Word " symbol " derived from Greek word symbolon, which means " conditional language". In ancient Greece, this was the name given to halves of a stick cut in two, which helped their owners to recognize each other, wherever they were. Symbol- an object or word conditionally expressing the essence of a phenomenon.
Symbol contains a figurative meaning, in this it is close to a metaphor. However, this closeness is relative. Metaphor is a more direct assimilation of one object or phenomenon to another. Symbol much more complex in structure and meaning. The meaning of the symbol is ambiguous and it is difficult, often impossible to fully reveal. Symbol contains a certain secret, a hint, allowing only to guess what is meant, what the poet wanted to say. The interpretation of a symbol is possible not so much with reason as with intuition and feeling. The images created by symbolist writers have their own characteristics, they have a two-dimensional structure. In the foreground - a certain phenomenon and real details, in the second (hidden) plan - inner world lyrical hero, his visions, memories, pictures born of his imagination. An explicit, objective plan and a hidden, deep meaning coexist in the symbolist image. The symbolists are especially fond of the spiritual spheres. They seek to penetrate them.
subtext - implicit meaning, which may not coincide with the direct meaning of the text; hidden associations based on the repetition, similarity or contrast of individual elements of the text; emerges from the context.
Detail – expressive detail in a work that carries a significant semantic and emotional load. Artistic details: furnishings, appearance, landscape, portrait, interior.
1.10. Psychologism. Nationality. Historicism.
In any work of art, the writer one way or another tells the reader about the feelings, experiences of a person. But the degree of penetration into the inner world of the individual is different. The writer can only record some feeling of the character (“he got scared”), without showing the depth, shades of this feeling, the reasons that caused it. This depiction of a character's feelings cannot be considered psychological analysis. Deep penetration into the inner world of the hero, a detailed description, analysis of various states of his soul, attention to the shades of experiences is called psychological analysis in literature(often called simply psychologism ). Psychological analysis appears in Western European literature in the second half of the 18th century (the era sentimentalism when epistolary and diary forms are especially popular. At the beginning of the twentieth century, in the works of Z. Freud and C. Jung, the foundations of depth psychology personality, the conscious and unconscious beginning opens up. These discoveries could not but influence literature, in particular, the work of D. Joyce and M. Proust.
First of all, they talk about psychologism when analyzing an epic work, since it is here that the writer has the most means of depicting the inner world of the hero. Along with the direct statements of the characters, there is the speech of the narrator, and you can comment on this or that remark of the hero, his act, reveal the true motives of his behavior. This form of psychology is called summarily denoting .
In cases where the writer depicts only the features of the behavior, speech, facial expressions, appearance of the hero. This is indirect psychologism, since the inner world of the hero is shown not directly, but through external symptoms, which may not always be unambiguously interpreted. The methods of indirect psychologism include various details of a portrait (an internal link to the corresponding chapter), a landscape (an internal link to the corresponding chapter), an interior (an internal link to the corresponding chapter), etc. Psychological methods also include default. Analyzing in detail the behavior of the character, the writer at some point does not say anything at all about the experiences of the hero and thus forces the reader to conduct a psychological analysis himself. For example, Turgenev's novel "The Nest of Nobles" ends like this: "They say Lavretsky visited that remote monastery where Lisa had hidden - he saw her. Moving from choir to choir, she walked close past him, walked with the even, hastily-submissive gait of a nun - and did not look at him; only the eyelashes of the eye turned to him quivered a little, only she tilted her emaciated face even lower - and the fingers of her clenched hands, intertwined with a rosary, pressed even more tightly to each other. What did they both think they felt? Who will know? Who will say? There are such moments in life, such feelings ... You can only point at them - and pass by. Liza's gestures make it difficult to judge her feelings, it is only obvious that she has not forgotten Lavretsky. How Lavretsky looked at her remains unknown to the reader.
When the writer shows the hero "from the inside", as if penetrating into the consciousness, the soul, directly showing what happens to him at one time or another. This type of psychology is called direct . The forms of direct psychologism can include the speech of the hero (direct: oral and written; indirect; internal monologue), his dreams. Let's consider each in more detail.
In a work of art, the speeches of the characters are usually given a significant place, but psychologism arises only when the character detail talks about his experiences, expresses his views on the world. For example, in the novels of F.M. Dostoevsky's heroes begin to speak extremely frankly with each other, as if confessing everything. It is important to remember that characters can communicate not only verbally, but also in writing. Written speech is more thoughtful, there are much less violations of syntax, grammar, logic. All the more they are significant, if appear. For example, a letter from Anna Snegina (the heroine of the poem of the same name by S.A. Yesenin) to Sergei is outwardly calm, but at the same time unmotivated transitions from one thought to another are striking. Anna actually confesses her love to him, because she writes only about him. She does not speak directly about her feelings, but transparently hints at it: "But you are still dear to me, / Like a homeland and like spring." But the hero does not understand the meaning of this letter, therefore he considers it "unreasonable", but intuitively understands that Anna, perhaps, has been in love with him for a long time. It is no coincidence that after reading the letter the refrain changes: at first, “We are all in these years loved, // But they didn't love us enough”; then “We all loved during these years, // But, it means, // They loved us too.”
When a hero communicates with someone, questions often arise: to what extent is he frank, does he pursue some goal, does he want to make the right impression, or vice versa (like Anna Snegina) hide his feelings. When Pechorin tells Princess Mary that he was originally good, but he was spoiled by society, and as a result, two people began to live in him, he tells the truth, although at the same time, perhaps, he thinks about the impression that his words will make on Mary.
In many works of the 19th century, individual thoughts of the hero are found, but this does not mean that the writer deeply and fully reveals his inner world. For example, Bazarov, during a conversation with Odintsova, thinks: “You are flirting<...>, you miss me and tease me because I have nothing to do, but to me ... ”The hero’s thought breaks off“ at the most interesting place, ”what exactly he is experiencing remains unknown. When the detailed reflection of the hero is shown, natural, sincere, spontaneous, internal monologue , which preserves the character's speech style. The hero thinks about what worries him most, when he needs to make some important decision. are revealed main topics, problems internal monologues of a character. For example, in Tolstoy's novel War and Peace, Prince Andrei often reflects on his place in the world, on great people, on public problems, and Pierre - about the structure of the world as a whole, about what truth is. Thoughts are subject to the internal logic of the character, so you can trace how he came to a particular decision, conclusion. This technique was called N.G. Chernyshevsky the dialectic of the soul : “Count Tolstoy’s attention is most of all drawn to how some feelings and thoughts spill out of others, it is interesting for him to observe how a feeling that directly arises from this provision or impressions, subject to the influence of memories and the power of the combinations represented by the imagination, pass into other senses, return again to the same point, and again and again wander, changing, along the whole chain of memories; like a thought born first sensation, leads to other thoughts, gets carried away further and further, merges dreams with real sensations, dreams of the future with reflection on the present.
Distinguish from internal monologue mindflow , when the thoughts and experiences of the hero are chaotic, not ordered in any way, there is absolutely no logical connection, the connection here is associative. This term was introduced by W. James, the most bright examples its use can be seen in the novel by D. Joyce "Ulysses", M. Proust "In Search of Lost Time". It is believed that this technique was discovered by Tolstoy, using it in special occasions when the hero is half asleep, half delirious. For example, through a dream, Pierre hears the word “harness”, which he turns into “conjugate”: “The most difficult thing (Pierre continued to think or hear in a dream) is to be able to combine the meaning of everything in his soul. Connect everything? Pierre said to himself. No, don't connect. You can't combine thoughts, but match all these thoughts - that's what you need! Yes, need to match, need to match! Pierre repeated to himself with inner delight, feeling that with these, and only with these words, what he wants to express is expressed, and the whole question that torments him is resolved.
- Yes, you need to pair, it's time to pair.
- It is necessary to harness, it is time to harness, Your Excellency! Your Excellency, - repeated a voice, - it is necessary to harness, it's time to harness ... ”(Vol. 3. Part 3, Ch. IX.)
In "Crime and Punishment" by Dostoevsky dreams Raskolnikov help to understand the change in his psychological state throughout the novel. First, he has a dream about a horse, which is a warning: Raskolnikov is not a superman, he is able to show sympathy.
In the lyrics, the hero directly expresses his feelings and experiences. But the lyrics are subjective, we see only one point of view, one look, but the hero can tell in great detail and sincerely about his experiences. But in the lyrics, the feelings of the hero are often indicated metaphorically.
In a dramatic work, the state of the character is revealed primarily in his monologues, which resemble lyrical statements. However, in the drama of the XIX-XX centuries. the writer pays attention to the facial expressions, gestures of the character, captures the shades of intonation of the characters.
HISTORICISM OF LITERATURE- the ability of fiction to convey a living image historical era in concrete human images and events. In more narrow sense the historicism of a work is related to how faithfully and subtly the artist understands and depicts the meaning of historical events. “Historicism is inherent in all truly artistic works, regardless of whether they depict the present or the distant past. An example is “The Song of the Prophetic Oleg” and “Eugene Onegin” by A.S. Pushkin ”(A.S. Suleimanov). "The lyric is historical, its quality is determined by the specific content of the era, it draws the experiences of a person of a certain time and environment" ( L. Todorov).
NATIONALITY of literature - the conditionality of literary works by the life, ideas, feelings and aspirations of the masses, the expression in literature of their interests and psychology. Picture of N.l. largely determined by what content is invested in the concept of "people". “The nationality of literature is associated with the reflection of essential folk features, the spirit of the people, its main national characteristics” (L.I. Trofimov). “The idea of nationality opposes the isolation, the elitism of art and orients it towards the priority of universal human values” ( Yu.B.Borev).
SUB-TEXT SUB-TEXT, in literature (mainly fiction) hidden, different from direct meaning utterances meaning that is recovered based on the context given the situation. In the theater, the subtext is revealed by the actor through intonation, pause, facial expressions, and gesture.
Modern Encyclopedia. 2000 .
Synonyms:See what "SUBTEXT" is in other dictionaries:
In literature (mainly fiction) there is a hidden meaning, different from the direct meaning of the statement, which is restored on the basis of the context, taking into account the situation. In the theater, the subtext is revealed by the actor with the help of intonation, pause, facial expressions, ... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary
Meaning, meaning Dictionary of Russian synonyms. subtext noun, number of synonyms: 2 meaning (27) meaning ... Synonym dictionary
subtext- SUBTEXT, in literature (mainly fiction) a hidden meaning, different from the direct meaning of the statement, which is restored on the basis of the context, taking into account the situation. In the theater, the subtext is revealed by the actor through intonation, pause ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary
SUBTEXT, a, husband. (book). Internal, hidden meaning of the text, statements; content, which is embedded in the text by the reader or actor. | adj. subtext, oh, oh. Dictionary Ozhegov. S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova. 1949 1992 ... Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov
The meaning contained in the text is implicit, not coinciding with its direct meaning. The subtext depends on the context of the statement, on the situation in which these words are pronounced. AT fiction subtext often comes up in dialogue. For example, exchange ... ... Literary Encyclopedia
BUT; m. The inner, hidden meaning of what l. text, statements. Speak with deep meaning. The story has a clear p. Speak directly, without subtext. * * * subtext in literature (mainly fiction) is hidden, different from direct ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary
subtext- a hidden meaning that is different from the direct meaning of the statement, which is restored on the basis of the context, taking into account outside speech situation. In the theater, the subtext is revealed by the actor through intonation, pause, facial expressions, and gesture. Heading: language.… … Terminological dictionary-thesaurus in Literary Studies
subtext- a, m. The inner, hidden meaning of what l. text, statements. Speak with context. With Chekhov, the concept of subtext was born in literature and in the theater, as a new, hidden coordinate, as a tool for additional deepening and the most capacious ... ... Popular dictionary of the Russian language
subtext- SUBTEXT, a, m Part of the content structure of the text, representing its inner hidden meaning. Sometimes subtext stronger than text … Explanatory dictionary of Russian nouns
SUBTEXT- SUBTEXT, implicit, implicit meaning that does not coincide with the direct meaning of the text. P. depends on the general context of the utterance, on the purpose and expression of the utterance, and on the characteristics of the speech situation. P. occurs in colloquial speech as a default... Literary Encyclopedic Dictionary
Books
- Text and subtext. The Poetics of the Explicit and the Implicit, . The collection contains materials from the international scientific conference"Text and subtext. Poetics of the explicit and implicit", which was organized by Science Center interdisciplinary…
- Released subtext, Huseynov Chingiz Gasanovich. The book is composed of novels by the famous Russian-Azerbaijani writer Chingiz Huseynov, translated into many languages of the world. But this is not an ordinary reissue: the author creates a new original ...
Subtext is implicit meaning voice message realized only in the context of communication. Subtext can be transmitted both by linguistic and non-linguistic means, therefore the concept of subtext is wider than the concept of a non-verbal message transmitted in opposition to or in addition to the verbal one.
Signs of subtext can be hidden:
ü in the characteristics of its sound (tone, voice strength, pauses, chuckles, etc.);
ü in non-verbal characteristics of behavior (poses, placement and movement of interlocutors in space, gestures, facial expressions, gaze).
Despite the fact that the subtext, as a phenomenon, bears the seal of mystery, it is our everyday reality. On the one hand, everyone, to the best of his ability and ability, more than once unraveled the subtext of the behavior or speech of his communication partner, and on the other hand, everyone had to act as the author of the subtext. It is also true that meaningful communication rarely occurs without some form of subtext interaction.
All possible cases of subtext are described by the following formula: this or that information can be perceived as a hidden meaning when there is a semantic contradiction or inconsistency between the elements that form its basis.
Let's turn to specific situation: the head of the department addresses a young employee of the department with the words: “Sergei Pavlovich, I will ask you to come to me for a short conversation.” What could be the hidden meaning here? We, as observers, without knowing the relationship between the boss and the subordinate, the characteristics of the boss's character, the situation in which the analyzed phrase was uttered, are unlikely to be able to answer this question. As for those present (let us assume that there were such), and even more so for Sergei Pavlovich, their possibilities are incomparably greater.
Before answering the question: “What is the hidden meaning?”, it is necessary to answer the question: “What and how could the hidden meaning be given in this situation?”.
First, through the word. The head of the department refers to his subordinates by name and patronymic, as a rule, only before an official conversation. In itself, the appeal by name and patronymic can serve as a signal for the upcoming "study".
Secondly, the hidden meaning could be given by intonation, by a change in the timbre of the voice, a pause, etc., that is, by the characteristics sounding speech which are of most interest to us now.
Thirdly, the source hidden meaning there could be a change in the gesticulation of the head of the department. For example, when addressing an employee, a typical commanding gesture is tapping on the wall. This could mean for the employee the same thing as addressing by name and patronymic.
The situation itself can serve as a source of hidden meaning. For example, both the head of the department and the employee are well aware that the boss does not accidentally address the subordinate from the door, doing it loudly, which means publicly. At the same time, the hidden meaning can be fixed with a sharp gesture. The subtext can be completely situational: the mere fact that the boss came to the department at that time to his subordinate may have a hidden meaning for the latter, and a very specific one: if he came, and usually he does not, then something happened - probably an unpleasant conversation ahead.
Thus, in order to detect a hint of subtext, the perceiver needs to rely on his experience of acquaintance with a similar situation and the “author of the subtext” to correlate his knowledge of ordinary (typical) conditions, normal behavior, speech, etc. with what he observed in this interaction.
In the above example, semantic inconsistencies or contradictions can be, for example, common address"Sergey!" and rare (not typical) "Sergey Pavlovich..."; the usual way of calling to the boss for a conversation and his unexpected arrival for the same purpose in the department, etc.
According to the nature of the transmission and reception of information, three types of subtext can be distinguished.
1. Real subtext - hidden meaning takes place and is perceived.
2. There was no hidden meaning in communication, but it was attributed - an imaginary subtext.
3. There was a hidden meaning, but remained unnoticed - a missed subtext.
The subtext is usually not just additional information to the text, message or behavior, but the main content, the key to the whole text, and therefore, if you miss a hint of subtext and fail to reveal its content, you risk not understanding the interlocutor. Moreover, because of this, your assessment as a person in the eyes of other people may suffer, since people tend to invest something important and valuable for themselves in the subtext. By the way, some forms of humor, irony or sarcasm, being subtext by nature, act as a kind of way to check the interlocutor:
ü on mental alertness;
ü whether he is from “our camp” or not;
ü on "adequacy".
A person who sincerely laughs at your favorite joke is already "a little bit of your own."
It must be remembered that the detected hint of subtext is not a guarantee of understanding the subtext itself. Haste in assessing the content of the hidden meaning leads to ignoring the interlocutor, which in itself has a destructive effect on the communication process and its results.
It is proved that everything incomprehensible, original and unexpected for others is subtextual.
Noticing something strange in your speech and non-verbal behavior, those present tend to look for a reason for this. They may feel that something is being hidden from them or that they are simply being fooled, and this is extremely unpleasant for almost everyone. Most the right way avoid this - do not allow "subtext" communication in the presence of the uninitiated.
The concept of reduced dialogue comes into contact with the concept of subtext. A reduced dialogue is an exchange of "folded", short, as if dotted remarks, for example:
Employee. Sign the spreadsheet.
Boss. Which?
Employee. Pupils.
Boss. I have claims...
Employee. Then they decided.
Boss. Good (signs).
The meaning of such dotted dialogues is clear only in the context general situation. For those who know the subject matter well and understand each other perfectly, no explanation is required. And it saves a lot of time. The study by M. I. Timofeev shows that operational management The production process is carried out mainly in the form of reduced dialogues between the leader and subordinates. The purpose of such dialogues is to quickly neutralize the emerging manufacturing process deviations and ensure consistency between actual results and planned performance.
Reduced operational dialogues, however, are only one class. business conversations leader. The conversations belonging to the second class are more detailed and often quite lengthy. They aim to harmonize positions, develop common point vision, decision making, resolution conflict situation. Although such conversations occupy a smaller volume in the activities of the leader, they are exclusively importance for the formation of a favorable socio-psychological climate in the team. If reduced dialogues are not possible without good knowledge affairs, then detailed dialogues are not possible without a good knowledge of people. What these dialogues have in common is that they require good orientation in the “near-speech” characteristics of the partner’s statements. Indeed, the essence of an utterance depends not only on its content, but also on how it is pronounced: with what intonation, loudness, distinctness, loudly or “through the teeth”, confidently or with a nervous laugh, etc. All these sound phenomena studying paralinguistics. Sometimes, however, all types of non-verbal communication are included in the field of paralinguistics: gestures, facial expressions, glance, but for now we will consider only sound phenomena that are produced voice apparatus person in the process of communication and accompany speech. These phenomena are closer to speech than all other non-verbal means of communication, and therefore they are called near-speech or paralinguistic.
According to the classification of J. Treiger, all paralinguistic phenomena are divided into two groups: speech and non-speech manifestations of the voice. At the same time, the second, non-speech, group is treated as individual sounds(groaning, giggling, grunting, etc.), and the parameters of sounds that can be measured in physical units: the intensity of the sound, its pitch and duration. Since sound parameters apply to both speech and non-speech sounds, in the diagram below they are highlighted in a special, third, group of paralinguistic phenomena.
Let us sequentially consider those paralinguistic phenomena that are most significant for understanding. emotional state, intentions and personality traits speaker. Of the sound parameters, this is the intensity and pitch, of the sounds-separators - nasalization (“hmm ...”, “eh ... eh ...”) and pauses; from the qualities of the voice - the pace and rhythm of speech. The remaining characteristics of sounds require sound illustrations, real or recorded on a tape recorder, for deeper analysis, and therefore we are forced to omit them.
Loudness and pitch. If meet unfamiliar people, then the leaders are initially chosen from those who speak louder and more. It seems to others that if a person speaks loudly, it means that he is confident in himself, in his position.
The subtext of the work is special variety allegory, artistic allusion. To understand a "phrase with subtext" means to perceive not only what is said directly, literally, but also what the author meant, what he kept silent about. Disclosing the subtext thus implies the indispensable active co-creation of the reader, thinking, conjecture. Figuratively speaking, the reader must guess the picture by a few strokes that guide his imagination, fill in art space, which the author deliberately left blank. So, for example, behind Akhmatov's "I'm on right hand put on / The glove from the left hand "we feel the tremendous emotional tension of the heroine of the poem, we recreate her psychological condition, although not a word is directly said about him, but only a hint is given - an external, everyday detail.
Hemingway compared literary work with an iceberg that has only one-seventh of it on the surface and everything else is hidden. But in order for the reader to be able to reveal the subtext of the work, his imagination must be appropriately excited and directed. Subtext is possible only when the text itself has received a certain organization. In what is written, the reader must feel the inconsistency, the inexhaustibility of the meaning, and at the same time find enough milestones and dashes to unravel the hint correctly, to create in his imagination the image that the writer is counting on.
The subtext of the work enriches the visual and expressive possibilities artistic word, allows you to vividly and visibly present in the work those life phenomena that are impossible or inappropriate to speak directly. That is why it is most often needed for the image mental life person, to recreate complex psychological states. direct naming psychological processes often deprives them of subtlety and uniqueness, coarsens and straightens the internal state. Subtext avoids this danger.
For example, in Simonov's novel The Living and the Dead, the commander, while talking with Serpilin, constantly looks him straight in the face, and the moment when he left the encirclement, he recalls, "for the first time, looking not in front of him, but to the side" . With this inconspicuous detail, Simonov very clearly shows us how hard it was for people in the environment, how hard it is for the commander to remember this now, and how much this memory, as they say, “stuck into the soul” - you, in essence, always experience it alone with yourself, even if there is an interlocutor nearby; you experience it as something deeply personal, and even involuntarily avert your eyes, plunging into these memories. Psychological drawing too complex to designate it with exhaustive clarity; the subtext of the work often turns out to be artistically more convincing and emotionally impressive than the direct image.
The psychological depiction with the help of subtext is especially appropriate in a drama where the narrator's speech is absent. If the hero himself tells us about his inner state, this most often does not give the impression of authenticity, but sometimes it may sound completely comical. Epikhodov or Ranevskaya in Chekhov's The Cherry Orchard can say to themselves that they are suffering - this produces a comic impression corresponding to the author's intention. But Lopakhin, for example, or Varya cannot talk about their suffering aloud - this would destroy the psychological appearance of these characters and change author's attitude to them, - but behind their everyday, outwardly calm dialogue, we feel precisely suffering - deeply hidden and that is why it arouses sincere sympathy.
Sometimes subtext in literature is used not only to convey internal state, but also for creating plot episodes or external pictures. Here, for example, is how the heroine's suicide is depicted in Pushkin's poem " Prisoner of the Caucasus”: “Suddenly the waves rustled dully, / And a distant groan is heard ... / He goes out onto the wild shore, / Looks back, the shores cleared up / And, plump, turned white; / But there is no young Circassian woman / Neither by the shores, nor under the mountain. ../ Everything is dead... on the shores of the sleeping ones/ Only a light sound is heard of the wind,/ And in the moonlight in the splashing waters/ The streaming circle disappears.
This is an example of the use of subtext in plot construction works. And here is a landscape picture drawn by Tvardovsky with the help of subtext: "The Christmas tree has become more noticeable in the forest."
Here the subtext has a slightly different function. In the first case, he creates a romantic flavor, an enlightened elegiac mood, removing excessive detail and naturalism that would run counter to the general romantic structure of poetry. In the second case, the subtext creates a bright, instantly rising before the eyes poetic image, "refreshing" perception autumn forest, yellow trees, against which a green Christmas tree stands out sharply.
In the subtext, especially expressing the psychological state, it is very important that the author's hint be sufficiently clear, and on the other hand, it should not be revealed too easily and prosaically. AT equally it is also bad when a simple state, easily accessible to a direct image, is masked by subtext, and when the meaning is so encrypted that it is not clear what, in fact, is behind the author's allusion and whether there is anything at all. Both cause a feeling of pretentiousness, beauty, false significance, which, of course, greatly reduces the artistic value of the work.
