At the end of the XVIII-XIX centuries. the process of expanding the territory of the American state was steadily going on. The United States extended its sovereignty to new territories in a variety of ways:
1) by purchasing land; 2) by conquering neighboring countries; 3) by colonizing the western lands and pushing out the natives. By purchase, the United States included: French colony Louisiana, sold by the first consul Bonaparte in 1803 (for $15 million); river valley Gila purchased from Mexico in 1853 (for $10 million); Alaska, sold by Russian Emperor Alexander II in 1867 (for $7.2 million). By aggression were captured: Florida from Spain
(under the agreement of 1819); Texas, New Mexico and California (as a result of the war with Mexico, under the treaty of 1848). The UK also recognized US ownership of the Maine area.
(1842) and Oregon (1846). In addition, as a result of the war with Spain in 1898, Puerto Rico, about. Guam and the Philippines, then annexed Hawaiian Islands which marked the beginning of US colonial rule.

New states were created on the annexed lands. The procedure for their creation was enshrined in the Northwestern Ordinance of 1787. First, an autonomy with limited rights was created on the site of the future state, the so-called territory. The authorities in the territory were the governor and the legislative assembly, elected upon reaching a population of 5 thousand people. After reaching a population of 60,000, a convention was chosen to draw up the constitution of the new state. Further, the US Congress decided on the admission of the state to the union. In addition to this order, self-determination or separation from another state was used in practice. In total for the period 1791–1900. 32 new states arose (thus, as part of the United States in late XIX in. - 45 states).

Confrontation between the North and the South of the USA in the first half of the 19th century. The colonization of the western lands was carried out both from the free North and from the slave-owning South. The North spread wage labor, industry, urbanization, the South spread slavery and a backward agrarian system. Although in 1808 a ban was imposed on the importation of slaves into the United States, however, slave ownership continued to play a leading role in the economy of the southern plantations.

Population growth in the North led to a clear predominance of its representatives in the lower house of Congress. When the number of southern and northern states and, accordingly, the number of senators from them in the upper house became equal, the southerners demanded that this balance be maintained for the future. Therefore, in 1820 was introduced Missouri Compromise. Then two new states of Missouri and Maine were admitted to the United States, one was supposed to become a slave, the other free. The Compromise also set a boundary for the spread of slavery. North of it and west of the Missouri could only be located free states(Missouri itself made an exception). Thus, the southerners kept the balance in the Senate of the US Congress. For a time, the compromise eased the contradictions between the North and the South. But to mid-nineteenth in. the conflict escalated again, strife began due to the construction of railways (on northwest direction or southern), because of customs tariffs (the North insisted on protectionist policies), because of the protests of farmers who demanded the elimination of large plantations and the distribution of land among small owners. The border of the spread of slavery was repeatedly violated and in 1854 was finally eliminated. And in 1857 Supreme Court The United States generally recognized the Missouri Compromise as contrary to the US Constitution, as violating the right to property (it cannot be limited depending on its location, and a slave is the same property of the owner as any other thing). The superiority of the southerners was achieved due to the fact that they occupied dominant positions in higher bodies power: in the Senate and the Supreme Court of the United States. For a long time, southerners also managed to hold the presidency of the United States. The confrontation between the North and the South was expressed in the struggle between the two parties that claimed leadership in American political life.

parties in the USA. Even at the end of the XVIII century. There are two parties in the USA: federalists
and Republican Democrats and established the tradition of bipartisanship political system. The first party was headed by A. Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury in the government of George Washington, the second by T. Jefferson, Secretary of State. Party leaders saw the future of the United States in different ways. Hamilton advocated the creation of manufactories and industrial progress, his social support was the financial and commercial and industrial circles of America. Jefferson advocated the creation agricultural state. His ideal was farm democracy, so he had a wider social base than his opponent Hamilton. AT early XIX c., when the presidents from the Republican Democratic Party were in power, the Federalist Party was ousted and ceased to exist. Some of the supporters of the Hamiltonian course were introduced into the Republicans-Democrats, which caused a split in this party. As a result, two new parties emerged: Whigs and democrats. The Whig Party stood on undemocratic positions, it was supported by both the financiers and industrialists of the North and the planters of the South. The traditions of T. Jefferson continued Democratic Party, officially registered in 1828 It relied on the mass support of the lower strata of the population. The aggravation of the political struggle in the middle of the XIX century. led to divisions within the parties. The Democratic Party changed its “color”: it turned into a conservative force that advocated the preservation of slavery and expressed the interests of the planters of the South. Most of the Whigs and Democrats of the North, having united with the Free Soil party ("Free Earth"; consisted of moderate abolitionists- opponents of slavery), amounted to 1854 Republican Party. (With its creation, the Whig party was effectively eliminated as a national political force). The new party was led by lawyer Abraham Lincoln (1809–1865), a consistent supporter of democracy. Like many other Republicans, at first Lincoln did not advocate the complete abolition of slavery and granting blacks equal rights with whites, but was against the spread of slavery to new territories and intended to block it in the south of the country.

Civil War of the North and South of the United States. In 1860, A. Lincoln won the presidential election in the United States, which caused a sharply negative reaction in the southern states. Southerners, fearing democratic reforms and restrictions on slavery, decided to secession- secession from the United States. South Carolina was the first state to leave the union, followed by ten more states (11 in total). There were 23 left in the union. The rebellious states in February 1861 proclaimed the creation Confederate States of America(Confederate States of America). On March 11, 1861, they adopted a constitution for the southern Confederation, based on the Constitution of 1787.
and the Bill of Rights (from the preamble and 7 articles). In a number of provisions, it differed greatly from the federal one: it provided for the responsibility of the government to parliament, the election of the president for 6 years without the right to re-election for a new term; enforced slavery throughout the country. States could not leave the Confederation. Richmond (Virginia) became its capital, and Jefferson Davis became its president.

The secession of the southern states provoked the Civil War of the North and the South 1861–1865 An important role in achieving victory over the rebels were called upon to play two legislative acts adopted in the federation in 1862. The first - homestead act(homestead - “a place for a home”, for a settlement), which made it possible to acquire a piece of land on favorable terms and created a mass of medium and small land owners in the USA. Second - Proclamation to abolish slavery in the rebellious states, it provided for the emancipation of slaves in the seceded territory without any redemption, starting from January 1, 1863 (the law did not apply to the slave-owning states that remained in the federation). The first act provided the North with the support of the white population, the second - the black. The conscription of Negroes into the US Army was announced (by the end of the war, there were already 186 thousand Negroes in it). Thanks to this, the northerners were able to win. In April 1865, the southern states capitulated. End civil war was marked by an important constitutional change: January 31, 1865 was accepted 13th Amendment to the US Constitution (ratified in December), which banned slavery throughout the country. Thus, influenced by the participation of blacks in the war, the leaders of the Republican Party took the position of radical abolitionism. The southerners did not want to forgive the US president for their defeat and the elimination of slavery: on April 14, 1865, A. Lincoln was mortally wounded at a performance in the Washington theater.

Reconstruction of the South 1865–1877 In addition to freedom, Negroes needed to be granted political and civil rights. For this purpose, it was decided to carry out reforms in the southern states, called Reconstructions of the South. Reconstruction went through two phases: 1) the period of the "soft" or "presidential" Reconstruction of 1865-1867; 2) the period of "hard" Reconstruction 1867-1877. At the first stage, the new President E. Johnson tried to implement a "soft" version of the reforms. He proposed the introduction of a broad amnesty for Confederate supporters and the implementation by the southern states of a number of requirements: the ratification of the XIII Amendment, the prohibition of slavery in state constitutions, the condemnation of secession and the refusal to pay war debts. The implementation of such a project led to the revival of the forces of the slave owners. They again took up positions in state administrations and sent their representatives to the US Congress. Former slaves were denied political and civil rights. The so-called "black codes" were introduced, which put blacks in an intolerable position. They were forbidden to engage in crafts and trade, and unemployed blacks were classified as vagabonds and forcibly sent to plantations. Young blacks under the age of 18 were required to be at former owners"for learning". As a result, the "soft" Reconstruction plan was heavily criticized by radical Republicans in Congress. Deputies from the southern states were not admitted to the federal legislature, and the US Congress began to implement its Reconstruction plan independently of the president. In 1866 was released 14th Amendment to the Constitution (came into force on 1868). It granted equal citizenship rights to all persons born or naturalized in the United States: they were recognized as citizens of the United States and those states where they lived. From now on, the states could not pass laws that limited the privileges and freedoms of the citizens of the country. The state could not deprive anyone of life, liberty, or property without due process of law (in the Bill of Rights - on federal level); a state could not withhold, within its jurisdiction, the equal protection of the laws.

The approval by the majority of the population of the rebellious state of the XIV amendment became a condition for the return of the state to the union. But the adoption of the amendment was voluntary, so 10 southern states (except Tennessee) rejected it. Then, in March 1867, the Reconstruction Act was introduced, which established a military dictatorship in the South. The ten rebellious states were divided into 5 military districts, each headed by a federal general. In 1868, President E. Johnson, who opposed the policy of the Congress, was impeached, and only one vote in the Senate was not enough for the impeachment to come into force. However, Johnson lost the new presidential election, he was replaced by General W. Grant, a supporter of Congressional policy. AT 1870 entered into force 15th Amendment to the US Constitution, which forbade the disenfranchisement or restriction of voting rights of citizens "under the pretext of race, color, or former servitude." However, despite the measures taken, the Reconstruction policy reached a dead end. When in 1877 a Democratic candidate could win the presidential election for the first time since the war, the Republicans chose to compromise with the Democrats. The election results were rigged in favor of the Republican R. Hayes in exchange for the withdrawal of troops from the southern states - Reconstruction ended there (before that, seven southern states were restored in 1868, and three more in 1870). The Democrats were also given control over the distribution of federal posts in the South, and additional funds were allocated for the development of the southern states. As a result, the position of the Democratic Party in the South was restored. Here, measures were taken to discriminate against blacks. Under the 15th Amendment, strip them directly voting rights it was impossible, therefore, other electoral restrictions were established: special electoral taxes, literacy and kinship qualifications were introduced. The overwhelming majority of Negroes were poor, illiterate and could not prove that their grandfathers had the right to vote (the so-called "grandfather's law"). Since these restrictions did not apply to skin color, the US Supreme Court found all such laws to be consistent with the Constitution. In the southern states, other laws were introduced that consolidated racial segregation:
about separate education, separate use public places, public transport. They were also recognized by the US Supreme Court as being fully consistent with the Constitution of the country, since they create "separate but equal opportunities." Marriage between whites and blacks was forbidden and caused criminal prosecution. Secret racist organizations such as the Ku Klux Klan, the Knights of the White Camellia, the White Brotherhood, and others were active in the South. They perpetrated terror and violence against the Negro population;

In the era of Reconstruction, other changes occurred regarding the right to vote.
In the United States, the secret ballot was introduced in 1872 (under the laws of 1871 and 1872 for federal elections). The way was opened for the enfranchisement of women. For the first time they received equal rights with men in Wyoming Territory in 1869. During election campaigns, it begins to play an important role bossism("boss" - in Dutch "master", "patron"). Bosses were called party leaders who organized elections to representative bodies of power. They acted on the instructions of large companies and accumulated funds for holding elections, selected suitable candidates for deputies, and engaged in bribery and blackmail of voters and officials. Bosses could control an entire state and even several states at the same time. Democrat W.M. is considered the first boss. Tweed in New York in the 1860s and 1870s.

Organs state power and administration at the end of the 18th–19th centuries. USA congress. The growth of lawmaking in the US Congress leads to the development committee system. The preliminary consideration of bills was entrusted to the committees and commissions of the Congress. Both chambers had committees. Beginning in 1889, the committees of the lower house began to be formed by the speaker alone. In the Senate, however, the chairmen of committees traditionally became senators who had the most long term stay in the ward (rule of seniority). The rest of the committees were formed by election or appointment on their own initiative. The committee system contributed to the acceleration of work legislature, but on the other hand, it acted as a filter: some of the bills did not get into discussion in the chambers at all, which opened up many opportunities for abuse. To consider bills, special experts were invited to the committees, who usually represented the interests of big businessmen and monopolies. Such experts ( lobbyists) tried to push a profitable bill through Congress, not disdaining any methods. Over time, the number of lobbyists grew so much that they even began to be called the "third" chamber of Congress. Parliamentary procedure in some cases made it possible to pass bills without debate. So, if there were 10 days left before the end of the session, the House of Representatives could approve already prepared bills without debate. In this way, they usually tried to pass bills that were unpopular with the population through the chamber. But for the failure of the bill in the Senate, it was widely used filibustering. This is a kind of obstruction, an attempt to disrupt the session of the chamber by deliberately delaying the discussion of the issue. Since, according to custom, the time of the speech of the senator was not limited, the “filibuster” senator deliberately diverted the attention of the audience from the topic and dragged out the time (while he could read the Bible or medical reference books). Tired senators were forced to make concessions to the minority.

Executive agencies. Although in certain periods of time, especially during the era of Reconstruction and the first years after it, there was a predominance of the US Congress over the president, in general for the 19th century. there was a tendency to increase the role and influence of the head of state. Possessing considerable powers, the US president sometimes did not resort to the approval of his actions by the Congress and even to the usurpation of his power. For example, in 1898, President W. McKinley actually declared war on Spain, and then informed Congress (declaring war is his prerogative). Presidents are increasing their influence in the legislative sphere: they issue a mass of executive orders, which, in fact, receive the force of normative acts of Congress. The presidential veto is also widely used. For example, G. Cleveland (President in 1885-1889) applied it more than 100 times, but only once did the US Congress override the President's veto.

In 1886, a law on the succession of presidential power was adopted. He established the procedure for replacing the president with different officials if necessary: ​​alternately vice president, secretary of state, minister of finance, minister of war, minister of justice, etc. For a long time, the office of the President of the United States was absent from the White House. Until 1857, even the president had to hire a secretary at his own expense. The United States was generally characterized by a slow development of the bureaucracy. many central departments long time did not have. Initially, three departments (ministries) arose: state (foreign affairs), military affairs, and finance. In 1798, the naval department was added to them, in 1849 - the internal affairs department. Ministries of Justice (1870), postal (1872), Agriculture(1889).

When filling positions in central departments, the mining system(spoil system). The victory in the presidential elections from another party led to the change of the entire former administration. At the same time, the president sought to reward high positions those who supported him during the election campaign. In 1872 an attempt was made to curb this practice and the first civil service law was passed. The law provided for the introduction of competitive examinations for filling public positions, but did not receive practical application. In 1883 a new civil service law was introduced ( Pendleton's law). In accordance with it, a classification list was compiled of those positions that were to be filled from now on by competition ( merit system), Commission civil service began to conduct competitive examinations for candidates for the position. The rest of the posts not included in the classification list (among them the most important ones) could be filled according to the old rule “booty to the winner”.

Local government. By shape state structure The United States was a federation, with the states acting as its subjects. Legislative power in the state was exercised by the state legislature, usually bicameral. Executive power was vested in the governor of the state. The states, in turn, were divided into counties, in some states they were further subdivided into towns- self-governing communities within the counties (such a division was typical for the states of New England, in the northeast of the United States). was in a special position District of Columbia, where the capital is located - Washington (since 1800; before that, the first capital of the federation was New York, in 1790-1800 Philadelphia). federal district was under the jurisdiction of a special committee of Congress and authorized persons of the President of the United States. Individual cities also had their own government, carried out by city councils and mayors (or small councils without mayors). All positions local government were usually elective, replaceable, urgent. Some of the posts were filled on a gratuitous basis.

Judicial system had a dual character and included federal and state courts. The foundations of the federal judiciary were laid US Judiciary Act 1789 In accordance with this law, federal courts of three levels were created. On the first one were district courts in 13 districts (the borders did not coincide with the borders of the states) with one judge. Such courts could impose a penalty of no more than 30 lashes, or a fine not exceeding $100, or imprisonment for a term not exceeding 6 months. On the second level - district courts in three districts, covering several judicial districts, consisting of one district judge and two judges of the Supreme Court (traveling judges). In 1891 they were transformed into district courts of appeal with a different composition of judges: they could consider cases both individually and collectively. At that time, 11 districts were under their jurisdiction. On the third level was United States Supreme Court. By law of 1789, it was composed of a Chief Justice and five Associate Justices. In the future, the composition of the Supreme Court changed, but since 1869 it was established exactly: 9 judges. The court was the highest court of appeal for the whole country and the court of first instance in some cases (see the section on the Constitution of 1787). The District of Columbia had its own court. In addition, the system of federal courts included special courts: military, tax, customs. There was a Claims Court - on claims against the US treasury. Federal judges appointed by the President of the United States
and could hold office for life (with "impeccable behavior").

Each state had its own judicial system, usually three or four levels. At the first level - the lower courts (preliminary jurisdiction): city hall courts, police officers, magistrates. They tried minor criminal and civil cases. On the second - courts of first instance: district courts, county courts, etc. They dealt with the bulk of criminal and civil cases. At the third level are the courts of appeal. On the fourth - the State Supreme Court, which acted as a court of appeal from lower courts (usually heard cases in which one of the parties was the state). Most state judges were elected initially by the legislature, then by the people. Judges of the Courts of Appeals and the State Supreme Court were appointed by the Governor.

Constitutional control in the United States. The Constitution of 1787 and the Judiciary Act of 1789 laid the foundations for judicial constitutional review in the United States. Art. 25 of the Act granted to the U.S. Supreme Court right of nullification(nullify) any law that is contrary to the rules and principles of the US Constitution. Constitutional control in the United States is not abstract and is always associated with some specific case brought before the Supreme Court. Outside of such a trial, the Supreme Court cannot make its judgments regarding the constitutionality of any bill discussed and passed in the US Congress, or already current law. The procedure for conducting constitutional control was fixed in the very practice of the work of the US Supreme Court. The first precedent for the application of the right of nullification by the court is the case of “W. Marbury v. J. Madison” in 1803. In fact, from that moment on, judicial constitutional control in the United States began.

In the first half of the 19th century, the United States experienced a process of rapid development of capitalism. In the north-east of the country, the factory industry grew rapidly, and capitalist farming also developed. In the Western United States, there were a huge number of small farmers, many independent artisans, and the use of hired labor was constantly growing. The general trend of the North and West of the country was the development of capitalist relations. in the south of the country, another feature of the US economy manifested itself - the growth of the plantation slave economy, which developed as an appendage to the capitalist production of Western Europe and the USA. The difference in the ways of economic development of the North and the South had a huge impact on the entire course of the historical development of the United States.

In the United States, capitalism was rapidly spreading "in breadth", to new lands. Late 18th - first half of the 19th century was a time of rapid territorial expansion of the United States.

The spread of capitalism in breadth, to new lands, the capture and settlement of new spaces in the West, the United States created favorable conditions for the influx of settlers from Europe.

The immigrants included hundreds of thousands of skilled artisans and laborers. Immigration accelerated the already very rapid growth of the country's population. But the demand for workers in the United States due to the abundance of land and rapid settlement western regions was higher than in Europe. This contributed to the early spread of cars in the North of the United States, and in the South led to more widespread use slave labor.

USA followed general patterns development of capitalism. In them there was a transition to large-scale machine capitalist industry, the proletariat grew and its exploitation intensified, class struggle, there were crises of overproduction. These common features capitalism were combined, as in any country, with the national characteristics of historical development. Especially characteristic of the United States is the combination of the development of capitalism with the most severe form of exploitation - slavery, as well as with the extermination and displacement of the Indian population.

All this led to the American Civil War.

The prerequisite for the war was the rapid development of the country's economy, the growing trend towards the divergence of the development paths of the North and the South, economic crises that worsened the situation of the working class.

The main slogan of the war was the call for the abolition of slavery for blacks, granting them various political rights and the opportunity to own land.

The course of the civil war is characterized by heavy losses on both sides, the participation in the war of almost all sectors of society, an exorbitant increase in speculation, including smuggled goods.

The results of the war in the United States were:

Preservation national unity USA.

Anchoring political power behind the industrial bourgeoisie.

The control of the bourgeoisie over the presidency, the Senate and the Supreme Court.

The planters lost their political dominance in the state.

The abolition of slavery and the law on homesteads, which provided for a bourgeois-democratic solution to the question of western lands.

The final victory in the country of farming, the American way of agricultural development.

Removal of obstacles that hindered the expansion of the domestic market.

A powerful impetus to the further capitalist development of industry and agriculture in the subsequent period.

The USA was a new type of country. She did not have a past, like European and Asian countries. But there was a democratic constitution, a parliament and great opportunities for the development of the bourgeoisie. Americans wisely took advantage of the advantageous geographical location: mild climate, fertile lands, abundance of forests and minerals.

In the 19th century the world has witnessed an unprecedented flourishing of this wonderful country. Population and territory, industry and trade, wealth and influence all over the world grew.

US Territory Expansion

At the end of the XVIII century. European powers entered a period of long and protracted wars, which for a long time diverted their attention from the American continent. The Americans took advantage of this and rapidly began to expand their borders. At the same time, they relied on the power of the money bag and the power of weapons. First, the United States purchased Louisiana, located west of the Mississippi River, from France for $15 million. As a result, the country almost doubled in size. Then they forced Spain to cede Florida, and in 1846 they annexed the vast territory of Oregon. Unable to withstand military pressure, Mexico handed over half of its lands to the United States, including New Mexico, Northern California and Texas, equal to the area France. In 1867, Alaska was bought from Russia for only 7 million US dollars. After this successful purchase, the US borders acquired a modern look.

Mastering the "Wild West"

Exploring the "Wild West" is one of the most exciting pages American history. Initially, as you know, European settlers developed the eastern (Atlantic) coast. Only the most courageous travelers - pioneers, that is, the first, penetrated deep into the mainland, into the region of the Mississippi River and the Great Lakes. But after the rumor spread that there were fertile lands in the West, thousands of families went there in search of happiness.

The road was difficult and dangerous. Therefore, families united and set off on the road in whole caravans. The settlers took with them everything necessary for life - not only food, clothes, equipment and tools, but even furniture. After all, in the future I had to rely only on myself. The exhausting journey took a lot of time and effort. Having found a suitable place, the settlers stopped and set about building housing and clearing land for future fields. People were in complete confidence that the territory on which they stopped is a no-man's land and belongs to them.

In fact, it has been inhabited since ancient times. Indian tribes, who for the most part were friendly and did not mind the new neighbors. But many whites behaved aggressively. Considering the Indians as savages, they staged a real hunt for them. The Indians responded to cruelty with cruelty. In this war, which lasted for decades, the settlers, supported by government troops, took over. The destruction of the indigenous population is one of the bloodiest pages in American history.

Golden fever

In 1848 news came from California, far to the west, that gold had been discovered. The country was engulfed Golden fever". Thousands of families moved west and, having made their way to California, settled on the Pacific coast. Not everyone was lucky, but someone amassed huge fortunes.

The “gold rush” of 1849 is vividly, captivatingly and with documentary accuracy described by an American historian:

“Craftsmen abandoned their tools, farmers left their crops to rot in the fields and their cattle to die of hunger, teachers forgot their textbooks, lawyers abandoned their clients, church ministers threw off their priestly vestments, sailors deserted from ships - all rushed in a single impulse to the place of gold mines. business life froze in the cities, abandoned houses and shops dilapidated and fell into disrepair. Gold diggers marched like locusts into the areas bordering Sutter's sawmill, with picks, shovels and ladles to pan for the gold."

Population growth. The expansion of the United States was accompanied by rapid population growth. This was due not only to the high birth rate. The population also grew due to immigration from Europe and the importation of Negro slaves from Africa. In the middle of the XIX century. 23 million people lived in the United States, that is, 4 times more than in 1800.

North and South - two ways of development

After the War of Independence in the United States, two socio-economic regions developed - the North and the South, which differed in many respects from each other.

North. In the northeast and west of the country, an industrial revolution was taking place and capitalism was developing rapidly. Home industry, handicraft and manufactory were replaced by large-scale factory production with the use of hired labor. The Americans made extensive use of European scientific and technological advances.

In textile factories already at the beginning of the XIX century. appeared mechanical loom. Mechanical engineering grew gradually. Harvesters and sewing machines, machine tools for metal processing, and then machines with the help of machines began to be produced. (Think of the name of this process where it first began.) The United States has taken the lead in the world in terms of railroad construction. The length of the railway network in 1850 was more than 14 thousand kilometers.

Farming. Despite the industrial revolution, by the middle of the XIX century. The US was still an agricultural country. The vast majority of the population was employed in agriculture. Farming developed in the vast expanses of the northwest. There was plenty of free land here. A significant part of it was conquered from the Indian tribes. Settlers easily and freely acquired land from the state and became farmers. Initially, the land was cultivated by the labor of the farmer and his family. Over time, hired labor began to be used. Landownership did not exist.

With the help of a reaper, a farmer could take from two to two and a half hectares of a wheat field, while with a sickle - only a fifth of a hectare. Entrepreneurial inventor S. McCormick set up the production of reapers in Chicago and by 1860 had sold about 250 thousand of them.

South. In contrast to the industrial and farming North, the Southern states were ruled by "King Cotton". The textile industry of Europe, especially England, needed it. The Southern states accounted for two-thirds of the world's production of this important crop. The production and trade of cotton brought enormous wealth to the American planters.

The plantation economy was based not on the free labor of free people, but on the slave labor of black slaves. Therefore, the planters were interested in maintaining the slave trade. Despite its prohibition at the end of the 18th century, it flourished in the south of the country. Negroes continued to be secretly exported from Africa, and by 1861 their number had reached 4 million.

Movement to abolish slavery

Negro slaves resisted brutal exploitation. They made escapes to the Northern states, where there was no slavery, raised armed uprisings against slave owners. Government troops and local militia units mercilessly cracked down on the rebels. In the South, lynchings raged, reprisals against blacks were carried out without trial or investigation. This is another shameful page in the history of American society.

The Negroes were not alone in their struggle. Democratic America supported their aspirations. In the early 30s. in the United States began a massive nationwide movement against slavery. The participants in this movement were called abolitionists (from the English abolition - cancellation). Among them were whites and blacks, farmers and workers, representatives of the intelligentsia and the bourgeoisie. Huge contribution famous Americans - the poet Longfellow and the writer Mark Twain - made the movement.

The abolitionists acted in an atmosphere of hostility and persecution, they were exposed to serious danger not only in the South, but also in the North. There were cases of lynching of fighters for the abolition of slavery.

was opposed to slavery american president Jefferson, speaking at the beginning of the XIX century. for the bourgeois-democratic development of the United States. But he did not take active steps to abolish it. The positions of the planters in the country looked very strong. In 1828 they united in a democratic party and were in power with a short break for almost thirty years. However, tensions between the North and the South continued to grow, as the reason for it was the divergence of economic interests of the two regions.

References:
V. S. Koshelev, I. V. Orzhehovsky, V. I. Sinitsa / The World History New time XIX - early. XX century., 1998.

Source: 247WALLST.COM

Since the signing of the Declaration of Independence in 1776, the cost of living in America has increased by about fifteen times. Of course, not all prices rose at the same rate.

For 234 years, coffee has risen in price by 15 times. This is similar to the depreciation of the dollar, judging by the purchasing power of the dollar and the consumer price index.

Land values ​​have risen significantly in certain parts of the country - especially in regions that used to be rural but are now part of the big cities. Who could have known 150 years ago that land in New York's Central Park would be worth several thousand times what it was in 1776. In turn, products like whale oil, once used to light homes, now have no official value at all. Powdered wigs have clearly lost value because they have gone out of style.

Inflation varies surprisingly from decade to decade, product to product, service to service. Portal 24/7 Wall St. decided to illustrate this by considering the prices of some goods that were and, in some cases, are part of everyday life in America. We have studied the prices of common goods every 25 years since 1776. Some of them cannot be traced throughout the entire period. For example, Levi Jeans didn't sell until the 1870s. Also, Americans do not keep horses today, but many did in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Thus, the goods and services we have reviewed have changed from time to time.

Many economists and Federal Reserve officials argue that there is no inflation. They worry that America could enter a period of rampant unemployment and falling prices, as in the era of deflation that destroyed the Japanese economy almost 20 years ago. And these experts may be right. However, they are right, most likely, will not be long.

low interest rates, high level Unemployment and a volatile housing market may keep the price of many goods that Americans buy and sell on a daily basis, but economies are recovering, and occasional shortages of critical commodities like oil can turn periods of moderate price increases into periods of hyperinflation. In 1980, the rapid rise in the cost of oil and other commodities drove inflation up to 15%. Mortgage rates have risen to 18%. This was partly due to the enormous rise in oil prices that began with two oil export crises in 1973 and 1979. Gasoline was such an important part of American consumer activity and industrial production that the cost of the entire living wage and the cost of doing business changed almost overnight in the late 1970s.

In its 234-year cost of living analysis, 24/7 Wall St. demonstrates that the cost of goods and services can rise rapidly in a few years, and then once important commodity quickly becomes completely useless. This is the "car antenna" phenomenon. The automobile quickly replaced the horse and carriage just after the start of the 20th century. On the other hand, the value of commodities like land and gold can rise almost indefinitely. Since they are, in fact, finite assets, unlike oil, and therefore provide ideal protection against a reduction in GDP and its low level during several years.

In our analysis, we used "Dollar Rate: 1600-1865" and "Dollar Rate: 1860-2004", which are among the accurate sources of information on dollar fluctuations and, having considered historical prices for goods and wages, how they affect economy. We also consulted publications from a site dedicated to posting "the best and most reliable information on important aggregate economic indicators." Finally, we contacted the Commodity Exchange to ascertain the historical prices of commodities and also to determine which commodities would best reflect inflation over time.”

In our description of each period provided historical summary and a list of some of the more interesting prices. For the sake of completeness, we provide coffee prices for each year throughout the period, as well as the approximate historical purchasing power of the dollar in that year.

1776

A ton of iron cost $63.73 (Philadelphia, 1775)
- Twenty gallons (1 gallon = 3.78 liters) of orange peel tincture cost 2s 6d (Richmond County, Virginia, 1776)

A chessboard with pieces cost 2s 6d (Richmond County, Virginia, 1776)

Double-barreled gun cost £3 (Richmond County, Virginia, 1776)

A pound of coffee was worth 0.13 silver dollars (Boston, 1775)

- $1 in 1775 = $29 today

At times American Revolution British pounds continued to be the primary currency of the United States. When the war broke out, the colonies began printing huge amounts of paper money (about $450 million) to cover their expenses, causing horrendous inflation. This, combined with the shortages associated with the British blockade, led to a significant rise in the price of many goods.

1800

The dictionary cost $0.50 (1797)
- Encyclopedia in 12 volumes cost $2 (1802)

Chest of drawers cost $2 (1802)
- A cow cost $10 (Charles County, Maryland, 1804)
- The cost of building the Presidential House for the College of South Carolina was $8,000 (1806)

A pound of coffee cost $0.25

- $1 in 1800 = $17.60 today

At the beginning of the 19th century, the economy of the United States was still immature. The country's monetary base did not exceed $30 million, that is, there was less than $6.00 per citizen, and the entire economy was only $20 million more than the amount of money of all the colonies 25 years ago. The cost of many goods has risen due to poor infrastructure in the country. Shipping one ton of goods from Europe to America over 3,000 miles cost $9.00. Transporting the same amount of goods from the coast inland for 30 miles cost the same.

1825

Ten pounds of sugar cost $0.20 (1822)
- One acre (4046.86 m2) land plot 400 acres cost $2.00 (Sumter, South Carolina, 1823)
- A bushel (35.2 liters) of potatoes cost $0.12 (1829)
- Porcelain service cost $8.00 (1828)
- A cow cost $12.00 (1829)

A pound of coffee cost $0.17

One dollar in 1825 = $22.40 today

The hallmarks of the American economy in 1825 were innovation and expansion. The construction of an irrigation system and railways opened up access to the interior of the country, and, as a result, consumer goods became available to many who lived far from industrial centers, and the volume of domestic trade increased. In addition, approximately 100,000 Europeans moved to the United States every year, many of them skilled craftsmen, which greatly stimulated the economy.

1850

A bottle of port cost $0.11 (Greenville County, South Carolina, 1847)
- A piano cost $195 in 1847.
- Scheduled doctor's visit - $2 (Florida, 1852)
- New house in New York Brooklyn cost $2500 (1853)

A pound of coffee cost $0.80

- $1 in 1850 = $28.30 today

By 1850, the economy of the United States was booming due to the success of agriculture in the South and industry and commerce in the North. The population of the country has increased by about five times since the beginning of the century and, accordingly, labor productivity has increased significantly. Between 1840 and 1860, the country more than doubled its agricultural output. The mining and manufacturing industries have roughly tripled in this time.

1875

A neckerchief "designed to replace all other methods of tying a lace under a collar" cost $0.10
- A dozen pairs of Levi Strauss jeans cost $13.50 (1874)
- A pair of shoes cost $0.98 (1875)
- Suit cost $10.00 (1875)
- An opera ticket for The Marriage of Figaro cost $1 (San Francisco, 1875)

A pound of coffee cost $0.25

- $1 in 1875 = $20.20 today

After the Civil War, US manufacturing experienced an unprecedented boom. However, this growth was interrupted by the Panic of 1873, a major economic recession. In addition to this recession, the country experienced a rapid economic recovery as the population more than doubled from 1860 to 1890, from 31.5 million to 76 million. Most of professions required a 60-hour working week, where they were paid from $1.60 (a firefighter in Massachusetts) to $4.64 a day (a glass blower in New Jersey).

1900

- "Tooth powder" cost $0.25 (1896)
- 40-week boarding at Clemstone College cost $59 (1896)
- House on Flatbush Avenue in Brooklyn, New York, cost between $7,000 and $12,000 (1901)
- Oldsmobile cost $650 (1904)

A pound of coffee costs $0.15

- $1 in 1900 = $26.40 today

The beginning of the 20th century is known as the Progressive Era. The lower classes were fed up with the abuses of the trusts and the railroad companies, and got the bill passed to fight corruption and bad working conditions. During this period, industrial development continued in the United States, and between 1900 and 1920 the number of non-agricultural jobs increased from 800,000 to two million. In 1900, Kodak released their famous "Brownie" camera. She cost $1.

1925

A year of study at Cornell University, including living expenses, cost $1,400 (1927)
- A Harley-Davidson motorcycle cost $235 (1927)
- Camera cost $80 (1928)
- Chrysler Imperial Sedan cost $2995 (1928)

A pound of coffee cost $0.47

- $1 in 1925 = $12.20 today

In 1925, America found itself in the midst of the Roaring Twenties, characterized by rapid economic growth and consumerism. In 1925, over 40 million Americans went to the movies every week, there were 20 million cars on the road, and having a radio for most Americans was like having a television today. This year, women were the target of an advertising campaign for Chesterfield cigarettes, and Hormel launched the first canned meats, later called Spam.

1950

Monopoly game cost $4 (1950)
- A bottle of aspirin cost $0.54
- A Chevy Corvette cost about $3,000
- A one-way plane ticket from New York to California cost $88.

A pound of coffee cost $0.79

- $1 in 1950 = $8.91 today

In the 1950s, the American industrial economy experienced a period of change after World War II. After the return to civilian life of millions of American soldiers who received benefits for the demobilized, as well as the introduction of a new 40-hour work week as a result of Roosevelt's New Deal, the economy was characterized by strong support from the middle class, as well as massive migration to the suburbs. In 1950, there was one car for every 3.7 Americans and 5 million households owned televisions, while only 45 million still had radios. This year, Coke owned 69% of the cola market.

1975

An Apple computer cost $1300 (1977)
- A six-pack of beer cost $1.49 (1978)
- Microwave cost $168 (1978)
- A movie ticket cost $1 (Chicago, 1978)

A pound of coffee cost $1.40

- $1 in 1975 = $3.98 today

In the mid-1970s, the United States was experiencing one of the worst economic crises since the Great Depression. Oil prices skyrocketed, and regular gasoline topped $1.00 a gallon for the first time. In 1975, 120,000 Americans filed for bankruptcy, and unemployment reached 9.2%. That same year, the first McDonald's auto restaurant opened.

year 2000

A box of 12 bottles of Bud Light was $8.99 (2003)
- Samsung 42" TV cost $999 (2004)
- A movie ticket in Chicago cost $7.50 (2004)
- The cost of one year of study at St. John's College was $30,570 (2004)

A pound of coffee cost $3.54 (2000)

- $1 in 2000 = $1.25 today

As the United States entered the 21st century, the economy boomed due to the "dot-com bubble". Unfortunately, conditions took a turn for the worse after the bubble burst in 2001. However, many other features are also characteristic of this period, for example, the fact that 60% of American households had a personal computer. The 2000s also saw the birth of the modern green movement, with Honda launching its first hybrid vehicle.

English colonists first landed in North America in the 1920s. XVII century, they began to create English colonies, to mid-eighteenth in. their number reached 13. They were diverse in territory, culture, ethnic composition, and the nature of government.

There were corporate colonies (Rhode Island, Massachusetts), colonies with a feudal beginning (Maryland). All colonies were under the authority of the English (British) crown. Representative bodies (legislatures) were created in the colonies. Legislative acts adopted by them were subject to approval by the governors of the colonies. The principles of local self-government were well developed in the colonies.

Americans actively protested against the imposition of taxes on them English Parliament(in London), because there were no representatives of the North American colonies. England mercilessly exploited her colonies, in particular, in the years Seven Years' War. The pressure of indirect taxation was strengthened (for example, a fee was established for stamped paper). The colonists began violent protests (for example, the famous "Boston Tea Party") and achieved the abolition of some indirect taxes(for example, stamp paper fees).

In 1774, the British government sent troops to the colonies, and in 1775 military operations began against the rebellious colonists. started the first civil war, it is also the war for independence, sometimes referred to as American bourgeois revolution(1775–1783). With the support of the European powers (France, Russia, Spain, Holland), the revolt of the North American colonies was crowned with success. In 1783, an Anglo-American peace treaty was signed at Versailles.

The independence of the colonies was proclaimed as early as 1776 by the Second Continental Congress, which on July 4, 1776 in Philadelphia adopted the famous US Declaration of Independence. The text of the Declaration was written by T. Jefferson, the third President of the United States. Now July 4th is public holiday USA - Independence Day.

According to the US Declaration of Independence, 13 independent states(states) with their own constitutional acts. At the same time, the states, under the influence of external circumstances (above all, the military threat from Great Britain), united more and more closely, forming first a confederation, and then a federal state.

In 1777, the Continental Congress adopted Articles of Confederation and eternal union. This document came into force only in 1781 after ratification by all 13 states. Most researchers consider the Articles of Confederation and Eternal Union international treaty, and some declare them to be the first American Constitution. After all, the Articles did not provide for the right of secession and nullification for members of the confederation, assuming an "eternal union" between them.

In 1787 in Philadelphia was convened Convention, which was originally to discuss amendments to the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union. The President of the Convention was George Washington, the first President of the United States, the secretary was J. Madison, the fourth President of the United States, among the members of the Convention were B. Franklin and other founding fathers of the United States. Representatives from 12 North American states attended the convention.

At the Philadelphia Convention, later called the Constitutional Convention, it was decided not to amend the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union of 1777, but to develop a new constitutional document. The convention worked in the summer of 1787 for behind closed doors. In total, no more than 50 people took part in the work of the Convention, and even the minutes of the meetings were not kept. The Philadelphia Constitutional Convention drafted the US Constitution. the first constitution in the modern world.

The draft of the US Constitution was sent by the Convention to Congress, which forwarded the draft to the state legislatures for ratification. In 1788, the US Constitution was ratified by nine states and entered into force. Rhode Island was the last North American state to ratify the US Constitution in 1790.

The Americans themselves date their Constitution to 1789, it was in this year that the US Congress was formed, the US President was elected (J. Washington became it), and the US Supreme Court began its work.

The US Constitution of 1787 consists of a preamble and seven articles. Article I is devoted legislature, Art. II - executive power, Art. Ill - the judiciary, art. IV-V explained the competence of the federation, Art. VI - amending the US Constitution, Art. VII - the procedure for the introduction of the US Constitution into action.

The text of the US Constitution was short and unclear in many respects, which testifies to its compromise nature.

As was decided at the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, the first convocation of the US Congress already in 1789 adopted a number of amendments to the US Constitution. dedicated to human rights (Bill of Rights).

The draft Bill of Rights was developed by the US Congress and a special commission chaired by J. Madison.

The Bill of Rights consisted of 12 articles, it was drafted and adopted in 1789 and ratified by 1791 (with the exception of Articles I-II), making up the 1-X amendments to the US Constitution.

The Bill of Rights proclaims some social and political rights and freedoms (amendments I-III), ways of their procedural protection (amendments IV-VIII), determines the relationship between the authorities of the states, the federation and the people (amendments IX-X).

1st amendment establishes freedoms of religion, speech, press, assembly and petition. II amendment establishes the right American citizens to carry weapons. Ill amendment establishes a ban on troops staying in houses in peacetime. IV Amendment protects the right to protect the person, home, papers, property from unreasonable searches and (or) arrests. 5th amendment protects property rights and establishes sentencing only by jury. 6th amendment determines that the victim is entitled to a speedy hearing in the court of the state where the crime was committed. 8th Amendment establishes a ban on excessive bail and fines, as well as sophisticated punishments.

Article II of the Bill of Rights, not immediately ratified, was ratified only in 1992, becoming the XXVII Amendment to the US Constitution. It establishes that an incumbent congressman cannot increase his salary.

The Bill of Rights of 1789 (the 1st Amendment to the US Constitution) is the fundamental ideological value of American democracy.

In 1820, between the industrial northern states and the slave-owning southern states, Missouri Compromise, the essence of which boiled down to the fact that henceforth slave states could not be created north of 36 degrees 30 minutes northern latitude. The geographical limitation of slavery did not eliminate the contradictions, but only delayed the clash of North and South. From the beginning of the 30s. 19th century in the United States, a massive nationwide abolitionist movement movement for the immediate abolition of slavery. In 1860, the abolitionist A. Lincoln was elected president of the United States. In late 1860 - early 1861, eleven slave states announced their secession - the separation of the southern states and the formation of an independent state ("Confederate States of America") with its capital in Richmond. On March 11, 1861, the constitution of the "Confederate States of America" ​​was adopted, which proclaimed the institution of slavery "recognized and protected." In April 1861, the Confederates unleashed Civil War. At the first stage of the war (1861–1862), the northerners suffered a number of severe lesions, but by the summer of 1865 the southerners were defeated, and Confederate states The Americas have ceased to exist. Civil War 1861–1865 and the subsequent period of the Reconstruction of the South 1865–1877. led to the completion of the bourgeois-democratic transformations in the country.

The legal consequences of the Civil War were adoption of the XIII-XV amendments to the US Constitution. 13th Amendment entered into force in 1865 and established that there would be neither slavery nor servitude in the United States, "except in cases where such a state is a punishment for crimes." 14th Amendment entered into force in 1868 and established that all persons born or naturalized in the United States are equal citizens of the United States and the state in which they live. 15th Amendment entered into force in 1870 and stated that US citizens could not be deprived or limited in their right to vote in connection with race, color, or previous slavery.