What is the importance of Antarctica, many do not even know. The importance of Antarctica in the life of our planet is very great. Why is mining prohibited in Antarctica?
What is the importance of Antarctica?
Antarctica is an absolute potential resource reserve of humanity. And its significance is quite large both for science and in economic terms.
Why is mining prohibited in Antarctica? Economic activity can cause snowmelt, which will lead to a natural disaster.
Scientific significance of Antarctica
The bowels of the mainland are rich in minerals - iron ore, coal and ore. The scientists also noticed traces of nickel, copper, zinc, lead, rock crystal, molybdenum, graphite and mica. In addition, she is a huge store of supplies. fresh water on the ground.
Researchers observe meteorological and climatic processes and came to the conclusion that the coldest continent on the planet is a colossal climate-forming factor for our planet. Thanks to permafrost, you can find out what our planet was like thousands of years ago, just study the ice sheet of Antarctica. It literally freezes data on the Earth's climate and the constituent part of the atmosphere. Scientists have proved that on the mainland you can find water that was frozen during the life of Jesus Christ.
Economic importance of Antarctica
Antarctica is widely used in the tourism and fishing industries. Despite the fact that the mainland is rich in coal, it is forbidden to build a mine to extract a natural resource on it. Main scope economic activity on the territory of Antarctica - the active use of its biological resources. Here they are engaged in whaling, small-scale seal fishing, fishing, and krill fishing.
The world economy's demand for mineral resources will only grow. Against this background, according to Invest-Foresight experts, in full height the problem of developing the resources of Antarctica may arise. Although it is protected from the development of mineral resources by numerous conventions and treaties, this may not save the coldest continent on the planet.
© Stanislav Beloglazov / Photobank Lori
It is estimated that the developed countries consume approximately 70 percent of all the world's minerals, although they possess only 40 percent of their reserves. But in the coming decades, the growth in the consumption of these resources will not be at the expense of developed, but at the expense of developing countries. And they are quite capable of paying attention to the Antarctic region.
Expert of the Union of Oil and Gas Producers Rustam Tankaev believes that on this moment the extraction of any minerals in Antarctica is not economically viable and is unlikely to ever become so.
“In this respect, even the Moon, in my opinion, is more promising in terms of the development and extraction of mineral resources. Of course, we can say that technology is changing, but space technology are developing even faster than the Antarctic, - the expert emphasizes. – There were attempts to drill wells to open ancient cavities with water in the hope of finding ancient microorganisms. There was no such thing as searching for mineral resources at the same time.”
The first information that the ice continent is rich in minerals appeared at the beginning of the 20th century. Then the researchers discovered layers of coal. And today, for example, it is known that in one of the water areas surrounding Antarctica - in the Commonwealth Sea - a coal deposit includes more than 70 seams and can reach several billion tons. There are thinner deposits in the Transantarctic Mountains.
In addition to coal, Antarctica has iron ore and rare earth and precious metals such as gold, silver, copper, titanium, nickel, zirconium, chromium and cobalt.
The development of minerals, if it ever starts, can be very dangerous for the ecology of the region, says a professor at the Faculty of Geography of Moscow State University Yuri Mazurov. There is no unambiguous vision of the consequences of such abstract significant risks, he reminds.
“On the surface of Antarctica, we see a dense thickness of ice up to 4 kilometers, and we still have little idea of what is under it. In particular, we know, for example, that there is Lake Vostok there, and we understand that organisms from there can have the most amazing nature, including those associated with alternative ideas about the origin and development of life on the planet. And if so, it requires an incredibly responsible attitude to economic activities in the vicinity of the lake,” he warns.
Of course, the expert continues, every investor who decides to develop or search for mineral resources on the ice continent will try to get various recommendations. But in general, Mazurov recalls, there is a principle in one of the UN documents, which is called "On the historical responsibility of states for the preservation of the nature of the Earth."
"It says explicitly, 'cannot be allowed economic activity, the economic result of which exceeds the environmental damage or is unpredictable. The situation in Antarctica is just the second. Until now, there is not a single organization that could conduct an examination of the project with a deep immersion in the nature of Antarctica. I think this is just the case when you need to follow the letter and not guess about the possible outcome, ”the expert warns.
And he adds that the probability of some point, very accurate developments can be considered acceptable.
By the way, the documents themselves, which protect the mineral resources of the ice continent from development and development, are strong only at first glance. Yes, on the one hand, the Antarctic Treaty, which was signed on December 1, 1959 in the United States, is open-ended. But on the other hand, the Convention on the Management of the Development of Mineral Resources of Antarctica, which was adopted on June 2, 1988 by a meeting of 33 states, is still in limbo.
The main reason is that in Antarctica, under the main treaty, “any activity related to mineral resources is prohibited, with the exception of scientific research". In theory, it follows from this that the 1988 Antarctic Minerals Management Convention cannot and will not apply while this prohibition is in effect. But another document, the Environmental Protocol, says that after 50 years from the date it comes into force, a conference can be convened to consider how it works. The Protocol was approved on October 4, 1991 and is valid until 2048. It can, of course, be canceled, but only if the participating countries renounce it, and then adopt and ratify a special convention on the regulation of the extraction of mineral resources in Antarctica. Theoretically, the development of minerals can be carried out with the help of so-called international consortia, the rights of participants in which are equal. Perhaps other options will emerge in the coming decades.
“There are much more promising regions on Earth for mining in the future. In Russia, for example, there huge territory Arctic lands and shelf, the mineral reserves are huge, and the conditions for their development are much better compared to Antarctica,” Rustam Tankaev is sure.
Of course, it is possible that by the end of the 21st century, the issues of development mineral wealth Antarctica will still have to be transferred from the theoretical to the practical plane. The whole question is how to do it.
It is important to understand one thing - the ice continent in any situation should remain an arena of interaction, not discord. As, in fact, it has been customary since its discovery in the distant 19th century.
The Russian government has approved a resolution, one of the main goals of which is "ensuring Russia's national interests in the Antarctic region." Although officially these interests are mostly limited to scientific research, there is much more at stake - control of vast mineral reserves. However, Russia can hardly count on unhindered access to them: there are too many competitors.
Land of the Seven Capitals
Antarctic region, about which in question in the resolution Russian government, represents the territories located south of the 60th degree south latitude. The southern basin of the World Ocean falls within the outlined boundaries (usually this sector is called the general term Southern Ocean), however, Antarctica has traditionally been of the greatest interest to states. Unlike all other continents, since its discovery in 1820, Antarctica has essentially remained a no man's land. More precisely, the rights to it were presented by seven countries at once, but so far their claims remain for the most part unrecognized.
The discoverers of Antarctica are considered Russian sailors Thaddeus Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev. On January 28, 1820, the members of the expedition they led became the first people to see the icy continent. Just two days later, vessels as part of a British expedition led by Edward Bransfield approached the shores of Antarctica. The first who happened to land on the continent, presumably, were American St. John's wort, led by Captain John Davis. In search of seals on February 7, 1821, they landed on the coast of West Antarctica, where they spent about an hour.
The very first to claim land in Antarctica in 1908 was announced by Great Britain, which declared sovereignty over a number of islands located next to the Falklands already owned by the British crown. True, then London "took" only a small piece of Antarctica, but later, in 1917, the entire sector of the continent (up to the South Pole), limited by 20 and 80 degrees west longitude, was declared the British Antarctic Territory.
Other countries' claims southern continent were designed in a similar way - in the form of sectors. In 1923, London "annexed" the Ross Territory, a narrow section of Antarctica between 150 degrees east and 160 degrees west, to New Zealand, which was subordinate to him. The navigator James Clark Ross “staken out” for the British crown back in 1841, however, the land was officially declared royal possessions only 82 years later. The Australian Antarctic Territory was transferred by the mother country to its former colony in 1933. She occupied the sector between the 44th and 160th degrees east longitude.
In 1924, the Antarctic territory - Adélie Land - was acquired by France, which issued claims for the site, which was discovered in 1840 by the traveler Jules Dumont-Durville. This sector was limited to 136 and 142 degrees east longitude and wedged into the Australian Antarctic Territory, with which the British agreed.
Another Antarctic power appeared in 1939 - then the sector between 20 degrees west and 44 degrees east longitude was declared to belong to Norway. The territory was named Queen Maud Land - in honor of the wife of the Norwegian king Haakon VII Maud of Wales. Chile and Argentina were the last to claim Antarctic territories in 1940 and 1942. At the same time, the segments indicated by their authorities overlapped not only with each other, but also with the British one. Another site, Mary Byrd Land, located between 90 and 160 degrees west longitude, has remained unoccupied - no state in the world has put forward official claims to it.
Antarctic Treaty
The situation that has developed around Antarctica from the very beginning threatened to international conflict. The applications of seven states for the Antarctic territories, as expected, caused objections from many other countries - both those that also claimed a piece of the continent, and others that preferred to see Antarctica neutral territory. Uncertainty with the status of Antarctica complicated and scientific research: by the middle of the 20th century, scientists actively used the continent as a unique research platform, and the presence of national segments did not contribute to international cooperation.
Attempts to stop the division of Antarctica in the late 1940s were made by the United States and India. However, the meetings and conferences they held did not yield any results. Progress was achieved only in 1959, when 12 states signed the Antarctic Treaty - a kind of international code of conduct on the continent. In addition to the seven countries claiming territory in Antarctica, representatives of Belgium, the USSR, the USA, South Africa and Japan signed the document. All of them at the time of the creation of the treaty conducted active research on the continent. Now the number of signatories to the treaty has increased to 50 countries, and only 22 of them have the right to vote - those whose researchers are most actively involved in the study of Antarctica.
The core of the agreement was the postulate that Antarctica is declared a peaceful zone, where it is forbidden to place any military bases, conduct maneuvers and test weapons, including nuclear weapons. Instead, the region was supposed to become a platform for large-scale scientific research, the results of which the parties could freely exchange.
The political aspect of the document became no less important: according to its Sixth Article, it actually froze everything territorial claims to Antarctica. On the one hand, the contract is drawn up in such a way that attempts to challenge the claims of one or another participant on its basis are simply impossible. On the other hand, the "owners" of the Antarctic territories did not have any tools to confirm their sovereignty over these areas. As a result, this deprived both camps of arguments - both those who had territorial claims in Antarctica and those who did not agree with them. At the same time, the treaty established the principle of free access of its participants to any territory of the continent.
Minerals
Eliminating the danger political conflict, the treaty, however, left out another equally important issue: access to minerals. As geologists suggest, there are vast deposits in Antarctica a large number resources: coal, iron ore, copper, zinc, nickel, lead and other minerals. However, oil and gas reserves are of greatest interest to most countries. Their exact volumes are unknown, however, according to some reports, the Ross Sea region alone (the Australian sector) contains about 50 billion barrels of oil and more than 100 trillion cubic meters of gas. For comparison, Russia's reserves of these hydrocarbons are 74 billion barrels and 33 trillion cubic meters, respectively.
An attempt to discuss the possibility of mining was made by the participants of the Antarctic Treaty in 1988, by adopting the relevant convention. However, the document never entered into force, and instead, in 1991, the parties signed the Madrid Protocol, which entered into force in 1998. According to this document, the extraction of any minerals is strictly prohibited on the territory of Antarctica. True, this ban is not indefinite: the text of the protocol must be revised 50 years after its entry into force - in 2048. At the same time, some countries claiming territories in Antarctica do not exclude that, as a result, the industrial development of the continent may be allowed. In addition, there is a possibility that one of the participants in the protocol will simply refuse to participate in it.
It's obvious that similar scenarios give cause for concern, especially to those countries that consider Antarctica theirs. In practice, this led to the fact that in the course of the implementation of the provisions of the UN Convention on maritime law(UNCLOS), which entered into force in 1994, there was a serious conflict in connection with the need to determine the boundaries continental shelves. Applicants from among the "owners" of the continents immediately found candidates for the Antarctic shelf. On the other hand, the Antarctic Treaty expressly forbids its participants to increase their possessions.
However, a solution was found. Three countries - Australia, Argentina and Norway - indicated the coordinates of the proposed shelf properties in Antarctica, but asked the UN not to consider their status until the resolution of the territorial dispute. Three more countries New Zealand, France and the United Kingdom - simply reserved the right to submit a corresponding request later. the only state of the seven, which so far has not indicated its position in any way, was Chile.
Submission of "Antarctic" applications caused a flood of objections. Naturally, Great Britain and Argentina began to argue among themselves, which claim the same territories (and in addition to Antarctica, they are trying to challenge each other's Falklands and other islands in the South Atlantic). Representatives of Russia, the USA, Japan, the Netherlands, India and other countries filed statements about the need to maintain the “no one's” status of Antarctica.
Equal Chances
So far, few people dare to conduct open conversations about mining in Antarctica. Meanwhile all around ice continent nervousness is obviously growing: almost any gesture of any country in its direction is immediately perceived by counterparties as an attempt to push back the "legitimate" owners.
Photo: Alexey Nikolsky / RIA Novosti
For example, in a report by the Institute international politics Named by Lowy (Lowy Institute for International Policy, .pdf), prepared in 2011 for the Australian authorities, the Kremlin's actions are described as real economic expansion. “The government order of 2010 on the Antarctic strategy until 2020 speaks peremptorily about the importance of Antarctic resources for energy and economic security Russia, - write the authors of the report. - as priority targets public policy it mentions comprehensive study, dedicated to mineral and hydrocarbon resources, as well as the development of a "progressive" strategy designed to discuss the situation after 2048.
On the one hand, the strategy is only about “geological and geophysical studies that allow for the necessary predictive assessments of the mineral and hydrocarbon potential Antarctica". In other words, the authors of the program propose not to extract fuel, but only to explore it. However, on the other hand, it is unlikely that a prerequisite for such studies is purely scientific interest. Especially if " comprehensive study minerals, hydrocarbons and other types of natural resources of the Antarctic” is intended to contribute to “strengthening the economic potential of Russia”.
In a similar vein, the Australians evaluate the activities of the Chinese, whose goal is called "assessment of the potential of resources and methods of their use." The author of the report almost accuses Beijing of imperial ambitions: according to him, on one of the Chinese polar stations“Welcome to China sign is hanging, indicating a desire for isolation and a refusal to recognize Australia’s claims.”
Obviously, in anticipation of the expiration of the moratorium on mining, the nervousness around Antarctica will only intensify. At the same time, the likelihood that, in the context of the global energy shortage, the ban on exploration and production of hydrocarbons will be in effect forever is not very high. It is possible that in order to prevent full-scale confrontations, a new agreement will be signed that regulates the procedure for working in Antarctica and on its shelf. But Russia, most likely, with this division will have no more arguments than any other country.
ANTARCTICA is the southern polar continent, which occupies central part southern polar region of Antarctica. Almost entirely located within the Antarctic Circle.
Description of Antarctica
General information. The area of Antarctica with ice shelves is 13,975 thousand km 2 , the area of the continent is 16,355 thousand km 2 . Average Height 2040 m, maximum 5140 m (Vinson Massif). The surface of the ice sheet of Antarctica, which covers almost the entire continent, exceeds 3000 m in the central part, forming the largest plateau on Earth, 5-6 times larger than Tibet. Transantarctic mountain system that crosses the entire continent from Victoria Land to east coast m. Weddell, divides Antarctica into two parts - Eastern and Western, differing geological structure and relief.
History of Antarctic exploration
Antarctica as an icy continent was discovered on January 28, 1820, by a Russian round-the-world naval expedition led by F. F. Bellingshausen and M. P. Lazarev. Later, as a result of the work of expeditions from various countries ( , ), the contours of the shores of the icy continent began to gradually emerge. The first evidence of the existence of an ancient continental crystalline basement under the ice sheet of Antarctica appeared after the work in the Antarctic waters of the English expedition on board the Challenger ship (1874). In 1894, the English geologist J. Murray published a map on which the Antarctic continent was first plotted as a single landmass. Ideas about the nature of Antarctica were formed mainly as a result of summarizing the materials of sea expeditions and studies carried out during campaigns and at scientific stations on the coast and in the interior of the mainland. The first scientific station at which year-round observations were made was set up at the beginning of 1899 by an English expedition led by the Norwegian explorer K. Borchgrevink at Cape Adair (the northern coast of Victoria Land).
The first scientific trips into the depths of Antarctica ice shelf Pocca and the high-mountain glacial plateau of Victoria Land were made by the English expedition of R. Scott (1901-03). The English expedition of E. Shackleton (1907-09) traveled to 88 ° 23 "south latitude from the Pocca Peninsula towards the South Pole. For the first time, R. Amundsen reached the South Geographic Pole on December 14, 1911, and on January 17, 1912 - Scott's English expedition. Huge contribution It was introduced into the study of Antarctica by the Anglo-Australian-New Zealand expeditions of D. Mawson (1911-14 and 1929-1931), as well as by the American expeditions of R. Baird (1928-30, 1933-35, 1939-41, 1946-47). November - December 1935 American expedition L. Ellsworth for the first time crossed the mainland by plane from the Antarctic Peninsula to the Pocca Sea. Long time stationary year-round observations were carried out at the coastal bases of Antarctic expeditions (mostly episodic), main task which was a route reconnaissance survey of poorly or almost unexplored spaces of Antarctica. Only in the mid-40s. 20th century on the Antarctic Peninsula were organized for a long time operating stations.
Extensive studies of the icy continent using modern vehicles and scientific equipment unfolded during the International Geophysical Year (IGY; July 1, 1957 - December 31, 1958). 11 states took part in these studies, incl. , USA, UK and France. The number of scientific stations has sharply increased. Soviet polar explorers created home base— the Mirny observatory on the coast of Cape Davis, opened the first inland station Pionerskaya in the depths of East Antarctica (at a distance of 375 km from the coast), then in central regions mainland 4 more inland stations. In the depths of Antarctica, the expeditions of the USA, Great Britain and France created their own stations. The total number of stations in Antarctica reached 50. At the end of 1957 Soviet researchers a trip was made to the region of the geomagnetic pole, where the Vostok station was created; at the end of 1958 the pole of relative inaccessibility was reached. In the summer season of 1957-58, the Anglo-New Zealand expedition led by V. Fuchs and E. Hillary for the first time crossed the Antarctic continent from the coast of the Weddell Sea through South Pole to the sea Pocca.
The largest geological and geological-geophysical studies in Antarctica are carried out by expeditions of the USA and the CCCP. American geologists work mainly in West Antarctica, as well as on Victoria Land and the Transantarctic Mountains. Soviet expeditions covered with their research almost the entire coast of East Antarctica and a significant part of the adjacent mountainous areas, as well as the coast of the Weddell Sea and its mountainous framing. In addition, Soviet geologists participated in the work of the US and British expeditions, conducting research on Mary Byrd Land, Ellsworth Land, the Antarctic Peninsula and the Transantarctic Mountains. In Antarctica there are about 30 scientific stations (1980), operating permanently or for a long period, and temporary expeditionary bases with replaceable personnel, which contain 11 states. The wintering staff at the stations is about 800 people, of which about 300 are members of the Soviet Antarctic expeditions. The largest permanent stations are Molodyozhnaya and Mirny (CCCP) and McMurdo (USA).
As a result of research using various geophysical methods, the main features of the nature of the icy continent have been elucidated. For the first time, information was obtained on the thickness of the ice sheet of Antarctica, its main morphometric characteristics were established, and an idea was given of the relief of the ice bed. Of the 28 million km of the mainland, located above sea level, only 3.7 million km 3, i.e. only about 13% falls on the "stone Antarctica". The remaining 87% (over 24 million km 3) is a powerful ice sheet, the thickness of which in some areas exceeds 4.5 km, and the average thickness is 1964 m.
Ice of Antarctica
The ice sheet of Antarctica consists of 5 large and a large number of small peripheries, terrestrial domes and covers. On an area of more than 1.5 million km 2 (about 11% of the territory of the entire continent), the ice cover is afloat in the form of ice shelves. Areas not covered by ice Mountain peaks, ranges, coastal oases), occupy in total about 0.2-0.3% of the total area of the mainland. Power Details earth's crust testify to its continental character within the mainland, where the thickness of the crust is 30-40 km. The general isostatic balance of Antarctica is assumed - compensation for the load of the ice sheet by subsidence.
Relief of Antarctica
In the bedrock (subglacial) relief of East Antarctica, 9 large orographic units are distinguished: the Vostochnaya Plain with altitudes from +300 to -300 m, lying to the west of the Transantarctic Ridge, in the direction of Vostok station; the Schmidt plain, located south of the 70th parallel, between 90 and 120 ° east longitude (its heights range from -2400 to + 500 m); the Western Plain (in the southern part of Queen Maud Land), the surface of which is approximately at sea level; the Gamburtsev and Vernadsky mountains, stretching in an arc (about 2500 km long, up to 3400 meters above sea level) from the western tip of the Schmidt plain to the Riiser-Larsen peninsula; Eastern Plateau (height 1000-1500 m), adjacent from the southeast to the eastern end of the Schmidt Plain; the IGY valley with the Prince Charles mountain system; Transantarctic mountains, crossing the entire continent from the Weddell Sea to the Pocca Sea (altitude up to 4500 m); mountains of the Queen Maud Land with the highest height over 3000 m and a length of about 1500 km; mountain system Enderby Lands, height 1500-3000 m. There are 4 main orographic units in West Antarctica: the Antarctic Peninsula Ridge and Alexander I Lands, height 3600 m; mountain ranges of the coast of cape Amundsen (3000 m); median massif with the Ellsworth mountains (maximum height 5140 m); Baird Plain with a minimum elevation of -2555 m.
Climate of Antarctica
The climate of Antarctica, especially its interior regions, is severe. high altitude surface of the ice sheet, the exceptional transparency of the air, the predominance of clear weather, as well as the fact that in the middle of the Antarctic summer the Earth is at perihelion, create favorable conditions to receive a huge amount solar radiation during the summer months. The monthly values of total solar radiation in the central regions of the mainland in summer are much greater than in any other region. the globe. However, due to large values snow surface albedo (about 85%), even in December and January, most of the radiation is reflected in space, and the absorbed energy barely compensates for the heat loss in the long wavelength range. Therefore, even at the height of summer, the air temperature in the central regions of Antarctica is negative, and in the region of the cold pole at Vostok station it does not exceed -13.6°C. On most of the coast in summer, the maximum air temperature is only slightly above 0°C. In winter, during the round-the-clock polar night the air in the surface layer is strongly cooled and the temperature drops below -80 ° C. In August 1960, at Vostok station, minimum temperature on the surface of our planet -88.3°C. In many parts of the coast, hurricane-force winds are frequent, which are accompanied by strong snowstorms, especially in winter time. The wind speed often reaches 40-50 m/s, sometimes even 60 m/s.
Geological structure of Antarctica
In the structure of Antarctica, there are (East Antarctic craton), the Late Precambrian-Early Paleozoic fold system of the Transantarctic Mountains and the Middle Paleozoic-Mesozoic West Antarctic fold system (see map).
In the interior of Antarctica are the least explored areas of the mainland. The most extensive depressions in the bedrock of Antarctica correspond to actively developing sedimentary basins. Essential Elements mainland structures - numerous rift zones.
The Antarctic platform (an area of about 8 million km2) occupies mostly East Antarctica and the sector of West Antarctica between 0 and 35° west longitude. On the coast of East Antarctica, a predominantly Archean crystalline basement is developed, composed of folded metamorphic strata of granulite and amphibolite facies (enderbites, charnockites, granite gneisses, pyroxene-plagioclase schists, etc.). In the post-Archean time, these sequences are intruded, anorthosite-granosyenites, and. The basement is locally overlain by Proterozoic and Lower Paleozoic sedimentary-volcanogenic rocks, as well as Permian terrigenous deposits and Jurassic basalts. Proterozoic-Early Paleozoic folded strata (up to 6000-7000 m) occur in aulacogenes (Prince Charles Mountains, Shackleton Range, Denman Glacier area, etc.). The ancient cover is developed in the western part of Queen Maud Land, mainly on the Reacher Plateau. Here, on the Archean crystalline basement, platform Proterozoic sedimentary-volcanogenic strata (up to 2000 m) intruded by the main rocks lie subhorizontally. The Paleozoic complex of the cover is represented by Permian coal-bearing strata (clayey, with a total thickness of up to 1300 m), in some places overlain by tholeiite (up to 1500-2000 m thick) of the Middle Jurassic.
The Late Precambrian-Early Paleozoic folded system of the Transantarctic Mountains (Rosskaya) arose on the crust of the continental type. Its section has a distinct two-tier structure: the folded Precambrian-Early Paleozoic basement is peneplanated and overlain by an undislocated Middle Paleozoic-Early Mesozoic platform cover. The folded basement includes protrusions of the reworked Dorosian (Lower Precambrian) basement and the Russian proper (Upper Precambrian–Lower Paleozoic) volcanosedimentary sequences. The Epiros (Bikon) cover (up to 4000 m) consists mainly of, in some places topped with Jurassic basalts. Among the intrusive formations in the basement, rocks of the composition of quartz diorites predominate, and with local development of quartz and granites; intrusive facies of the Jurassic break through both the basement and the cover, with the largest being localized along the surface of the structural.
The West Antarctic fold system frames the Pacific coast of the mainland from the Drake Passage in the east to the Pocca Sea in the west and represents the southern link of the Pacific mobile belt, almost 4000 km long. Its structure is determined by the abundance of protrusions of the metamorphic basement, intensively reworked into and partially bordered by Late Paleozoic and Early Mesozoic geosynclinal complexes, deformed near the boundary and; The late Mesozoic-Cenozoic structural stage is characterized by a weak dislocation of powerful sedimentary and volcanogenic formations that accumulated against the background of contrasting orogeny, and intrusive. The age and origin of the metamorphic basement of this zone have not been established. Late Paleozoic-Early Mesozoic includes thick (several thousand meters) intensely dislocated strata of predominantly shale-graywacke composition; in some areas there are rocks of the siliceous-volcanogenic formation. The Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous orogenic complex of volcanogenic-terrigenous composition is widely developed. Outcrops of the Late Cretaceous-Paleogene molasse complex of rocks are noted along the eastern coast of the Antarctic Peninsula. Numerous intrusions of gabbro-granite composition, mainly of Cretaceous age.
Developing basins are "apophyses" of oceanic depressions in the body of the continent; their outlines are determined by collapse structures and, possibly, powerful sliding movements. In West Antarctica, the following stand out: the Pocca Sea basin with a thickness of 3000-4000 m; the basin of the Amundsen and Bellingshausen seas, the data on the deep structure of which are practically absent; the Weddell Sea basin, which has a deeply submerged heterogeneous basement and a cover thickness ranging from 2000 m to 10,000-15,000 m. East Antarctica the Victoria Land basin, Wilkes Land and Prydz Bay stand out. The thickness of the cover in the Prydz Bay basin is 10,000–12,000 m according to geophysical data; the remaining basins in East Antarctica are contoured according to geomorphological features.
Rift zones are distinguished from a large number of Cenozoic grabens based on specific features structures of the earth's crust. The rift zones of the Lambert Glacier, the Filchner Glacier and the Bransfield Strait are the most studied. The manifestations of Late Mesozoic-Cenozoic alkaline-ultrabasic and alkaline-basaltoid magmatism serve as geological evidence of rifting processes.
Minerals of Antarctica
Manifestations and signs of minerals were found in more than 170 points of Antarctica (map).
Of this number, only 2 points in the Commonwealth Sea area are deposits: one is iron ore, the other is coal. Among the rest, more than 100 occur in occurrences of metallic minerals, about 50 in occurrences of non-metallic minerals, 20 in occurrences of coals, and 3 in gas manifestations in the Pocca seas. About 20 manifestations of metallic minerals were identified by elevated contents of useful components in geochemical samples. The degree of knowledge of the vast majority of manifestations is very low and most often comes down to a statement of the fact of the discovery of certain mineral concentrations with visual assessment their quantitative content.
Combustible minerals are represented by hard coal on the mainland and gas shows in wells drilled on the shelf of the Pocca Sea. The most significant accumulation of coal, regarded as a deposit, is located in East Antarctica in the area of the Commonwealth Sea. It includes 63 seams of coal in an area of about 200 km 2, concentrated in the section of the Permian strata with a thickness of 800-900 m. The thickness of individual coal seams is 0.1-3.1 m, 17 seams are over 0.7 m and 20 - less than 0.25 m. Consistency of the layers is good, the dip is gentle (up to 10-12°). According to the composition and degree of metamorphism, coals belong to duren high- and medium-ash varieties, transitional from long-flame to gas. According to preliminary estimates, general reserves of coal in a deposit can reach several billion tons. In the Transantarctic Mountains, the thickness of coal-bearing strata varies from several tens to hundreds of meters, and the degree of coal saturation of sections varies from very weak (rare thin lenses and interlayers of carbonaceous shale) to very significant (from 5-7 up to 15 layers in the interval of the section with a thickness of 300-400 m). The formations have a subhorizontal occurrence and are well sustained along strike; their thickness, as a rule, is from 0.5 to 3.0 m, and in single blows it reaches 6-7 m. The degree of metamorphism and composition of coals are similar to those given above. On the separate sections semi-anthracites and graphitized varieties are noted, associated with the contact effect of dolerite intrusions. Gas shows in boreholes on the shelf Cape Pocca are found in the depth range from 45 to 265 meters below the bottom surface and are represented by traces of methane, ethane and ethylene in the Neogene glacial-marine deposits. Footprints on the shelf of the Weddell Sea natural gas found in one sample of bottom sediments. In the mountain frame of the Weddell Sea, the folded basement rocks contain epigenetic light bitumens in the form of microscopic veinlets and nest-like accumulations in cracks.
metal minerals. Iron concentrations are represented by several genetic types, of which the largest accumulations are associated with the Proterozoic jaspilite formation. The main jaspilite deposit (deposit) was discovered in the overglacial outcrops of Prince Charles City over a length of 1000 m at a thickness of more than 350 m; in the section, there are also less thick members of jaspilites (from fractions of a meter to 450 m), separated by layers of waste rock up to 300 m thick. 0 times. The amount of silica varies from 35 to 60%, the content of sulfur and phosphorus is low; as impurities are noted, (up to 0.2%), as well as and (up to 0.01%). Aeromagnetic data indicate the continuation of the jaspilite deposit under the ice along at least for several tens of kilometers. Other manifestations of this formation are represented by thin primary deposits (up to 5-6 m) or moraine collapses; the content of iron oxides in these manifestations varies from 20 to 55%.
The most significant manifestations of metamorphogenic genesis are represented by lenticular and nest-like almost monomineral accumulations 1–2 meters in size with a content of up to 90%, localized in zones and horizons several tens of meters thick and up to 200–300 m long. Approximately the same scales are typical for manifestations of contact -metasomatic genesis, but this type of mineralization is less common. Manifestations of magmatogenic and hypergene genesis are few and insignificant. Manifestations of other ores of ferrous metals are represented by titanomagnetite dissemination, sometimes accompanying igneous accumulations of iron with thin manganese crusts and efflorescences in the zones of crushing of various plutonium rocks, as well as small nest-like accumulations of chromite in serpentinized dunites on the South Shetland Islands. Increasing concentrations of chromium and titanium (up to 1%) revealed some metamorphic and basic intrusive rocks.
Relatively large manifestations are characteristic of copper. Of greatest interest are manifestations in the southeastern zone of the Antarctic Peninsula. They belong to the porphyry copper type and are characterized by disseminated and veined (rarely nodular) distribution of , and , sometimes with an admixture of and . According to single analyzes, the copper content in intrusive rocks does not exceed 0.02%, but in the most intensely mineralized rocks it increases to 3.0%, where, according to rough estimates, up to 0.15% Mo, 0.70% Pb, 0, 07% Zn, 0.03% Ag, 10% Fe, 0.07% Bi and 0.05% W. in the manner of pyrite-chalcopyrite-molybdenite with an admixture of pyrrhotite); however, manifestations in this zone are still poorly understood and not characterized by analyses. In the basement of the East Antarctic Platform in the zones of hydrothermal development, the thickest of which on the coast of the Sea of Cosmonauts have a thickness of up to 15-20 m and a length of up to 150 m, sulfide mineralization of the vein-disseminated type develops in quartz veins. The maximum size of ore phenocrysts, composed mainly of chalcocite, chalcopyrite and molybdenite, is 1.5-2.0 mm, and the content of ore minerals in the most enriched areas reaches 5-10%. In such areas, the copper content increases to 2.0 and molybdenum to 0.5%, but poor dissemination with traces of these elements (hundredths of a percent) is much more common. In other regions of the craton, less extensive and powerful zones with mineralization of a similar type, sometimes accompanied by an admixture of lead and zinc. The remaining manifestations of metallic ones are their slightly increased content in geochemical samples from the above-described ore occurrences (as a rule, no more than 8-10 clarks), as well as an insignificant concentration of ore minerals found during the mineragraphic study of rocks and analysis of their heavy fraction. Only gives visual accumulations, the crystals of which are no more than 7-10 cm in size (most often 0.5-3.0 cm) are noted in pegmatite veins in several areas of the East Antarctic Platform.
Of the non-metallic minerals, crystal is more common than others, the manifestations of which are associated mainly with pegmatite and quartz veins in the basement of the craton. The maximum size of the crystals is 10-20 cm in length. As a rule, quartz is milky white or smoky; translucent or slightly turbid crystals are rare and do not exceed 1-3 cm in size. Small transparent crystals were also noted in tonsils and geodes of Mesozoic and Cenozoic balsatoids in the mountainous frame of the Weddell Sea.
From modern Antarctica
The prospects for the discovery and development of mineral deposits are sharply limited by the extreme natural conditions of the region. This concerns, first of all, the possibility of discovering deposits of solid minerals directly in the ice outcrops. rocks; their insignificant degree of prevalence reduces the probability of such discoveries by a factor of ten compared to other continents, even if a detailed examination of all rock outcrops in Antarctica is provided. The only exception is hard coal, the stratiform nature of the deposits of which among the undislocated deposits of the cover determines their significant areal development, which increases the degree of exposure and, accordingly, the probability of finding coal seams. In principle, detection of subglacial accumulations of certain types of minerals is possible with the help of remote methods, but prospecting and exploration, and even more so operational work in the presence of continental ice, is still unrealistic. Building materials and coal on a limited scale can be used for local needs without significant costs for their extraction, transportation and processing. There are prospects for the development in the foreseeable future of potential hydrocarbon resources on the Antarctic shelf, however technical means for exploitation of deposits in extreme natural conditions, characteristic of the shelf of the Antarctic seas, does not yet exist; moreover, there is no geological and economic substantiation of the expediency of creating such facilities and the profitability of the development of the bowels of Antarctica. There is also insufficient data to assess the expected impact of exploration and development of minerals on the unique natural environment of Antarctica and to determine the admissibility of such activities from an environmental standpoint.
South Korea, Uruguay, . 14 parties to the Treaty have the status of consultative parties, i.e. states that have the right to participate in regular (every 2 years) consultative meetings on the Antarctic Treaty.
The objectives of the consultative meetings are the exchange of information, the discussion of issues related to Antarctica and of mutual interest, as well as the adoption of measures to strengthen the Treaty system and comply with its goals and principles. The most important of these principles, which determine the great political significance of the Antarctic Treaty are: the use of Antarctica in perpetuity exclusively in peaceful purposes and preventing it from becoming an arena or an object of international controversy; prohibition of any measures of a military nature, nuclear explosions and dropping radioactive waste; freedom of scientific research in Antarctica and the promotion of development there international cooperation; protecting the environment of Antarctica and preserving its fauna and flora. At the turn of the 1970-80s. within the framework of the Antarctic Treaty system, the development of a special political and legal regime (convention) on mineral resources Antarctica. It is necessary to regulate activities for the exploration and development of minerals in Antarctica in the event of industrial development of its subsoil without prejudice to natural environment Antarctica.
In mid-January 1953, the Soviet government decides to send an expedition to Antarctica and establish permanent facilities there. Antarctic stations open: Mirny, Oasis, Sovetskaya, Pionerskaya, Komsomolskaya, Pole of Inaccessibility, Vostok. However economic problems, cooling relations with China and the United States, forcing Khrushchev in 1961 to sign an agreement on equal opportunities for all countries in the development of Antarctica. Scientists have discovered in Antarctica the richest deposits of various ores, rock crystal and hydrocarbons. However, the treaty prohibits conducting any activity in Antarctica, with the exception of scientific. However, exploration of resources is still going on. Each state that has a scientific station in Antarctica, under the guise of scientific research, is preparing a springboard for future mining. AT recent times, in the conditions of a gradual increase in the raw material crisis, even such countries as Belarus, Ukraine, Chile, Uruguay became interested in Antarctica. For Russia, with the exception of minerals, Antarctica, as the only continent not affected by man, is also of purely scientific interest, which makes it possible to conduct a study of the influence global warming on the planet's climate. These studies are extremely important, because 70% of the territory of Russia is located in the zone permafrost! Despite the fact that any military action in Antarctica is prohibited, even purely scientific stations benefited the military. This is how Russian seismologists in Antarctica obtained reliable information about the South Africa underground tests nuclear bombs. The great success of Soviet scientists was the discovery under a four-kilometer ice layer of the freshwater lake Vostok. Microorganisms preserved there for several million years had no contact with the environment and developed according to completely different laws. This is of tremendous importance for both medicine and space research.
In 2041, the Protocol on Environmental Protection, which is an addition to the Antarctic Treaty of 1959, which prohibits the extraction of resources in Antarctica, will expire. By that time, almost all the resources of the planet will be used up, and world powers will rush to the sixth continent. A clear advantage will go to the owners of permanently operating polar bases. Russia has only 4 of them left, at the same time, the volume of funding for foreign bases has recently quadrupled and continues to grow. Thus, Russia, a full-fledged discoverer of Antarctica, runs the risk of being left without the richest resources of the sixth continent.
Today, many states dispute their place on the Antarctic land: Great Britain, France, Norway, Chile, New Zealand, Argentina, Australia. The most aggressive is Australia, which regularly acts as a troublemaker in the UN with statements about claims to the Antarctic shelf, which is one of the most oil-bearing sections of the continent. From time to time, the United States unofficially confirms its intention to start extracting Antarctic oil as early as 2020. Some futurologists tend to believe that the conflicts of the future will arise precisely on this continent, where untouched mineral and water resources which are sorely lacking in densely populated continents.
Not a single barrel of oil has been produced in Antarctica. Adopted in 1959 international treaty on Antarctica and the Madrid Protocol on the Protection of the Environment of the Continent strictly prohibit the exploitation of deposits for commercial gain. But the US Geological Survey insists: potential reserves reach 6.5 billion tons, and natural gas - more than 4 trillion cubic meters. m.
Scientific hypotheses about natural resources of the ice continent are based on the similarity of its structure with other parts of the world endowed with considerable deposits of minerals. From a historical point of view, there is every reason to consider Antarctica as part of the once unified ancient continent of Gondwana, from which all the continents of the Southern Hemisphere (Australia, most of Africa and South America, Arabian Peninsula, Hindustan). Nature has generously endowed these lands with resources. The so-called Gondwanan countries account for, in particular, 60% of the world's uranium production, more than 50% of gold, and over 70% of diamonds. As for oil, some areas of Antarctica resemble the oil fields of Venezuela, which now ranks fourth in the world in terms of supplies of this energy carrier.
Thanks to satellites, it is possible to learn something about the subglacial structure of the continent. The composition of the Antarctic land resembles oil-rich lands Arabian Peninsula, which gives reason to assume that the local deposits are not less than the Middle East, and possibly exceed them. In addition to oil and gas, Antarctica has deposits of coal, iron ore, gold, silver, uranium, zinc, etc.
The extraction of all these minerals from the point of view of the economy is extremely unprofitable, however, the depletion of mineral reserves, and primarily energy resources, as well as the rapid growth technical progress make most countries look to Antarctica as a future source of mining, including oil and gas.
