal, it is the form of a living body, the cause and purpose of all its vital functions. Aristotle put forward the concept of the soul as a function of the body, and not some external phenomenon in relation to it. The soul, or "psyche", is the engine that allows a living being to realize itself.

Thus, the soul manifests itself in various abilities for activity: nourishing, feeling, rational. Higher abilities arise from the lower ones and on their basis. The primary cognitive ability of a person is sensation, it takes the form of sensually perceived objects without their matter, just as "wax takes the impression of a seal without iron." Sensations leave a trace in the form of representations - images of those objects that previously acted on the senses. Aristotle showed that these images are connected in three directions: by similarity, by contiguity and contrast, thereby indicating the main types of connections - associations of mental phenomena. Aristotle believed that knowledge of man is possible only through knowledge of the universe and the order existing in it. Thus, at the first stage, psychology acted as the science of the soul.

In the era of the Middle Ages, the idea was established that the soul is a divine, supernatural principle, and therefore the study of mental life should be subordinated to the tasks of theology. Only the outer side of the soul, which faces the material world, can yield to human judgment. The greatest mysteries of the soul are accessible only in religious (mystical) experience.

Since the 17th century a new era begins in the development of psychological knowledge. In connection with the development of the natural sciences, with the help of experimental methods, they began to study the laws of human consciousness. The ability to think and feel is called consciousness. Psychology began to develop as a science of consciousness. It is characterized by attempts to comprehend the spiritual world of a person mainly from general philosophical, speculative positions, without the necessary experimental base. R. Descartes (1596-1650) comes to the conclusion about the difference between the soul of a person and his body: "the body by its nature is always divisible, while the spirit is indivisible." However, the soul is capable of producing movements in the body. This contradictory dualistic doctrine gave rise to a problem called psychophysical: how are bodily (physiological) and mental (mental) processes in a person related? Descartes created a theory to explain behavior based on a mechanistic model. According to this model, the information delivered by the senses is sent through the sensory nerves "holes in the brain, which these nerves expand, which allows the "animal souls" in the brain to flow through the thinnest tubes - the motor nerves - into the muscles, which inflate, which leads to withdrawal of the irritated limb, or causes one or another action to be performed. Thus, there was no need to resort to the soul to explain how simple behavioral acts arise. Descartes laid the foundations for the deterministic (causal) concept of behavior with its central idea of ​​a reflex as a natural motor response of the organism to external physical stimulation. This Cartesian dualism is a body that acts mechanically, and a “reasonable soul” that controls it, localized in the brain. Thus, the concept of "Soul" began to turn into the concept of "Mind", and later - into the concept of "Consciousness". The famous Cartesian phrase “I think, therefore I am” became the basis of the postulate that the first thing a person discovers in himself is his own consciousness. The existence of consciousness is the main and unconditional fact, and the main task of psychology is to analyze the state and content of consciousness. On the basis of this postulate, psychology began to develop - it made consciousness its subject.

An attempt to reunite the body and soul of man, separated by the teachings of Descartes, was undertaken by the Dutch philosopher Spinoza (1632-1677). No special spirituality, it is always one of the manifestations of an extended substance (matter).

Soul and body are determined by the same material causes. Spinoza believed that such an approach makes it possible to consider the phenomena of the psyche with the same accuracy and objectivity as lines and surfaces are considered in geometry. Thinking is an eternal property of substance (matter, nature), therefore, to a certain extent, thinking is inherent in both stone and animals, and to a large extent inherent in man, manifesting itself in the form of intellect and will at the human level.

The German philosopher G. Leibniz (1646-1716), rejecting the equality of the psyche and consciousness established by Descartes, introduced the concept of the unconscious psyche. The hidden work of psychic forces - countless "small perceptions" (perceptions) - is continuously going on in the human soul. Conscious desires and passions arise from them.

The term “empirical psychology” was introduced by the German philosopher of the 18th century X. Wolf to designate a direction in psychological science, the basic principle of which is to observe specific mental phenomena, classify them and establish a regular connection between them that can be verified by experience. English philosopher J. Locke (1632-1704) considers the human soul as a passive, but capable of perceiving environment, comparing it with a blank slate on which nothing is written. Under the influence of sensory impressions, the human soul, awakening, is filled with simple ideas, begins to think, i.e. generate complex ideas. In the language of psychology, Locke introduced the concept of "association" - a connection between mental phenomena, in which the actualization of one of them entails the appearance of another. So psychology began to study how, by association of ideas, a person is aware of the world around him. The study of the relationship between the soul and the body is finally inferior to the study of mental activity and consciousness.

Locke believed that there are two sources of all human knowledge: the first source is the objects of the external world, the second is the activity of a person’s own mind. The activity of the mind, thinking is known with the help of a special inner feeling - reflection. Reflection - according to Locke - is "observation to which the mind subjects its activity", this is the focus of a person's attention on activity own soul. Mental activity can proceed, as it were, at two levels: processes of the first level - perception, thoughts, desires (every person and child has them); processes of the second level - observation or "contemplation" of these perceptions, thoughts, desires (this is only for mature people who reflect on themselves, cognize their spiritual experiences and states). This method of introspection becomes an important means of studying the mental activity and consciousness of people.

The separation of psychology into an independent science occurred in the 60s of the XIX century. It was associated with the creation of special research institutions - psychological laboratories and institutes, departments in higher educational institutions, as well as with the introduction of an experiment to study mental phenomena. The first version of experimental psychology as an independent scientific discipline was the physiological psychology of the German scientist W. Wundt (1832-1920). In 1879, Wundt opened the world's first experimental psychological laboratory in Leipzig.

Soon, in 1885, V. M. Bekhterev organized a similar laboratory in Russia.

In the field of consciousness, Wundt believed, there is a special mental causality that is subject to scientific objective research. Consciousness was divided into mental structures, the simplest elements: sensations, images and feelings. The role of psychology, according to Wundt, is to give as detailed a description of these elements as possible. "Psychology is the science of the structures of consciousness" - this direction was called the structuralist approach. We used the method of introspection, self-observation.

One psychologist compared the picture of consciousness with flowering meadow: visual images, auditory impressions, emotional states and thoughts, memories, desires - all this can be in the mind at the same time. A particularly clear and distinct area stands out in the field of consciousness - the “field of attention”, the “focus of consciousness”; outside it there is an area whose contents are indistinct, vague, undivided - this is the "periphery of consciousness". The contents of consciousness filling both described areas of consciousness are in continuous motion. Wundt's experiments with the metronome showed that the monotonous clicks of the metronome are involuntarily rhythmic in human perception, that is, consciousness is rhythmic in nature, and the organization of the rhythm can be both arbitrary and involuntary. Wundt tried to study such a characteristic of consciousness as its volume. The experiment showed that a series of eight double beats of a metronome (or of 16 separate sounds) is a measure of the volume of consciousness. Wundt believed that psychology should find the elements of consciousness, decompose the complex dynamic picture of consciousness into simple, further indivisible parts. Wundt declared individual impressions, or sensations, to be the simplest elements of consciousness. Sensations are objective elements of consciousness. There are also the subjective elements of consciousness, or feelings. Wundt proposed 3 pairs of subjective elements: pleasure - displeasure, excitement - calm, tension - discharge. From a combination of subjective elements, all human feelings are formed, for example, joy is pleasure and excitement, hope is pleasure and tension, fear is displeasure and tension.

But the idea of ​​decomposing the psyche into the simplest elements turned out to be false; it was impossible to assemble complex states of consciousness from simple elements. Therefore, by the 20s of the XX century. this psychology of consciousness has practically ceased to exist.

The founder of structuralism is E. Titchener (1867-1928). Titchener believed that the content of psychology should be the content of consciousness, ordered in a certain structure. The main tasks of psychology are the extremely accurate determination of the content of the psyche, the selection of the initial elements and the laws by which they are combined into a structure.

Titchener identified the psyche with consciousness, and everything that is outside of consciousness, ranked as physiology. At the same time, "consciousness" in Titchener's concept and ordinary human self-observation are not the same thing. A person is inclined to make a "stimulus error" - to mix the object of perception and the perception of the object: when describing his mental experience, talk about the object.

Titchener rejected the concept that special formations in the form of mental images or meanings devoid of sensory character should be attached to the elements of consciousness identified by Wundt. This position contradicted the foundations of structuralism, since sensory elements (sensations, images) cannot create non-sensory, purely intellectual structures.

Titchener considered psychology to be fundamental, not applied science. He opposed his school to other trends, did not enter the American Psychological Association and created a group of "Experimentalists", publishing the "Journal of Experimental Psychology".

Rejecting the view of consciousness as a device “made of bricks and cement”, scientists who developed a new direction in psychology - functionalism, came to the conclusion that it was necessary to study the dynamics of mental processes and factors that determine their orientation towards a specific goal.

Almost simultaneously with the provisions of Wundt, the idea that each mental act has a certain focus on the objects of the external world was expressed by the Austrian scientist F. Brentano (1838-1917). Having started his career as a Catholic priest, he left it because of disagreement with the dogma of the infallibility of the pope and moved to the University of Vienna, where he became a professor of philosophy (1873). Brentano proposed his own concept of psychology, opposing it to the program of Wundt that was dominant at that time (“Studies in the Psychology of the Sense Organs” (1907) and “On the Classification of Psychic Phenomena” (1911)).

He considered the main problem for the new psychology to be the problem of consciousness, the need to determine how consciousness differs from all other phenomena of being. He argued that Wundt's position ignores the activity of consciousness, its constant focus on the object. To designate this indispensable sign of consciousness, Brentano proposed the term intention. It is inherent in every psychic phenomenon from the very beginning and thanks to this it allows to distinguish between psychic phenomena and physical ones.

Considering that with ordinary self-observation, as well as with the use of those types of experiment proposed by Wundt, one can study only the result, but not the mental act itself, Brentano resolutely rejected the analysis procedure adopted in the laboratories of experimental psychology, believing that it distorts real mental processes and phenomena that should be studied through careful internal surveillance behind their natural course. He was also skeptical about the possibility of objective observation, only to a limited extent admitting this method to psychology, and, of course, he considered obvious only mental phenomena given in internal experience. He emphasized that knowledge about the external world is probable.

Their own explanatory construction of mental development was proposed by researchers who considered society, society, culture to be the main determinant of human development. The foundations of the construction were laid by the French sociological school; a significant contribution to its development was made by the American school of cultural anthropology.

E. Durkheim is considered to be the founder of the sociological trend in psychology. His work had a serious impact on the development of psychological research on the relationship between the individual and society. He assigned a decisive role in the development of the child to the social factor, which is based on the collective ideas of large communities of people. Collective representations are an integral system of ideas, customs, religious beliefs, moral institutions, social institutions, writing, etc. They are independent of the individual, imperative in relation to him, total (universal).

The development of the child occurs in the process of mastering the traditions, customs, beliefs, ideas and feelings of other people. The thoughts and emotions perceived by the child from the outside determine the nature of his mental activity and the peculiarities of the perception of the world around him. The assimilation of social experience occurs through imitation, which in social life is of the same importance as heredity in biology. With the ability to imitate a child is born. In the French sociological school, the mechanism for the formation of the child's inner world was revealed - internalization as the transition from the external to the internal.

A prominent representative of the French sociological school is P. Janet. He believed that the human psyche is socially conditioned and that its development consists in the formation of a system of diverse connections with nature and society. By connections, P. Zhane understood actions as forms of a person's relationship to the world. Among them, the most significant are social actions expressed in relations of cooperation. Social relationships between people are the basis for the development of each person. Characteristic of the French psychological school is the allocation of levels of development of the child. P. Zhane distinguishes four such levels. The first level is characterized by the development of motor reactions (approach and removal), where not the reactions themselves are significant, but their social conditioning. The second level is the development of perceptual actions, on which images of perception and memory representation are formed. These psychological formations are also focused on interactions with others. The third level - social and personal - is characterized by the child's ability to coordinate his actions with the actions of another person. The fourth level is intellectual-elementary behavior. At this level, the child's speech develops as a means of communicating with others and controlling their actions. Mastering speech creates the conditions for the intensive development of the child's thinking.

The focus of attention of psychologists remained mainly cognitive processes, but different schools differed from each other in their understanding of the place of these processes in the overall picture of mental life, and the main differences were related to the definition of the content of consciousness and the boundaries of its experimental study.

Main psychological schools

Schools	Psychologists	The subject and tasks of psychology	The content of the psyche
Structuralism	E. Titchener	The study of the structure of consciousness.	Elements of the psyche.
Würzburg	O. Kulpe,	The study of the dynamics of the course of cognitive processes and factors influencing it.	Elements of the psyche, mental images and their meanings, attitude.
Functionalism	Europe - F. Brentano, K. Stumpf W. James, D. Dewey, D. Angell, R. Woodworth	The study of mental acts directed at some object or action and performing a specific function.	Intentional acts. A stream of thoughts and experiences, in which those related to the external world and oneself stand out, a stream of activity that unites subject and object.
french	E. Durkheim, L. Levy-Bruhl,	The study of the facts and patterns of mental life. The main object is sick people (or people with borderline mental states), as well as social communities of different levels.	Conscious and unconscious levels of the psyche, the content of which is knowledge about the world and about oneself, as well as human actions.
Descriptive psychology	V. Dilthey, E. Spranger	Description and analysis of mental phenomena as separate processes of the vital whole, embodied in spiritual, cultural values.	Holistic and purposeful mental processes.

"Behaviorism" (from English - "behavior") - a trend that arose at the beginning of the 20th century, asserting behavior as the subject of psychology. The founder of behaviorism is the American psychologist John Watson (1878-1958). From the point of view of behaviorism, the subject of psychology as a science can only be that which is accessible to external observation, i.e., the facts of behavior. As a principle of the scientific approach, behaviorism recognizes the principle of determinism - a causal explanation of events and phenomena. Behaviorists define behavior as a set of reactions of the body, due to the influence of the external environment. D. Watson develops a scheme of behavior S - R, where S is a "stimulus" that characterizes all the effects of the external environment; R- “reaction” (or “consequence”), i.e. those changes in the body that could be recorded by objective methods.

The scheme S - R means that the stimulus generates some behavior of the organism. Based on this conclusion, D. Watson presented scientific program, the purpose of which is to learn how to manage behavior. In laboratories, a large number of animal experiments were performed, mainly on white rats. As experimental devices were invented Various types mazes and "problem boxes", which explored the ability of rats to form certain skills. The theme of learning skills through trial and error became central. Scientists have collected and processed a huge experimental material on the factors that determine behavior modification.

Watson denied the existence of instincts: what seems to be instinctive are social conditioned reflexes. He did not recognize the existence of hereditary gifts; believed that everything in a person is determined only by upbringing, learning.

Behaviorism considers emotions as reactions of the body to specific stimuli (internal - heartbeat, increased pressure, etc. - and external). Fear, anger, and love are the only things that don't come from learning. Babies are naturally capable of experiencing these emotions: fear from a loud sound and loss of support; anger - from shackling; love - at a touch, motion sickness.

Watson argued that thinking is an implicit motor behavior (speech reaction or movement), and confirmed this with experiments to measure the states of the "voice box".

The practical result of Watson's behaviorism was the development of a program for the "improvement of society", the construction of experimental ethics on the principles of behaviorism. To create a perfect society, Watson asked for "a dozen healthy babies" and the opportunity to raise them in his special world.

Behaviorism has gained extraordinary popularity in America. Based on his material, an acquaintance with the psychology of the "broad masses" took place. Numerous periodicals, popular programs appeared (“Psychologist's Tips”, “How to Maintain Mental Health”, etc.), a network of psychological help offices appeared (“Psychologist - reception day and night”). From 1912, Watson began to engage in advertising, putting into practice his ideas of behavior programming.

11. Non-classical behaviorism: Skinner's theory of "operant behaviorism" and E. Tolman's "intermediate variables"

By the beginning of the 30s. it became obvious that neither animal behavior nor human behavior could be explained by a single combination of available stimuli. Experiments have shown that in response to the impact of the same stimulus, different reactions can follow, the same reaction is awakened by different stimuli.

There was an assumption that there is something that determines the reaction in addition to the stimulus, more precisely in interaction with it, the doctrine of neobehaviorism arose. A prominent representative of neobehaviorism was the Danish scientist Edward Tolman (1886-1959). Developing the ideas of D. Watson, E. Tolman proposed to introduce into the argument one more instance, denoted by the concept of "intermediate variable (V)", which was understood as internal processes that mediate the actions of the stimulus, i.e., affect external behavior. These include formations such as “intentions”, “goals”, etc. Thus, the updated scheme began to look like this: S - V - R.

The behavioral concept considers personality as a system of reactions to various stimuli (B. Sknnner, J. Homans and others). B. Skinner's system of views represents a separate line in the development of behaviorism. Schinner put forward the theory of operant behaviorism. His mechanistic concept of behavior and the technology of behavior developed on its basis, used as a tool for controlling people's behavior, have become widespread in the United States and have an impact in other countries, in particular in countries Latin America as an instrument of ideology and politics.

Skinner formulates a position on three types of behavior: unconditioned reflex, conditioned reflex and operant. The latter is the specificity of the teachings of B. Skinner.

Unconditioned reflex and conditioned reflex types of behavior are caused by stimuli and are called respondent, responding behavior. This is a type S reaction. They make up a certain part of the behavioral repertoire, but they alone do not provide adaptation to the real environment. In reality, the process of adaptation is built on the basis of active tests - the effects of the animal on the world around it. Some of them may accidentally lead to a useful result, which, by virtue of this, is fixed. Such reactions (R), which are not caused by a stimulus, but are allocated (“emitted”) by the body, some of which turn out to be correct and are reinforced, Skinner called operant. These are R-type reactions. According to Skinner, it is these reactions that are predominant in the adaptive behavior of the animal: they are a form of voluntary behavior.

Based on the analysis of behavior, Skinner formulates his theory of learning. The main means of forming new behavior is reinforcement. The whole procedure of learning in animals is called "successive guidance on the desired response."

Skinner transfers the data obtained from the study of animal behavior to human behavior, which leads to an extremely biological interpretation of man. So, on the basis of the results of learning in animals, a Skinnerian version of programmed learning arose.

Skinner formulated the principle of operant conditioning - “the behavior of living beings is completely determined by the consequences to which it leads. Depending on whether these consequences are pleasant, indifferent or unpleasant, the living organism will tend to repeat the given behavioral act, attach no importance to it, or avoid its repetition in the future. A person is able to foresee the possible consequences of his behavior and avoid those actions and situations that can lead to negative consequences for him.

The leading social learning theorist A. Bandura believed that rewards and punishments are not enough to teach new behavior: children acquire new forms of behavior by imitating the behavior of adults and peers. Learning through observation, imitation and identification is a form of social learning. A. Bandura focused on the phenomenon of learning through imitation. In his opinion, in order to acquire new reactions on the basis of imitation, it is not necessary to reinforce the actions of the observer or the actions of the model; however, reinforcement is necessary in order to reinforce and maintain the behavior formed through imitation. Observational learning is important because it can regulate and direct a child's behavior, enabling him to imitate authority figures. People learn not only by experiencing the consequences of their behavior, but also by observing the behavior of other people and the consequences of their behavior. One of the manifestations of imitation is identification - a process in which a person reproduces the thoughts, feelings or actions of another, acting as a model. Identification leads to the fact that the child learns to imagine himself in the place of another, to feel sympathy, complicity, empathy for this person.

The theories of social learning are characterized by the study of the conditions of socialization of children. Introducing children to the norms and values ​​of society is carried out, first of all, in the family. Parents serve as models of behavior for children, expressing approval and tenderness, imposing prohibitions and giving permission, punishing unacceptable behavior. At the same time, observation becomes one of the means of socialization. However, this does not mean that once children see how others act, they will learn certain norms of behavior. In many cases, one observation, without additional signs of approval or censure from the parents, is not enough.

Observation is most effective when behavior is consistent. For example, if a parent periodically uses harsh physical punishment, a child is less likely to restrain his aggressiveness and is likely to find this method an effective means of controlling other people. But if children do not see manifestations of aggressiveness in their family, they learn the ability to restrain anger as the most optimal form of behavior.

The basis of socialization is the emergence of a feeling of attachment in an infant. The strongest attachment develops in those children whose parents are friendly and attentive to the needs of the child. Positive rating Parents of the qualities of their children is especially important in the initial period of the formation of self-awareness. If children feel loved by their parents, their self-esteem will be positive and they will be confident in their abilities.

The family forms the personality of the child, defining for him moral norms, value orientations and standards of behavior. Parents use those methods and means of education that help the child to master a certain system of norms, to introduce him to certain values. To achieve this goal, they encourage or punish him, strive to be a role model.

No direction has gained such high-profile fame outside of psychology as psychoanalysis. His ideas influenced art, literature, medicine and other areas of science related to man. This concept is called Freudianism after its founder Sigmund Freud (1856-1939).

The term "psychoanalysis" has three meanings: 1 - theory of personality and psychopathology; 2- method of therapy for personality disorders; 3 - a method of studying unconscious thoughts and feelings of a person.

Freud used a topographic model, according to which three levels can be distinguished in mental life: consciousness, preconsciousness, and the unconscious. The level of consciousness consists of sensations and experiences that you are aware of at a given moment in time. Consciousness captures only a small percentage of all information stored in the brain, with certain information being conscious for only a short period of time and then quickly sinking into the preconscious or unconscious level as the person's attention shifts to other signals.

Freud developed a new psychological technique- free association method: the patient says everything that comes to mind, no matter how stupid, insignificant or indecent it seems. The purpose of this method was to display on the screen of consciousness those repressed experiences that could be the cause of abnormal human behavior. At the same time, according to Freud, the associations turned out to be not “free”, but directed by an ulterior motive. They developed to a certain point, when the patient showed "resistance" - refusal to disclose too painful memories. The discovery of the phenomenon of resistance led Freud to formulate an important principle of psychoanalysis - "repression".

Another new method of Freud's is the analysis of dreams, the interpretation of them in order to reveal unconscious hidden conflicts (The Interpretation of Dreams, 1900). Dreams are a disguised form of the satisfaction of repressed desires.

Considering instincts as driving forces personality, Freud divided them into two groups: life instincts (aimed at self-preservation of the individual and the survival of the species) and death instincts (masochism, suicide, hatred, aggression).

Freud believed that the mental life of a person proceeds in the interaction of three components - the id, the ego and the Super-ego (it, I, super-I).

In psychoanalysis (according to Freud), the task is: 1) to recreate from these specific manifestations a group of forces that cause painful pathological symptoms, undesirable inadequate human behavior; 2) to reconstruct a past traumatic event, release repressed energy and use it for constructive purposes (sublimation), give this energy a new direction (for example, using transference analysis, release initially repressed childhood sexual aspirations - turn them into adult sexuality and thereby enable participate in personal development).

14. Analytical psychology of C. Jung

Jung pays special attention to the description of the method of proof, verification of the existence of archetypes. Since archetypes are supposed to evoke certain psychic forms, it is necessary to determine how and where a material demonstration of these forms can be obtained. The main source then is dreams, which have the advantage of being involuntary, spontaneous products of the unconscious psyche. Thus, they are pure products nature that is not falsified by any conscious purpose." By asking the individual, one can establish which of the motives that appear in dreams are known to the individual himself. Of those that are unfamiliar to him, it is necessary to exclude all those motives that could be known to him.

Other source required material is an " active imagination". Jung is referring to a sequence of fantasies that proceed with voluntary concentration of attention. He found that the existence of unrealized, unconscious fantasies increases the intensity of dreams, and if fantasies become lucid, dreams change their character, become weaker, rarer.

The resulting chain of fantasies reveals the unconscious and provides material rich in archetypal images and associations. This method is not safe because it can lead the patient too far from reality.

Finally, a very interesting source of archetypal material are the illusions of the paranoid, the fantasies observed in trance states, and the dreams of early childhood (from three to five years). Such material is available in abundance, but it is of no value until convincing mythological parallels can be drawn. To draw a meaningful parallel, it is necessary to know the functional meaning of an individual symbol, and then to find out whether this symbol - clearly parallel to the mythological one - is not in a similar context, and therefore does not have the same functional meaning. The establishment of such facts not only requires a long and laborious study, but is also an ungrateful subject for proofs.

As long as the neurosis is rooted exclusively in personal causes, archetypes play no role. But if we are talking about general incompatibility, in the presence of neuroses in a relatively large number of people, then it is worth assuming the presence of archetypes. Since neuroses are in most cases a social phenomenon, it must be assumed that archetypes are also involved in these cases. There are as many archetypes as there are typical life situations. Therefore, the psychotherapist in his analysis needs to rely not only on the personal aspect, but also on the role of the collective unconscious in the patient's neurosis.

Jung insists that instincts are impersonal, universally occurring hereditary factors. They are often so remote from consciousness that modern psychotherapy is faced with the task of helping the patient become aware of them. Moreover, instincts are not inherently indeterminate. Jung believes that they are in relation to a very close analogy with the archetypes, so close that there is good reason to suppose that the archetypes are unconscious images of the instincts themselves. In other words, they are patterns of instinctive behavior.

Jung believes that the psychoanalyst does not try to impose on the patient what he cannot freely recognize, therefore psychoanalysis is the most perfect tool for people.

A. Adler, in contrast to Freud, rejected the idea of ​​dividing the personality into three instances (“It”, “I”, “Super-I”) and focused on the principle of the unity of the individual and the primacy of social factors in human behavior. Adler considered social motives, social feelings as the basis of human existence, and the individual as an initially social being. He emphasized that the individual cannot be considered independently of society, since certain of his qualities are manifested in the process of interaction with the social environment. From this, Adler concluded that the personality is social in its formation and that it exists only in the context of social relations.

As the spiritual characteristics of man, Adler considered, on the one hand, his biological inferiority, on the other hand, his correlation as a social being with all of humanity. Individual psychosociology is focused on deciphering the connection between the unconscious principle in a person and his attributive solidarity with other people. The main criterion for an effective indicator of “phenomena of mental life” is “social feeling”, expressing the connection between people in the human community as a whole. It is sociality, collectivity that is the meaning of life. Social interest, according to Adler, is innate in exactly the same way as the desire to overcome inferiority. The most important categories of Adler's individual psychosociology are the "inferiority complex" and the "principle of compensation and overcompensation". Adler believed that due to various kinds of unfavorable conditions for the development of personality, many individuals develop or form an "inferiority complex" even in childhood, which has an exceptional impact on their future life.

The feeling of inferiority causes in the individual an unconscious desire to overcome it. This desire is generated by "social feeling", in turn due to the inability of a person to live outside society. The feeling of superiority, the unity of the individual, and her mental health depend on the “social feeling”. In all human failures, in the disobedience of children, in crime, suicide, alcoholism, in sexual perversions - in fact, in all nervous manifestations, Adler found the insufficiency of the necessary level of social feeling.

The main field of A. Adler's research is the sociality and social feelings of the individual.

According to the teachings of Adler, an individual, due to bodily defects (imperfections human nature) feels inferior or worthless. In an effort to overcome this feeling and assert himself among others, he actualizes his creative potential. Adler, using the conceptual apparatus of psychoanalysis, calls this actualization compensation or overcompensation.

The specificity of Adler's psychoanalytic teaching is that only psychological significance outside world. All other components are not the subject of comprehension, are not included in the core of the psychoanalytic doctrine. Its other feature is that Adler's main object of study is a specific form of reality. It is not just the inner world of a person that is being studied, but that sphere of the mental, within which processes and changes that are significant and significant for human life activity occur, affecting the organization of all human existence.

The disadvantage of Freudianism is the exaggeration of the role of the sexual sphere in the life and psyche of a person, a person is understood mainly as a biological sexual being, which is in a state of continuous secret struggle with society, forcing the suppression of sexual desires. Therefore, even his followers, neo-Freudians, starting from Freud's basic postulates about unconsciousness, went along the line of limiting the role of sexual drives in explaining the human psyche.

The unconscious was only filled with new content:

the place of unrealizable sexual desires was taken by the desire for power due to feelings of inferiority (Adler),

the collective unconscious ("archetypes"), expressed in mythology, religious symbols, art and inherited (K. Jung),

the inability to achieve harmony with the social structure of society and the resulting feeling of loneliness (E. Fromm)

and other psychoanalytic mechanisms of rejection of the individual from society.

Thus, a person from the position of psychoanalysis is a contradictory, tormented, suffering being, whose behavior is predominantly determined by unconscious factors, despite the opposition and control of consciousness, and therefore a person is often a neurotic and conflict creature. Freud's merit lies in the fact that he drew the attention of scientists to a serious study of the unconscious in the psyche, for the first time identified and began to study internal conflicts person's personality.

Freud's psychoanalytic theory is an example of a psychodynamic approach to the study of human behavior: with this approach, it is believed that the unconscious psychological conflicts control human behavior.

Psychoanalysis, as it developed, was enriched with new ideas and approaches, the following psychoanalytic concepts arose:

1. Individual psychology of A. Adler

2. Analytical psychology of C. Jung

3. Ego psychology E. Erickson

4. sociocultural theory C. Horney

5. Theory of E. Fromm

Horney's clinical observations of patients she treated in Europe and the United States showed striking differences in their personality dynamics, confirming the influence of cultural factors. These observations led her to conclude that unique styles of interpersonal relationships underlie personality dysfunctions.

Horney argued that the decisive factor in the development of the child are social relations between child and parents. Childhood is characterized by two needs: the need for satisfaction and the need for security. Satisfaction covers all basic biological needs: food, sleep, etc. The main thing in the development of the child is the need for security - the desire to be loved, desired and protected from danger or a hostile world. In meeting this need, the child is completely dependent on the parents. If parents show true love and warmth in relation to the child, thereby satisfying his need for security, and most likely a healthy personality will be formed. If many aspects of the parent's behavior traumatize the child's need for security (unstable, extravagant behavior, ridicule, failure to keep promises, overprotectiveness, giving a clear preference to the child's brothers and sisters), then pathological personality development is very likely. The main result of such mistreatment of the child by parents is the development of basic hostility in him. In this case, the child depends on the parents, and feels a sense of resentment and indignation towards them. This conflict gives rise to defense mechanism like a displacement. As a result, the behavior of a child who does not feel safe in the parental family is guided by feelings of helplessness, fear, love and guilt, which play the role of psychological protection, the purpose of which is to suppress hostile feelings towards parents in order to survive. These repressed feelings of hostility manifest themselves involuntarily in all the child's relationships with other people, both in the present and in the future. Thus, the child manifests basal anxiety, a feeling of loneliness and helplessness in the face of a potentially dangerous world. Cause neurotic behavior there will be a broken relationship between the child and the parents. From Horney's point of view, pronounced basal anxiety in a child leads to the formation of a neurosis in an adult.

Subsequently, Horney combined neurotic needs into three main strategies for interpersonal behavior: orientation "from people", "against people", "towards people". In a neurotic personality, one of them usually predominates. Accordingly, personality types are distinguished: 1) the “compliant type” focuses on people, shows dependence, indecision, helplessness, thinks; "If I give in, they won't touch me"; 2) an isolated type - focuses on people, thinks: “If I step back, everything will be fine with me”, says: “I don’t care”, not being carried away by anything or anyone; 3) hostile type - oriented against people, it is characterized by dominance, hostility, exploitation, he thinks: “I have power, no one will touch me”, you should fight against everyone and evaluate any situation from the position: “What will I have with this?" The hostile type is able to act tactfully and friendly, but his behavior is always aimed at gaining control and power over others, at satisfying personal desires and ambitions.

All these strategies are in conflict with each other both in a healthy and neurotic person, but in healthy people this conflict does not carry such a strong emotional charge as in patients with neuroses. A healthy person is characterized by great flexibility, he is able to change strategies according to circumstances. And the neurotic uses only one of the three strategies, regardless of whether it is suitable for this case or not.

In the work of Erich Fromm (1900-1980), the desire to analyze the influence of social and cultural factors on the personality is most pronounced. Fromm put forward five basic existential (from Latin - "existence") needs:

the need to establish connections (take care of someone, take part and be responsible for someone);

the need to overcome (one's animal passive nature);

the need for roots - the foundations, a sense of stability and strength (to feel like an integral part of the world);

the need for identity, identity with oneself, thanks to which a person feels his dissimilarity to others and realizes who and what he really is;

the need for a system of views and devotion, that is, beliefs that allow you to navigate the world, perceive and comprehend reality, and also devote yourself to something or someone that would be the meaning of life.

Fromm singles out the following types interpersonal relationships: symbiotic union, detachment - destructiveness, love.

In a symbiotic union, a person is connected with others, but loses his independence; he escapes from loneliness, becoming a part of another person, "absorbing" this person or "absorbing" him himself. The tendency to be "absorbed" by others is a person's attempt to get rid of individuality, escape from freedom and find security by attaching himself to another person (through duty, love, sacrifice). The desire to absorb others, an active form of a symbiotic union, is a kind of manifestation of sadism, directed, and the acquisition of complete dominance over another person. Even benevolent dominance over another person under the guise of love and care is also a manifestation of sadism.

Fromm notes that the feeling of individual powerlessness can be overcome through detachment from other people perceived as a threat. The emotional equivalent of detachment is a feeling of indifference to others, often combined with a great deal of self-importance. Detachment and indifference do not always manifest themselves openly, consciously in the conditions of European culture, they are often hidden behind superficial interest and sociability. Destructiveness - an active form of detachment, when energy is directed to the destruction of life, the impulse to destroy others stems from the fear of being destroyed by them.

Love is a fruitful form of relationship to others and to oneself. It involves care, responsibility, respect and knowledge, as well as a desire for the other person to grow and develop.

There is no person whose orientation is completely fruitful, and there is no person who is completely devoid of fruitfulness.

Certain qualities of unfruitful orientations also take place in a character where a fruitful orientation dominates. Unfruitful orientations are combined in various combinations, depending on the specific weight of each of them; each of them qualitatively changes according to the level of fruitfulness present, different orientations can act with different force in the material, emotional or intellectual spheres of activity.

19. Egopsychology E. Erickson

One of the most consistent students of 3. Freud was Erik Erikson (1902-1994). Erickson divided human life into eight stages. Each psychosocial stage is accompanied by a crisis, a turning point in the individual's life. If Freud focuses on the unconscious, Erickson, on the contrary, sees his task in drawing attention to the ability of a person to overcome life difficulties psychosocial nature. His theory puts the quality of the "I" at the forefront, that is, its virtues, which are revealed in different periods of development.

In interpreting the structure of personality, just like Z. Freud, E. Erickson significantly retreated from the positions of classical psychoanalysis in understanding the nature of personality and the determinants of its development. He accepted the idea of ​​unconscious motivation, but devoted his research mainly to the processes of socialization, believing that the foundations of the human self are rooted in the social organization of society. He created a psychoanalytic concept about the relationship between the self and society.

The key concept in E. Erickson's theory is the concept of "identity", defined as "a subjective ... feeling of identity and integrity" . Identity is the identity of a person to himself, which includes a learned and subjectively accepted image of himself, a sense of adequacy and stable possession of a person's own Self, the ability of a person to constructively solve problems that arise before him at each stage of his development. Identity is a subjective feeling of continuous self-identity, it is a condition under which a person feels himself unchanged (in his essential manifestations), acting in a variety of life circumstances. In self-identity, the individual experiences the feeling that he remains the same, that he has a continuity of goals, intentions and ideas.

Periodization of development in ontogeny, developed by E. Erickson, is called epigenetic. He believed that the periodization scheme should not be like a chain of formal time segments following one after another; periodization is an epigenetic ensemble in which all ages coexist simultaneously. Not a single age lived by a person ends in the sense that not a single crisis contradiction of age can be finally resolved in one's lifetime.

One stage of development does not replace another, but adapts to it. The beginning of an age is a very arbitrary concept: that general ability, which will be key at a new age, has already revealed itself in a more primitive form in previous ages. Not a single age ends, is not exhausted at the beginning of the next age. Many problems, complications, deviations in development are the result of the unresolved crisis contradictions of previous periods of development.

When using transactional analysis, people achieve both emotional and intellectual insight, but this method rather focuses on the latter. According to Dr. Bern, his theory arose when he observed changes in behavior, focusing on stimuli such as: words, gesture, sound. These changes included facial expression, voice intonation, speech structure, body movements, facial expressions, posture and demeanor. It was as if there were several different people within the personality. At times one or another of these inner personalities seemed to control the entire personality of the patient. He noticed that these different inner selves interact differently with other people and that these interactions (transactions) can be analyzed. Dr. Byrne realized that some transactions have ulterior motives, and the individual uses them as a way to manipulate others in psychological games and extortion.

He also found that people behave in predetermined ways, acting as if they were reading a theater script. These observations led Berne to develop his theory called transactional analysis.

Another hypothesis put forward by E. Berne - psychological games that people play.

All games have a start, a given set of rules, and a payable fee. Psychological games also have an ulterior motive and are not played for fun. Although I must say, some poker players also do not play for fun. Berne defines a psychological game as a frequently repeated sequence of transactions with an ulterior motive that has an external rationale, or more briefly, as a series of transactions with a trick. In order for a sequence of transactions to form a pair, three aspects must be present:

A continuous succession of additional transactions that are socially plausible;

Hidden transaction, which is a message, a source at the heart of the game;

The expected reckoning that ends the game is its real goal.

Games discourage honest, frank and open relationships between players. Despite this, people play psychological games because they fill their time, attract attention, maintain their former opinions about themselves and others, and finally turn into their destiny.

The advantage of E. Berne's concept also lies in the fact that it aims to form a sincere, honest, benevolent personality.

According to Berne, the structure of personality is also three-component, like that of Freud. The term "I" he means a person. Each "I" can manifest itself at any moment in one of the three states that E. Bern called: "Child", "Adult", "Parent". The "child" is a source of spontaneous, archaic, uncontrollable impulses. "Parent" - a pedant who knows how to behave and is prone to teaching. "Adult" - sort of calculating machine, weighing the balance of "want" and "need". In each person, these "three" live simultaneously, although they appear at each moment one by one.

It can be said that the concept of E. Berne is close in its structure to the position of Z. Freud, but it also has its own distinctive features, which Bern, thanks to his practice, proves.

21. Gestalt psychology, its development and turn to gestalt therapy

"Gestalt psychology" arose in Germany thanks to the efforts of T. Wertheimer, W. Koehler and K. Levin, who put forward a program for studying the psyche from the point of view integral structures(gestalts). Gestalt psychology opposed the associative psychology of W. Wundt and E. Titchener, who interpreted complex mental phenomena as built from simple associations according to the laws.

The concept of gestalt (from German "firm") originated in the study of sensory formations, when the "primacy" of their structure in relation to the components (sensations) included in these formations was discovered. For example, although a melody, when performed in different keys, evokes different sensations, it is recognized as one and the same. Thinking is interpreted similarly: it consists in discretion, awareness of the structural requirements of the elements of the problem situation and the Actions that meet these requirements (W. Koehler). The construction of a complex mental image occurs in insight - a special mental act of instantaneous grasping of relationships (structures) in the perceived will. Gestalt psychology also opposed its positions to behaviorism, which explained the behavior of an organism in a problem situation by enumeration of "blind" motor tests, only occasionally leading to success. The merits of Gestalt psychology lie in the development of the concept of a psychological image, in the approval of a systematic approach to mental phenomena.

Formally, the Gestalt psychology movement began with the publication of the results of a study by Max Wertheimer. In 1910, he analyzed an experiment with a stroboscope (a device that illuminates for a moment the successive phases of a change in the position of an object), while observing the apparent movement. The impression of movement also arose in the experiment with a tachistoscope, which demonstrated alternately a vertical line and a line inclined at an angle of 30°. With an interval between flashes of 60 milliseconds, it seemed that the luminous vertical was swaying. "Phi-phenomenon" - the illusion of moving from place to place of two alternately turning on light sources. In experience, the whole - the movement - was different from the sum of its parts.

Gestalt psychologists have studied the constancy of perception by comparing the results of perceiving an object at different positions relative to the observer (for example, we perceive a window opening as a rectangle, regardless of the angle). Perceptual experience has integrity and completeness, it is a "gestalt" - integrity, and any attempt to decompose it into components leads to a violation of perception. The elements of perception thus turn out to be the product of reflection, the result of abstraction, having nothing to do with immediate experience. Therefore, by the method of Gestalt psychology - a phenomenological description, direct and natural observation of the content of one's experience, identification in consciousness figurative structures, integrity.

The "field theory" of Kurt Lewin adjoins the current of Gestalt psychology. He applied the theory of physical fields to the study of problems of motivation, analyzing human behavior in the context of the state of his physical and social environment. Mental activity of a person occurs under the influence of a psychological field (the so-called "hodological space", from the Greek "khodos" - the path). The state of the field reflects all the events of the past, present and possible future that can affect a person's life. Hodological space is individual, its complexity depends on the amount of accumulated experience. To describe the hodological space, Levin used topological maps, where he depicted vectors indicating the direction of a person’s movement towards a goal for which “positive” and “negative” valences were found.

Lewin suggested that there is a state of equilibrium between the individual and his psychological environment. When it is broken, there is tension in the relationship, leading to changes to restore balance. Lewin's behavior is the alternation of cycles of tension (the emergence of a need) and actions to remove it. Verification of the provisions of the "field theory" was carried out in the experiments of Bluma Zeigarnik (experiment with unsolved problems and the so-called "Zeigarnik effect").

In the 1930s, Levin worked in the field of social psychology, introduced the concept of "group dynamics": group behavior at any moment is a function general condition social field. He conducted experiments to study the "leadership style" - authoritarian, democratic, based on non-intervention; was interested in the possibilities of reducing intergroup conflicts; organized social-psychological training groups.

M. Mead developed the concept of intergenerational relationships, which was based on the idea of ​​three types of cultures: post-figurative, in which children learn mainly from their ancestors; configurative, in which both children and adults learn, first of all, from equals, peers; prefigurative, in which adults also learn from their children. According to M. Mead, post-figurative culture prevails in a traditional, patriarchal society, which focuses mainly on the experience of previous generations, i.e. on the tradition and its living carriers - the elderly. Relations between the age groups are strictly regulated here, everyone knows their place, and there are no disputes on this score.

D. Bruner undertook a study of the features of the development of children's cognitive activity in conditions of different cultures. The development of cognitive activity, according to D. Bruner, is carried out through the formation of three main methods (means): objective actions, images of perceptions and symbols. These means of cognition of reality arise at the appropriate ages. The “layering” of each new way of knowing on the previous one is central line intellectual development child.

The source of mental development is the possibility of only a partial translation of the content of any one way of knowing into the language of others. Content inconsistency different ways leads to the fact that the child is forced to move, for example, from expressing his knowledge through images to their expression in symbols. D. Bruner and his collaborators investigated the psychological patterns of transitions from one way of the child's cognition of reality to another.

The essence of D. Bruner's position is that the mental development of an individual occurs in the process of mastering the means of culture. Assimilation of a set of these tools enhances some of the natural motor, sensory and mental ways of knowing. In particular, the strengthening of the intellect is associated with the assimilation and use of complex methods of symbolization, the level of development of which is different in different eras and among different peoples. From the point of view of D. Bruner, the study of the patterns of development of the child's cognitive activity should be carried out on the basis of revealing the nature of the specific means of culture assimilated by him, especially the means of symbolizing experience.

D. Bruner notes that the sources of human development are fundamentally different from the conditions for the development of animals. Unlike an animal, human adaptation to environmental conditions occurs not on the basis of biological changes, but through the use of various "technical" means of cognition that have a social nature. The different nature and composition of these funds in different cultures leads to a difference in the development of cognitive activity of children growing up in the conditions of these cultures. The mental development of the child is determined not by biological factors, but, above all cultural conditions his life.

Emerged in the 60s. 20th century in the United States as a psychotherapeutic practice, humanistic psychology has been widely recognized in various fields social life - medicine, education, politics, etc. There is an opinion that humanistic psychology is not a separate direction or trend in psychology, but a new paradigm of psychology, new stage its development. On the ideas of humanistic psychology, a special pedagogical practice took shape.

Basic principles of humanistic psychology:

the role of conscious experience is emphasized;

the integral nature of human nature is affirmed;

emphasis on free will, the creative power of the individual;

all factors and circumstances of an individual's life are taken into account.

Humanistic psychology rejected the idea of ​​a person as a being whose behavior is completely determined by the stimuli of the external environment (behaviorism), and criticized the elements of rigid determinism in Freud's psychoanalysis (exaggeration of the role of the unconscious, ignoring the conscious, predominant interest in neurotics). Humanistic psychology was aimed at the study of mental health, positive personality traits.

Abraham Maslow was interested in the problems of the highest achievements of man. He believed that every person has an innate desire for self-actualization - the most complete disclosure of abilities, the realization of a person's potential.

In order for this need to manifest itself, a person must first satisfy all the needs of a “lower” level. Maslow builds a hierarchy of needs by drawing their “pyramid”.

A prominent representative of humanistic psychology is K. Rogers. In his works, a new concept of man was formulated, radically different from psychoanalytic and behavioral ideas. The fundamental premise of the theoretical developments of K. Rogers is the assumption that in their self-determination people rely on own experience. Each person has a unique field of experience, or "phenomenal field", which includes events, perceptions, influences, and so on. The inner world of a person may or may not correspond to objective reality, may or may not be realized by him. The field of experience is limited psychologically and biologically. We tend to direct our attention to the immediate danger or to the safe and pleasant experience instead of taking in all the stimuli of the world around us.

An important concept in the theoretical constructions of K. Rogers is congruence. Congruence is defined as the degree of correspondence between what a person says and what they experience. It characterizes the differences between experience and consciousness. A high degree of congruence means that the message, experience, and awareness are the same. Incongruence occurs when there are differences between awareness, experience, and reporting of experience.

There is a fundamental aspect of human nature that drives man to move towards greater congruence and more realistic functioning. K. Rogers believed that in every person there is a desire to become competent, holistic, complete - a tendency to self-actualization. The foundation of his psychological ideas is the assertion that development is possible and that the tendency to self-actualization is fundamental for a person.

Viktor Frankl is an Austrian psychiatrist and psychologist. The author of the concept of logotherapy, according to which the driving force behind human behavior is the desire to find and realize the meaning of life existing in the outside world. A person does not ask this question, but answers it with his real actions. The role of meaning is performed by values ​​- semantic universals that generalize the experience of mankind. Frankl describes three classes of values ​​that make a person's life meaningful:

values ​​of creativity (primarily labor),

values ​​of experience (in particular, love),

attitude values ​​(consciously developed police in critical life circumstances that cannot be changed).

Realizing meaning, a person thereby realizes himself: self-actualization is only by-product realization of meaning. Conscience is an organ that helps a person determine which of the potential meanings inherent in a situation is true for him. Frankl singled out three ontological dimensions (levels of existence) of a person:

biological,

psychological,

poetic or spiritual.

It is in the latter that the meanings and values ​​are localized, which play a decisive role in relation to the underlying levels in the determination of behavior. The embodiment of human self-determination is the ability: to self-transcendence. outward orientation; to self-detachment; to take a position in relation to external situations and to oneself. Free will in the understanding of Frankl is inextricably linked with responsibility for the choices made, without which it degenerates into arbitrariness. Logotherapy is based on the patient's awareness of responsibility for finding and realizing the meaning of his life in any, even critical life circumstances.

There is no such thing as a universal meaning to life, only the unique meanings of individual situations. However, we must not forget that among them there are those who have something in common, and, therefore, there are meanings that are inherent in people of a certain society, and even more than that, meanings that are shared by many people throughout history. These meanings refer to the human condition in general rather than to unique situations. These meanings are what is meant by values. Thus, values ​​can be defined as universals of meaning that crystallize in typical situations faced by a society or even all of humanity.

The possession of values ​​makes it easier for a person to find meaning, since, at least in typical situations, he is spared from making decisions. But, unfortunately, he has to pay the price for this relief, because, unlike the unique meanings that permeate unique situations, it may turn out that two values ​​​​come into conflict with each other. And the contradictions of values ​​are reflected in the human soul in the form of value conflicts, playing an important role in the formation of noogenic neuroses.

Cognitive theories of personality proceed from the understanding of a person as “understanding, analyzing”, since a person is in the world of information that needs to be understood, evaluated, used. A human act includes three components: 1) the action itself, 2) thoughts, 3) feelings experienced when performing a certain action. Outwardly similar actions may be different, since thoughts and feelings were different.

Once in a real situation, a person does not have the possibility of a comprehensive analysis of circumstances (little time, lack of knowledge), he needs to decide, a person makes a choice and performs an act (behaviorists are finishing the analysis of behavior here), but the cognitive and emotional part of the act has not yet been completed, since the act itself is a source of information that allows one to formulate or change an opinion about oneself or about others. Thus, after the reaction, a person to some extent carries out a subjective analysis of his behavior, the degree of its success, on the basis of which he makes the necessary correction or draws some conclusions for the future.

The cognitive direction emphasizes the influence of intellectual or thought processes on human behavior. George Kelly, one of the founders of this trend, believed that any person is a kind of researcher who seeks to stink, interpret, anticipate and control the world of his personal experiences, draw conclusions based on his past experience and make assumptions about the future. And although objective reality exists, different people perceive it differently, since any event can be viewed from different angles, and people are given a wide range of opportunities in interpreting the inner world of experiences or the outer world of practical events.

Kelly believed that people perceive their world with the help of rosary systems or patterns called constructs. A personality construct is an idea or thought that a person uses to comprehend or interpret, explain or predict a swap experience, it is a consistent way in which a person comprehends some aspect of reality in terms of similarity and contrast. Exactly cognitive process observation of similarities and differences between objects, events leads to the formation of personal constructs. To form a construct, three elements (phenomena or objects) are necessary: ​​two of them must be similar to each other, and the third element must be different from these two. Therefore, all personal constructs are bipolar and dichotomous, a person’s thinking is aware of life experience in terms of black and white, not shades of grey. All constructs have two opposite poles: the similarity pole reflects how two objects are similar, and the contrast pole shows how these objects are opposite to the third element. Examples of personal constructs can be "smart - stupid", "good - bad", "male - female", "friendly - hostile", etc. The construct resembles a theory in that it affects a certain range of phenomena, has its own range of applicability, which includes all events for which the construct is relevant and applicable.

Kelly saw the task of psychotherapy as helping people change their construct system, improve its predictive performance, help the patient develop and test new hypotheses, new constructs, make available facts against which the patient can test his hypotheses, form or reorganize the construct system, more predictively effective. As a result, he realizes and interprets both situations and himself differently, becoming a new, more effective person.

Transpersonal psychology most globally considers a person as a cosmic being connected at the level of the unconscious psyche with all of humanity and the entire Universe, having the ability to access global cosmic information, information of humanity (the collective unconscious).

Although transpersonal psychology did not take shape as a separate discipline until the late 1960s, transpersonal trends in psychology have existed for several decades. The original founders of transpersonal tendencies were K. Jung, R. Assagioli, A. Maslow, since their ideas about the collective unconscious, about the “higher self”, about the unconscious mutual influence of people on each other, about the role of “peak experiences” in personality development served as the basis for development of transpersonal psychology.

Another interesting and important transpersonal system - psychosynthesis - was developed by the Italian psychiatrist R. Assagioli. His conceptual system is based on the assumption that a person is in a constant process of growth, actualizing his unmanifested potential.

The true hallmark of transpersonal psychology is the model of the human soul, which recognizes the significance of the spiritual and cosmic dimensions and the possibilities for the evolution of consciousness.

In almost all transpersonal worldviews, the following main levels are distinguished:

the physical level of inanimate matter, energy;

the biological level of living, sentient matter/energy;

the psychological level of the mind, EGO, logic;

a subtle level of parapsychological and archetypal phenomena;

the causal level, characterized by perfect transcendence;

absolute consciousness.

The Universe is an integral and unified network of these interconnected, interpenetrating worlds, therefore it is possible that under certain circumstances a person can restore his identity with the cosmic network and consciously experience any aspect of its existence (telepathy, psychodiagnostics, vision at a distance, foreseeing the future, etc.). d.).

Transpersonal psychology considers a person as a spiritual cosmic being, inextricably linked with the entire Universe, cosmos, humanity, having the ability to access the global informational cosmic share. Through the unconscious psyche, a person is connected with the unconscious psyche of other people, with the "collective unconscious of mankind", with cosmic information, with the "world mind".

28. Development of domestic psychology (general characteristics). Ideology and psychology

The development of psychology in Russia since the beginning of the 20th century. firmly established on a scientific basis; its status as an independent branch of psychology, which has important theoretical and practical significance, has been established. Studies of development problems have taken a leading place in Russian psychological and pedagogical science. This ensured the authority of developmental psychology not only in the scientific field, but also in solving practical problems of training and education. Both in science and in the opinion of the pedagogical community, the point of view has been established, according to which knowledge of the laws of child development is the basis for the correct construction of the education system, for the education of future citizens of the country.

Scientists from related disciplines, outstanding theorists and organizers of domestic science - V.M. Bekhterev, P.F. Lesgaft, I.P. Pavlov and others - joined in the development of problems of developmental psychology. A community of Russian psychologists was formed who developed the issues of studying child development and building scientific foundations education and training: P.P. Blonsky, P.F. Kapterev, A.F. Lazursky, N.N. Lange, A.P. Nechaev, M.M. Sikorsky, G.I. Chelpanov and others. Thanks to the efforts of these scientists, an intensive theoretical and scientific-organizational activity was launched, aimed at deepening and expanding the problematic field of research, at promoting psychological and pedagogical knowledge.

Early 20th century in the development of Russian psychology was characterized by an increase in interest in the humanistic and democratic ideas of the 60s. of the last century, to the work of N.I. Pirogov and K.D. Ushinsky, by the desire to put a highly moral person at the center of theoretical discussions. Questions of the essence of personality, the factors of its formation, the possibilities and limits of education, its comprehensive and harmonious development were subjected to a detailed analysis in psychological research.

After 1917, Russia entered a new, Soviet stage in its historical development. This period of development of social and humanitarian thought is characterized by a strong dependence of scientific research on the political realities of life and on party-ideological guidelines. Marxism was recognized as the only correct worldview; the edifice of Soviet science was built on its foundation.

The process of creating Marxist psychology took place in a sharp struggle between its founding ideologists and representatives of traditional psychology. Prominent Russian psychologist G.I. Chelpanov defended the idea of ​​the independence of psychology from any ideology and philosophy. According to his views, Marxist psychology is possible only as a social psychology that studies the genesis public forms consciousness and behavior of people. G.I. Chelpanov believed that scientific psychology cannot be Marxist, just as physics, chemistry, etc. cannot be Marxist.

His student K.N. Kornilov joined the fight against G.I. Chelpanov. He proceeded from opposing beliefs and actively introduced Marxism into psychology. One of the first versions of Marxist psychology was the reactological doctrine developed by K.N. Kornilov. Key Concept of this doctrine - reaction - meant behavior similar in mechanism to a reflex. The psychological reality of a person was reduced to a bunch of reactions; The main thing in reactology was the study of the speed and strength of human reactions. In the categories of behavior, the subject of Marxist psychology was defined by P.P. Blonsky and M.Ya. Basov. L.S. Vygotsky did not escape the passion for behavioral psychology at the initial stage of his scientific activity.

Already by the mid-20s. two main methodological principles of Marxist psychology are singled out: materialism (the psyche is a product of the activity of material structures and processes) and determinism (external causation of mental phenomena). The dialectical method was singled out as the main method, which focuses on the study of qualitative transformations of the psyche in the course of evolution, history, and ontogenesis.

29. Behavioral direction in domestic psychology. Contribution of Sechenov and Pavlov

The formation of scientific psychology in our country takes place in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. One of the founders of scientific psychology in Russia is Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov (1829-1905). In his work "Reflexes of the Brain" (1863), he laid the foundations for the doctrine of the reflex nature of the psyche. Sechenov did not identify the mental act with the reflex, but only pointed out the similarity in their structure. He was able to correlate the reflex with the psyche, due to the fact that he radically transformed the very concept of "reflex". In the classical physiology of higher nervous activity, a physical stimulus is taken as an impulse that triggers a reflex. According to Sechenov, the initial link of the reflex is not the highest mechanical stimulus, but the stimulus - the signal. The physiological basis of mental activity, according to Sechenov, is the self-regulation of the body's behavior through signals. IM Sechenov showed that along with excitation, inhibition occurs in the brain. The discovery of the mechanism of central inhibition, which makes it possible to delay reflexes, made it possible to show how external actions can be transformed into internal ones, and thus lay the foundations for studying the mechanism of internalization.

Sechenov's ideas had an impact on world science, but they were most developed in Russia in the teachings of Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1859-1963) and Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev (1857-1927). The works of I. P. Pavlov and V. M. Bekhterev in Russia formed an original psychological school- reflexology. The reflex acted as the initial concept of psychological science. Reflexology, striving to be an objective science, widely used physiological principles to explain mental phenomena.

IP Pavlov developed the doctrine of the reflex. Whereas previously a reflex meant a rigidly fixed stereotyped reaction, Pavlov introduced the "principle of convention" into this concept. He introduced the concept conditioned reflex". This meant that the body acquires and changes the program of its actions depending on the conditions - external and internal. External stimuli become a signal for him, orienting himself in the environment, and the reaction is fixed only if it is sanctioned by internal factor- the need of the body. Pavlov supplemented Sechenov's doctrine of the signal function of the stimulus with the doctrine of two signal systems. Second signal system, according to the teachings of Pavlov, a speech appears.

Similar to Pavlovian ideas are developed in the book "Objective Psychology" (1907) by V. M. Bekhterev, who created the first experimental psychological laboratory in Russia (1885) and the Psychoneurological Institute (1908), in which complex psychophysiological studies were carried out.

Lev Semenovich Vygotsky (1896-1934) created a cultural-historical theory of the human psyche, with the help of which he sought to determine the qualitative specificity mental world man, to solve the problem of the genesis of human consciousness and the mechanisms of its formation.

Marxist philosophy proceeds from the idea that material production plays a decisive role in all social life. If the animal adapts to the environment, then man, through the use of tools, modifies nature, “imposes the seal of his will on nature.” From this fundamental position of Marxist philosophy, from the point of view of L. S. Vygotsky, important consequences follow for psychology. One of them - the ability to master their nature - did not go unnoticed for a person in one very important respect: he also learned to master his own psyche, arbitrary forms of activity appeared as higher mental functions.

Vygotsky distinguishes two levels of the human psyche: lower natural and higher social mental functions. natural functions given to man as a natural being. They are psychophysiological in nature - they are sensory, motor, pneumonic ( involuntary memorization) functions. Higher mental functions are social in nature. This is arbitrary attention, logical memorization, thinking, creative imagination etc. The most important characteristic of these functions, along with arbitrariness, is their mediation, that is, the presence of a means by which they are organized.

Vygotsky's theory proceeded from the idea that the basic structure of social life should also determine the structure of the human psyche. Since the life of society is based on labor, and human labor is characterized by the use of labor tools, the characteristic difference between the human psyche and the animal psyche also lies in the use of peculiar "tools" of mental activity. According to Vygotsky, the sign is such a tool through which human consciousness is built. The scientist explains this situation on the example of arbitrary memory. A person, according to Vygotsky, remembers differently than an animal. The animal memorizes directly and involuntarily, while in humans, memorization turns out to be a specially organized action, for example, tying a knot for memory, notches on a tree of various shapes, etc. Such means - signs - by the fact of their appearance give rise to a new structure of memorization as a mental process. "Notches for memory" act as psychological tools with the help of which a person masters the processes of his memory.

Vygotsky called the transformation of an interpsychological relationship into an intrapsychological one the process of internalization (from Latin - “from outside to inside”). The doctrine of internalization is one of the key ones in Vygotsky's cultural-historical theory. With the help of this doctrine, he showed how the phylogeny and ontogenesis of the human psyche take place. The central moment in this process is the emergence of symbolic activity, the mastery of a word, a sign. In the course of the internalization process, the external means (“notch”, spoken word) is transformed into the inner psyche of a person, consciousness (image, element of inner speech).

On the basis of the ideas of L. S. Vygotsky, the largest and most influential school in Soviet psychology was formed, whose representatives were A. N. Leontiev, P. Ya. Galperin, A. R. Luria.

31. Development of the activity approach in domestic psychology

S.L. Rubinstein is a prominent theorist Russian psychology. The problems of the nature of the mental, being and consciousness, activity, subjectivity of a person and his relationship with the world were decisive and main for him throughout his life; he made a decisive contribution to the study of these problems. S.L. Rubinshtein is credited with the analysis, systematization and generalization of his contemporary achievements in psychological science, the results of which were presented in the fundamental work “Fundamentals of General Psychology” (1940).

In his works, S.L. Rubinshtein touched upon the problems of human mental development. The principle of the unity of consciousness and activity formulated by him formed the basis of the activity approach in psychology. He asserted the unity of education and mental development and, on this basis, formulated the methodological principle of studying the mental development of children in the process of education and upbringing. The basic law of mental development is that the child develops, being brought up and trained, mastering the content of human culture under the guidance of adults. The hereditarily determined processes of maturation open up broad possibilities for mental development, realized in the child's activity. In education and upbringing, the child acts not only as an object, but also as a subject of activity.

A prominent representative of the school of L.S. Vygotsky, who had a significant impact on the development of developmental psychology, is A.N. Leontiev. He proceeded from the fundamental position that the mental achievements of the human race are not fixed in hereditarily fixed changes in the body, but are embodied in the products of material and spiritual culture. The achievements of the human race are not given to the individual in his nature, but are given in the social life surrounding him; the child must “appropriate” them, master them. Mastering them, he reproduces the historically established human ability thus becoming human. The appropriation of generic abilities is possible only in the child's own activity, which is adequate to the nature of the ability to be mastered. This activity is carried out under the guidance of adults, in communication between the child and the adult.

A.N. Leontiev developed a general psychological theory of activity, introduced the category of leading activity into psychology, on the basis of which at that time each age period was meaningfully characterized, its place and role in the general course of human mental development was determined. A.N.Leontiev carried out a study of the game as a leading activity in preschool age. He owns research in educational psychology.

The system approach is a special direction in the methodology of scientific knowledge, which is based on the idea of ​​an object as a system. Objects of nature (inorganic or organic), man, society, material and ideal phenomena are considered as system objects. Methodologist E.G. Yudin noted that the specifics of systemic research is determined by the promotion of new principles of approach to the object of study, the new orientation of the entire study. In its most general form, this orientation is expressed in the desire to build a complete picture of the object. The systems approach is characterized by the following features:

The description of the elements of an integral system has no independent meaning; each element is described not as such, but in terms of its place in the structure of the whole.

One and the same object appears in a system study as having at the same time different characteristics, parameters, functions and even different principles of structure.

The study of a system object is inseparable from the study of the conditions of its existence.

Specific to the system approach is the problem of generating the properties of the whole from the properties of the elements and, conversely, generating the properties of the elements from the characteristics of the whole.

In a systematic study, only causal explanations for the functioning of an object are insufficient; For a large class of systems expediency is characteristic as an integral feature of their behavior.

The source of transformations of a system or its functions usually lies in the system itself; it is a self-organizing system.

The possibilities of implementing a systematic approach in psychology were discussed by B.F. Lomov. He formulated the general requirements for a systematic analysis of mental phenomena:

Psychic phenomena are multidimensional and should be considered in different measurement systems.

The system of psychic phenomena should be studied as a multi-level one, built hierarchically.

When describing the mental properties of a person, it is necessary to keep in mind the multiplicity of those relationships in which he exists, i.e. represent the diversity of its properties.

The multidimensionality and multilevel nature of mental phenomena necessarily presuppose a system of their determinants.

Psychic phenomena must be studied in development; in the course of development, there is a change in its determinants, a change in systemic foundations.

33. Psychology of installation

A person perceives either a direct impact from the processes of reality itself, or the impact of verbal symbols representing these processes in a specific form. If the behavior of an animal is determined only by the influence of actual reality, then man is not always directly subordinate to this reality; for the most part, he reacts to its phenomena only after he has refracted them in his mind, only after that. How did he make sense of them? It goes without saying that this is a very essential feature of man, on which, perhaps, all his advantage over other living beings is based.

According to all that we already know about man, the thought naturally comes to mind about the role that his attitude can play in this case.

If it is true that the basis of our behavior, which develops under conditions of direct influence of the environment around us, is an attitude, then a question may arise. What happens to it in another plane - the plane of verbal reality, represented in words? Does our attitude play any role here, or is this sphere of our activity built on completely different foundations?

When one or a similar problem is presented again, there is no longer any need for objectification and it is resolved on the basis of an appropriate attitude. Once found, the attitude can be awakened to life directly, in addition to the objectification that mediated it for the first time. This is how the scope of a person's attitude states grows and develops: it includes not only attitudes that arise directly, but also those that were once mediated by acts of objectification.

The circle of human attitudes is not limited to such attitudes - attitudes mediated by cases of objectification and arising on its basis by their own acts of thinking and will. This should also include those attitudes that were first built on the basis of the objectification of others, for example, creatively established subjects, but then they passed into the possession of people in the form of ready-made formulas that no longer require direct participation objectification processes. Experience and education, for example, are further sources of formulas of the same kind. A special period in a person's life is dedicated to them - the school period, which captures an increasingly significant period of time in our lives. But the enrichment of the same kind of complex installations continues in the future - the experience and knowledge of a person is constantly growing and expanding.

The theory of the phased formation of mental actions - P.Ya. Galperin, D.B. Elkonin, N.F. Talyzina and others. It is based on the following provisions. Knowledge, skills and abilities cannot be acquired without human activity.

In the course of practical activity, an indicative basis is formed in a person as a system of ideas about the goal, plan, means of ongoing or upcoming actions. Moreover, in order to accurately carry out these actions, he needs to focus his attention on the most important thing in his activity, so that the desired does not get out of control. Therefore, training should be built in accordance with the indicative basis for performing the action, which should be learned by the trainee. The cycle of assimilation should consist of the following stages:

At the first stage, the attitude of the trainees to the goals and the task of the upcoming action, to the contents) of the material is formed, as well as systems of reference points and instructions are distinguished, the account of which is necessary to perform the actions.

At the second stage, trainees perform the required actions based on externally presented patterns of actions, in particular, on the scheme of the orienting basis of the action.

At the next stage, as a result of repeated reinforcement of the composition of the action by a systematically correct solution of various problems, there is no need to use an indicative scheme. Its generalized and abbreviated content is expressed in speech (pronunciation of the ongoing actions aloud).

At the fifth stage, it gradually disappears sound side speech - actions are formed in external speech "to oneself".

This theory makes it possible to reduce the time for the formation of skills and abilities by showing exemplary performance of actions; achieve high automation of performed actions; ensure quality control of both the entire action and its individual operations. However, the creation of specific models of actions (detailed schemes of indicative foundations for their implementation) is not always simple, and the formation of stereotypical mental and motor actions in trainees sometimes occurs to the detriment of their creative development.

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