Many complex tasks of automatic control space objects arises during the control of manned rocket and space complexes designed to carry out a manned flight to the Moon and return to Earth. As an example, consider the management system of the American spaceship"Apollo", designed for a crew of three people.

In general, such a spacecraft consists of three compartments, which are put on a flight path to the Moon with the help of a powerful launch vehicle.

The command compartment is designed to re-enter the atmosphere and contains most flight are all three crew members. The auxiliary compartment contains propulsion systems that provide the ability to perform maneuvers, power sources, etc. For landing on the Moon, it is planned to use a special compartment, in which at that time there will be two crew members, and the third astronaut will fly in a selenocentric orbit.

The control and navigation system of such a spacecraft is an onboard system used to determine the position and speed of the vehicle, as well as to control maneuvers. Parts of this system are located both in the command compartment and in the compartment intended for landing on the moon. Each part contains devices for storing orientation in inertial space and measuring g-forces, devices for optical measurements, instrument panels and control panels, devices for displaying data on indicators and an on-board digital computer.

Flight plan of the Apollo spacecraft

The flight path of the lunar spacecraft consists of active sections and inertial flight sections. The tasks of the management system in these areas differ to some extent.

During the flight by inertia, it is necessary to know the position of the apparatus and its speed, i.e., to solve navigation problems. This uses information received from ground stations for tracking the flight of the spacecraft, data on determining the position of the apparatus relative to the stars, the Earth and the Moon, obtained using on-board optical devices, and data from radar measurements. After collecting this information, it becomes possible definition the position of the apparatus, its speed and the maneuver necessary to hit a given point. In free flight areas, and especially during the periods of navigation information collection, it often becomes necessary to ensure the orientation of the device. When performing maneuvers, a platform is used, stabilized in space with the help of gyroscopes.

Accelerometers are installed on the platform, which measure accelerations and provide information to the on-board computer. When controlling the device before landing on the moon, you need to know it initial speed and position. Information about these values ​​is formed in the flight segments by inertia.

Let us briefly consider the tasks that the control and navigation system must solve at various stages of the program.

Injection into geocentric orbit. When launching a launch vehicle, control is carried out by a system installed in front of the launch vehicle. In the launch phase, however, the command compartment system generates commands that can be used in the event of a failure of the launch vehicle's control system. In addition, the command compartment control system provides the crew with information about the accuracy of launching the vehicle into a given geocentric orbit.

Geocentric orbit flight segment. The spacecraft and the last stage of the launch vehicle make one or more turns in a geocentric orbit. At this stage, navigational measurements carried out by the airborne equipment are carried out mainly to check the correct functioning of the equipment. The optical elements of the command compartment control system are used to clarify the position and speed of the vehicle. Data received from on-board devices is shared with data transmitted from ground tracking stations.

The free-flight segment to the Moon. The device separates from the last stage of the launch vehicle shortly after leaving the geocentric orbit. Starting positions and the speed of the vehicle are accurately determined both by on-board systems and by ground stations. When the vehicle's trajectory is accurately determined, trajectory correction can be performed. Typically, three corrective maneuvers can be performed, each of which can lead to a change in vehicle speed by up to 3 m/s. The first trajectory correction can be performed approximately one hour after the launch from a geocentric orbit.

The section of the launch of the lunar compartment on the flight path to the surface of the Moon. The first task of the control system of the lunar compartment is to ensure the precise execution of the maneuver, in which the lunar compartment, due to a change in its speed by several hundred meters per second, is displayed on a trajectory ending at an altitude of 16 km in the vicinity of given point landing. The initial conditions for this maneuver are determined using the navigation equipment of the command compartment. The data is entered into the lunar compartment control system manually.

Landing site on the lunar surface. At the appropriate time, set by the control system of the lunar compartment, the landing engines are started, reducing the rate of descent of the lunar compartment. At the initial stage of targeting the compartment using inertial system accelerations are measured and the necessary orientation of the device is provided. With further landing control, after the altitude and speed of the compartment fall to the specified limits, the radar will be used. At the same time, crew members ensure the orientation of the compartment with the help of special marks on the porthole and information coming from the computer. The control system should provide the most effective use fuel during a soft landing in a given place.

Stage of stay on the surface of the moon. When the lunar compartment is on the surface of the moon, a special radar, which is also used to ensure the meeting of the compartments in orbit, monitors the command compartment for exact definition position of the command compartment orbit relative to the landing point.

Stage of launch from the surface of the Moon. For the appropriate initial conditions, the computer of the compartment determines the trajectory that ensures the meeting with the command compartment, which is flying in the orbit of the Moon's satellite, and a take-off command is issued. With the help of the inertial system, the lunar compartment is guided and the moment of engine shutdown is determined. After turning off the engine, the lunar compartment makes a free flight along a trajectory close to the trajectory of the command compartment.

Stage of flight along an intermediate trajectory. A radar installed on the lunar compartment makes it possible to obtain information about the relative position of both compartments. After specifying the relative position of the trajectories, they can be corrected in the same way as it was done on the leg of the flight to the Moon.

The rendezvous stage in a selenocentric orbit. When the compartments approach, the thrust of the engines is controlled by the signals of the inertial and radar systems in order to reduce the relative speed between the compartments. Bay docking can be controlled manually or automatically.

Return to the Earth. The return of the command and auxiliary compartment to the Earth is carried out similarly to the stage of the flight to the Moon with corrective maneuvers. At the end of this section, the navigation system must accurately determine the initial conditions for entry into the atmosphere and provide entry into a relatively narrow "corridor" bounded above and below.

Atmospheric entry. At the atmospheric entry site, according to the data on overloads and attitude of the apparatus obtained from the inertial system, the movement of the compartment is controlled by changing its angle of roll. The command compartment is an axisymmetric body, but its center of mass does not lie on the axis of symmetry, and when flying at the trim angle of attack, the aerodynamic quality* of the apparatus is about 0.3. This allows, by changing the angle of roll, to change the angle of attack and thus control the flight in the longitudinal plane. When entering the Earth's atmosphere, aerodynamic braking of the command compartment occurs. At the same time, its speed decreases from the second cosmic speed to a speed slightly lower than the first cosmic (circular) speed. After the first immersion into the atmosphere, the device switches to a ballistic trajectory, leaving the atmosphere, and then re-enters the dense layers of the atmosphere and switches to a descent trajectory. The stage of spacecraft control during the first immersion into the atmosphere is extremely important, since, on the one hand, the control system must ensure the maintenance of g-forces and aerodynamic heating within the specified limits, and on the other hand, it must provide the required amount of lift force, at which the required range and landing of the ship in a given area.

* Aerodynamic quality is the ratio of lift to drag.

The control of the spacecraft during the second dive can be carried out by analogy with the control during the descent of the spaceships-satellites.

The science and technology of controlling spacecraft is still in the initial period of its development. In the decade that has passed since the launch of the first artificial Earth satellite, it has made tremendous progress and solved many of the most difficult problems, but the prospects for its development are even more grandiose.

Improvement of computer technology, microminiaturization of elements of electronic devices, development of means for processing and transmitting information, construction of measuring and information devices on new physical principles, the development of new principles and devices for orientation, stabilization and control open up boundless horizons for the creation of perfect manned and unmanned space aircraft which will help a person to know the secrets of the Universe and will serve to solve many practical problems.

The ships of the Soyuz series, which were promised a lunar future almost half a century ago, never left earth orbit, but gained a reputation as the most reliable passenger space transport. Let's look at them with the eyes of the ship's commander

The Soyuz-TMA spacecraft consists of an instrument-assembly compartment (PAO), a descent vehicle (SA), and an amenity compartment (BO), and the CA occupies central part ship. Just as in an airliner, during takeoff and climb, we are ordered to fasten our seat belts and not leave our seats, astronauts are also required to be in their seats, to be fastened and not to take off their spacesuits at the stage of launching the ship into orbit and maneuver. After the end of the maneuver, the crew, consisting of the ship's commander, flight engineer-1 and flight engineer-2, are allowed to remove their spacesuits and move to the service compartment, where they can eat and go to the toilet. The flight to the ISS takes about two days, the return to Earth takes 3-5 hours.

The information display system (IDS) Neptune-ME used in the Soyuz-TMA belongs to the fifth generation of the IDS for the spacecraft of the Soyuz series.

As you know, the Soyuz-TMA modification was created specifically for flights to the International Space Station, which involved the participation of NASA astronauts in these more voluminous spacesuits.

In order for the astronauts to be able to get through the hatch connecting the household unit with the descent vehicle, it was necessary to reduce the depth and height of the console, of course, while maintaining its full functionality.

The problem was also that a number of instrument assemblies used in previous versions of SDI could no longer be produced due to the disintegration of the former Soviet economy and the cessation of some production.

The training complex "Soyuz-TMA", located in the Cosmonaut Training Center named after. Gagarin (Star City), includes a mock-up of the descent vehicle and the domestic compartment.

Therefore, the entire SDI had to be fundamentally reworked. The central element of the ship's SDI was an integrated control panel, hardware-compatible with an IBM PC type computer.

space console

The information display system (IDS) in the Soyuz-TMA spacecraft is called Neptune-ME. There are currently more a new version SDI for the so-called digital "Soyuz" - ships of the "Soyuz-TMA-M" type. However, the changes affected mainly the electronic filling of the system - in particular, the analog telemetry system was replaced with a digital one. Basically, the continuity of the "interface" is preserved.

1. Integrated control panel (InPU). In total, there are two IPUs on board the descent vehicle - one for the commander of the ship, the second for the flight engineer-1 sitting on the left.

2. Numeric keypad for entering codes (for navigation on the InPU display).

3. Marker control block (used for navigation of the InPU sub-display).

4. Block of electroluminescent indication of the current state of systems (TS).

5. RPV-1 and RPV-2 - manual rotary valves. They are responsible for filling the lines with oxygen from spherical balloons, one of which is located in the instrument-aggregate compartment, and the other in the descent vehicle itself.

6. Electropneumatic valve for oxygen supply during landing.

7. Special cosmonaut's sight (VSK). During docking, the ship's commander looks at the docking port and observes the ship docking. To transmit the image, a system of mirrors is used, approximately the same as in the periscope on a submarine.

8. Movement control knob (RUD). With this help, the spacecraft commander controls the engines to give the Soyuz-TMA a linear (positive or negative) acceleration.

9. Using the attitude control stick (OCC), the spacecraft commander sets the rotation of the Soyuz-TMA around the center of mass.

10. The refrigeration and drying unit (XSA) removes heat and moisture from the ship, which inevitably accumulate in the air due to the presence of people on board.

11. Toggle switches to turn on the ventilation of spacesuits during landing.

12. Voltmeter.

13. Fuse block.

14. Button to start conservation of the ship after docking. The resource of Soyuz-TMA is only four days, so it must be protected. After docking, power and ventilation are supplied by the orbital station itself.

SPACESHIP

Spaceships in our time are called devices designed to deliver astronauts to near-Earth orbit and then return them to Earth. It is clear that technical requirements to the spacecraft are more stringent than to any other spacecraft. Flight conditions (G-forces, temperature conditions, pressure, etc.) must be maintained for them very accurately so that a threat to human life is not created. Normal human conditions must be created in a ship that becomes a home for a cosmonaut for several hours or even days - the cosmonaut must breathe, drink, eat, sleep, and fulfill his natural needs. It should be able to turn the ship at its own discretion during the flight and change the orbit, that is, the ship should be easily reoriented and controlled during its movement in space. To return to Earth, the spacecraft must extinguish all that tremendous speed, which was reported to him at the start of the launch vehicle. If the Earth did not have an atmosphere, it would have to spend as much fuel as it used to rise into space. Fortunately, this is not necessary: ​​if you land on a very gentle trajectory, gradually plunging into the dense layers of the atmosphere, you can slow down the ship on the air with minimal fuel consumption. Both the Soviet "Vostok" and the American "Mercury" landed in this way, and this explains many of the features of their design. Since a significant part of the energy during braking goes to heat the ship, without good thermal protection it will simply burn out, as most meteorites and satellites ending their existence burn out in the atmosphere. Therefore, it is necessary to protect the ships with bulky heat-resistant heat-shielding shells. (For example, on the Soviet Vostok, its weight was 800 kg - a third of the total weight of the descent vehicle.) Wishing to lighten the ship as much as possible, the designers supplied this screen not to the entire ship, but only to the body of the descent vehicle. Thus, from the very beginning, the design of a separable spacecraft was established (it was tested on the Vostoks, and then became classic for all Soviet and many American spacecraft). The ship consists of two independent parts: the instrument compartment and the descent vehicle (the latter serves as the cosmonaut's cabin during the flight).

The first Soviet spacecraft Vostok total mass 4, 73 tons was launched into orbit using a three-stage launch vehicle of the same name. The total launch weight of the space complex was 287 tons. Structurally, the Vostok consisted of two main compartments: the descent vehicle and the instrument compartment. The descent vehicle with the cosmonaut's cabin was made in the form of a ball with a diameter of 2.3 m and had a mass of 2.4 tons.

The sealed case was made of aluminum alloy. Inside the descent vehicle, the designers tried to place only those systems and instruments of the spacecraft that were needed during the entire flight, or those that were directly used by the astronaut. All the rest were taken to the instrument compartment. The astronaut's ejection seat was located inside the cabin. (In case you had to eject at launch, the seat was equipped with two powder boosters.) There were also a control panel, food and water supplies. The life support system was designed to work for ten days. During the entire flight, the astronaut had to be in an airtight spacesuit, but with an open helmet (this helmet was automatically closed in the event of a sudden depressurization of the cabin).

The internal free volume of the descent vehicle was 1.6 cubic meters. The necessary conditions in the cockpit of the spacecraft were supported by two automatic systems: life support system and thermal control system. As you know, a person in the process of life consumes oxygen, emits carbon dioxide, heat and moisture. These two systems just ensured the absorption carbon dioxide, replenishment with oxygen, removal of excess moisture from the air and heat extraction. In the cabin of the Vostok, the usual state of the atmosphere on Earth was maintained with a pressure of 735-775 mm Hg. Art. and 20‑25% oxygen content. The device of the thermal control system was somewhat reminiscent of an air conditioner. It contained an air-liquid heat exchanger, through the coil of which a cooled liquid (refrigerant) flowed. The fan drove warm and humid cabin air through the heat exchanger, which was cooled on its cold surfaces. The moisture has condensed. The coolant entered the descent vehicle from the instrument compartment. The heat-absorbing liquid was forcibly driven by a pump through a radiator-emitter located on the outer conical shell of the instrument compartment. The temperature of the coolant was automatically maintained in the desired range with the help of special shutters that covered the radiator. The shutters of the blinds could open or close, changing the heat fluxes radiated by the radiator. To maintain the desired air composition, there was a regeneration device in the cabin of the descent vehicle. Cabin air was continuously driven by a fan through special replaceable cartridges containing alkali metal superoxides. Such substances (for example, K2O4) are able to effectively absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen in the process. The work of all automation was controlled by an on-board software device. Various systems and instruments were turned on both by commands from the Earth and by the cosmonaut himself. On the "Vostok" there was a whole range of radio facilities that made it possible to conduct and maintain two-way communication, make various measurements, control the ship from the Earth, and much more. With the help of the "Signal" transmitter, information from sensors located on the cosmonaut's body was constantly received regarding his well-being. The power supply system was based on silver-zinc batteries: the main battery was located in the instrument compartment, and the additional one, which provided power during the descent, was in the descent vehicle.

The instrument compartment had a mass of 2.27 tons. Near its junction with the descent vehicle there were 16 spherical cylinders with reserves of compressed nitrogen for orientation micromotors and oxygen for the life support system. The orientation and motion control system plays a very important role in any spacecraft. On the "Vostok" it included several subsystems. The first of them - navigation - consisted of a number of spacecraft position sensors in space (including the Sun sensor, gyroscopic sensors, the Vzor optical device, and others). The signals from the sensors entered the control system, which could operate automatically or with the participation of the astronaut. The cosmonaut's console had a handle for manually controlling the attitude of the spacecraft. The ship was deployed using a whole set of small jet nozzles arranged in a certain way, into which compressed nitrogen was supplied from cylinders. In total, the instrument compartment had two sets of nozzles (eight in each), which could be connected to three groups of cylinders. the main task, which was solved with the help of these nozzles, was to correctly orient the ship before applying a braking impulse. This had to be done in a certain direction and at a strictly defined time. No mistake was made here.

A braking propulsion system with a thrust of 15.8 kilonewtons was located in the lower part of the compartment. It consisted of an engine, fuel tanks and a fuel supply system. Its running time was 45 seconds. Before returning to Earth, the braking propulsion system was oriented in such a way as to give a braking impulse of about 100 m/s. This was enough to switch to the descent trajectory. (With a flight altitude of 180-240 km, the orbit was calculated in such a way that even if the brake installation failed, the ship would still enter the dense layers of the atmosphere in ten days. It was for this period that the supply of oxygen was calculated, drinking water, food, battery charge.) Then the descent vehicle was separated from the instrument compartment. Further deceleration of the ship was already due to atmospheric resistance. At the same time, overloads reached 10 g, that is, the astronaut's weight increased tenfold.

The speed of the descent vehicle in the atmosphere decreased to 150‑200 m/s. But in order to ensure a safe landing in contact with the ground, its speed should not exceed 10 m / s. The excess speed was extinguished by parachutes. They opened gradually: first the exhaust, then the brake and, finally, the main one. At an altitude of 7 km, the cosmonaut had to eject and land separately from the descent vehicle at a speed of 5-6 m/s. This was carried out with the help of an ejection seat, which was mounted on special guides and fired from the descent vehicle after the hatch cover was separated. Here, too, the braking parachute of the chair first opened, and at an altitude of 4 km (at a speed of 70-80 m/s), the astronaut unfastened himself from the chair and descended further on his own parachute.

Work on the preparation of a manned flight at the Korolev Design Bureau began in 1958. The first unmanned launch of Vostok was made on May 15, 1960. Because of incorrect operation One of the sensors, before turning on the brake propulsion system, the ship turned out to be incorrectly oriented and, instead of descending, moved to a higher orbit. The second launch (July 23, 1960) was even less successful - an accident occurred at the very beginning of the flight. The descent vehicle separated from the ship and collapsed during the fall. To avoid this danger, an emergency rescue system was introduced on all following ships. But the third launch of Vostok (August 19-20, 1960) was quite successful - on the second day, the descent vehicle, along with all the experimental animals: mice, rats and two dogs - Belka and Strelka - landed safely in a given area. This was the first case in the history of astronautics of the return of living beings to Earth after the space flight. But the next flight (December 1, 1960) again had an unfavorable outcome. The ship went into space and completed the entire program. A day later, a command was given to return to the ground. However, due to the failure of the brake propulsion system, the descent vehicle entered the atmosphere at an excessively high speed and burned up. The experimental dogs Pchelka and Mushka died with him. During the launch on December 22, 1960, the last stage crashed, but the emergency rescue system worked properly - the descent vehicle landed without damage. Only the sixth (March 9, 1961) and seventh (March 25, 1961) launches of the Vostok were quite successful. Having made one revolution around the Earth, both ships returned safely to Earth along with all the experimental animals. These two flights completely simulated the future flight of a person, so that even in the chair there was a special mannequin. The first manned space flight in history took place on April 12, 1961. Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin on the Vostok-1 spacecraft made one orbit around the Earth and returned safely to Earth on the same day (the entire flight lasted 108 minutes). Thus was opened the era of manned flights.

In the United States, preparations for manned flight under the Mercury program also began in 1958. At first, unmanned flights were carried out, then flights along a ballistic trajectory. The first two launches of Mercury on a ballistic trajectory (in May and July 1961) were carried out using a Redstone rocket, and the next ones were launched into orbit using an Atlas-D launch vehicle. February 20, 1962 American astronaut John Glenn on the Mercury 6 made the first orbital flight around the Earth.

The first American spacecraft was much smaller than the Soviet one. The Atlas-D launch vehicle, with a launch weight of 111.3 tons, was capable of launching a load of no more than 1.35 tons into orbit. Therefore, the ship "Mercury" was designed with extremely stringent restrictions on weight and dimensions. The basis of the ship was the capsule returned to Earth. It had the shape of a truncated cone with a spherical bottom and a cylindrical top. On the basis of the cone there was a brake installation of three solid-propellant jet engines of 4.5 kilonewtons each and an operating time of 10 seconds. During the descent, the capsule entered the dense layers of the atmosphere bottom first. Therefore, a heavy heat shield was located only here. In the front cylindrical part there was an antenna and a parachute section. There were three parachutes: brake, main and spare, which were pushed out with the help of an air spring.

Inside the cockpit there was a free volume 1, 1 cubic meters. The astronaut, dressed in a hermetic space suit, was located in a chair. In front of him were a porthole and a control panel. On the farm above the ship was placed the SAS powder engine. The life support system on the Mercury was significantly different from that on the Vostok. Inside the ship, a purely oxygen atmosphere was created with a pressure of 228-289 mm Hg. Art. As oxygen was consumed from the cylinders, it was supplied to the cabin and the astronaut's spacesuit. Lithium hydroxide was used to remove carbon dioxide. The suit was cooled with oxygen, which, before being used for breathing, was supplied to the lower body. The temperature and humidity were maintained using evaporative heat exchangers - moisture was collected using a sponge, which was periodically wrung out (it turned out that this method was not suitable under weightlessness, so it was used only on the first ships). Power supply was provided by rechargeable batteries. The entire life support system was designed for only 1.5 days. To control the orientation, "Mercury" had 18 controlled engines that ran on a single-component fuel - hydrogen peroxide. The astronaut splashed down with the ship on the surface of the ocean. The capsule had unsatisfactory buoyancy, so just in case it had an inflatable raft.

ROBOT

A robot is called an automatic device that has a manipulator - a mechanical analogue human hand- and the control system of this manipulator. Both of these components can have a different structure - from very simple to extremely complex. The manipulator usually consists of articulated links, as a human hand consists of bones connected by joints, and ends with a girth, which is something like the hand of a human hand.

The links of the manipulator are movable relative to each other and can perform rotational and translational movements. Sometimes, instead of a gripper, the last link of the manipulator is some kind of working tool, for example, a drill, wrench, paint sprayer or welding torch.

The movement of the links of the manipulator is provided by the so-called drives - analogues of the muscles in the human hand. Typically, electric motors are used as such. Then the drive also includes a gearbox (a system of gears that reduce the number of revolutions of the engine and increase torque) and an electrical control circuit that regulates the speed of rotation of the electric motor.

In addition to electric, a hydraulic drive is often used. Its action is very simple. In the cylinder 1, in which the piston 2 is located, connected by means of a rod to the manipulator 3, a fluid enters under pressure, which moves the piston in one direction or another, and with it the “arm” of the robot. The direction of this movement is determined by which part of the cylinder (in the space above or below the piston) enters this moment liquid. The hydraulic drive can inform the manipulator and rotational movement. Pneumatic drive works in the same way, only air is used here instead of liquid.

That's in in general terms manipulator device. As for the complexity of the tasks that a particular robot can solve, they largely depend on the complexity and perfection of the control device. In general, it is customary to talk about three generations of robots: industrial, adaptive and robots with artificial intelligence.

The very first samples of simple industrial robots were created in 1962 in the USA. These were Versatran from AMF Versatran and Unimate from Union Incorporated. These robots, as well as those that followed them, acted according to a rigid program that did not change during operation and were designed to automate simple operations in an unchanged state of the environment. For example, a “programmable drum” could serve as a control device for such robots. He acted as follows: on a cylinder rotated by an electric motor, the contacts of the manipulator drives were placed, and around the drum there were conductive metal plates that closed these contacts when they touched them. The location of the contacts was such that when the drum rotates, the manipulator drives turn on at the right time, and the robot begins to perform the programmed operations in the desired sequence. In the same way, control could be carried out using a punch card or magnetic tape.

Obviously, even the slightest change in the environment, the slightest failure in technological process, leads to a violation of the actions of such a robot. However, they also have considerable advantages - they are cheap, simple, easily reprogrammed and may well replace a person when performing heavy monotonous operations. It was in this type of work that robots were first used. They coped well with simple technological repetitive operations: they performed spot and arc welding, loaded and unloaded, serviced presses and dies. The Unimate robot, for example, was created to automate resistance spot welding of bodies cars, and a SMART-type robot installed wheels on cars.

However, the fundamental impossibility of autonomous (without human intervention) functioning of first-generation robots made it very difficult for them to be widely introduced into production. Scientists and engineers persistently tried to eliminate this shortcoming. The result of their labors was the creation of much more complex second-generation adaptive robots. A distinctive feature of these robots is that they can change their actions depending on the environment. So, when changing the parameters of the object of manipulation (its angular orientation or location), as well as the environment (say, when some obstacles appear in the path of the manipulator), these robots can design their actions accordingly.

It is clear that, working in a changing environment, the robot must constantly receive information about it, otherwise it will not be able to navigate in the surrounding space. In this regard, adaptive robots have a much more complex control system than first-generation robots. This system is divided into two subsystems: 1) sensory (or sensing) - it includes those devices that collect information about the external environment and about the location in space of various parts of the robot; 2) A computer that analyzes this information and, in accordance with it and a given program, controls the movement of the robot and its manipulator.

To touch devices include tactile touch sensors, photometric sensors, ultrasonic, location, and various systems of technical vision. The latter are of particular importance. The main task of technical vision (actually, the “eyes” of the robot) is to convert images of environmental objects into an electrical signal understandable for a computer. General principle systems of technical vision consists in the fact that with the help of a television camera information about the working space is transmitted to the computer. The computer compares it with the "models" available in the memory and selects the appropriate program for the circumstances. Along the way, one of central issues when creating adaptive robots was to teach the machine to recognize patterns. Of the many objects, the robot must select those that it needs to perform some action. That is, he must be able to distinguish between features of objects and classify objects according to these features. This is due to the fact that the robot has in memory the prototypes of the images of the desired objects and compares with them those that fall into its field of vision. Usually, the task of “recognizing” the desired object is divided into several simpler tasks: the robot searches for the desired object in the environment by changing the orientation of its gaze, measures the distance to the objects of observation, automatically adjusts the sensitive video sensor in accordance with the illumination of the object, compares each object with a “model”, which is stored in its memory, according to several criteria, that is, it highlights the contours, texture, color and other features. As a result of all this, the “recognition” of the object occurs.

The next step in the work of an adaptive robot is usually some kind of action with this object. The robot must approach it, grab it and move it to another place, and not just randomly, but in a certain way. To perform all these complex manipulations, some knowledge about environment not enough - the robot must accurately control its every movement and, as it were, "feel" itself in space. To this end, in addition to the sensory system, reflecting external environment, the adaptive robot is equipped with a complex system of internal information: internal sensors constantly transmit messages to the computer about the location of each link of the manipulator. They kind of give the car " inner feeling". As such internal sensors, for example, high-precision potentiometers can be used.

The high-precision potentiometer is a device similar to the well-known rheostat, but with higher accuracy. In it, the rotating contact does not jump from turn to turn, as when the handle of a conventional rheostat is displaced, but follows along the turns of the wire themselves. The potentiometer is mounted inside the manipulator, so that when one link is rotated relative to the other, the movable contact also shifts and, therefore, the resistance of the device changes. Analyzing the magnitude of its change, the computer judges the location of each of the links of the manipulator. The speed of movement of the manipulator is related to the speed of rotation of the electric motor in the drive. Having all this information, the computer can measure the speed of the manipulator and control its movement.

How does the robot “plan” its behavior? There is nothing supernatural in this ability - the "wit" of the machine depends entirely on the complexity of the program compiled for it. The computer memory of an adaptive robot usually contains as many various programs how much can occur various situations. Until the situation changes, the robot acts according to basic program. When external sensors inform the computer about a change in the situation, it analyzes it and selects the program that is more appropriate for this situation. Having a general program of "behavior", a reserve of programs for each individual situation, external information about the environment and internal information about the state of the manipulator, the computer controls all the actions of the robot.

The first models of adaptive robots appeared almost simultaneously with industrial robots. The prototype for them was an automatically operating manipulator, developed in 1961 by the American engineer Ernst and later called "Ernst's hand." This manipulator had a gripping device equipped with various sensors - photoelectric, tactile and others. With the help of these sensors, as well as the control computer, he found and took randomly placed objects given to him. In 1969, at Stanford University (USA), a more complex robot "Shaky" was created. This machine also had technical vision, could recognize surrounding objects and operate them according to a given program.

The robot was driven by two stepper motors driven independently by wheels on each side of the cart. At the top of the robot that could turn around vertical axis, a television camera and an optical rangefinder were installed. In the center there was a control unit that distributed the commands coming from the computer to the mechanisms and devices that implement the corresponding actions. Sensors were installed along the perimeter to obtain information about the collision of the robot with obstacles. "Sheiki" could move around the shortest way to a given location in the room, while calculating the trajectory in such a way as to avoid collision (he perceived walls, doors, doorways). The computer, due to its large dimensions, was separate from the robot. Communication between them was carried out by radio. The robot could choose necessary items and move them by “pushing” (he didn’t have a manipulator) to the right place.

Later, other models appeared. For example, in 1977, Quasar Industries created a robot that could sweep floors, dust furniture, operate a vacuum cleaner, and remove water that had spilled onto the floor. In 1982, Mitsubishi announced the creation of a robot that was so dexterous that it could light a cigarette and pick up a telephone receiver. But the most remarkable was the American robot created in the same year, which, using its mechanical fingers, a camera-eye and a computer-brain, solved the Rubik's cube in less than four minutes. serial production second-generation robots began in the late 1970s. It is especially important that they can be successfully used in assembly operations (for example, when assembling vacuum cleaners, alarm clocks and other simple household appliances) - this type of work is still with great difficulty amenable to automation. Adaptive robots have become important integral part many flexible (quickly adapting to releases of new products) automated production.

The third generation of robots - robots with artificial intelligence - is still being designed. Their main purpose is purposeful behavior in a complex, poorly organized environment, moreover, in such conditions when it is impossible to foresee all the options for changing it. Having received some general task, such a robot will have to develop a program for its implementation for each specific situation(recall that an adaptive robot can only choose one of the proposed programs). In case the operation fails, the robot with artificial intelligence will be able to analyze the failure, compose new program and try again.

Quite a short time separates us from April 12, 1961, when Yuri Gagarin's legendary "Vostok" stormed space, and dozens of spaceships have already been there. All of them, already flying or just being born on the sheets of whatman paper, are in many ways similar to each other. This allows us to talk about the spacecraft in general, as we just talk about a car or an airplane, without referring to a specific brand of car.

Both a car and an airplane cannot do without an engine, a driver's cab, and control devices. The spacecraft also has similar parts.

By sending a man into space, the designers take care of his safe return. The descent of the ship to Earth begins with a decrease in its speed. The role of the space brake is performed by corrective braking propulsion system. It also serves to carry out maneuvers in orbit. AT instrument compartment power sources, radio equipment, control system devices and other equipment are located. Astronauts travel from orbit to Earth in descent vehicle, or, as it is sometimes called, crew compartment.

In addition to the "mandatory" parts, spaceships have new units and entire compartments, their sizes and masses are growing. So, the Soyuz spacecraft got a second "room" - orbital compartment. Here, during multi-day flights, cosmonauts rest and conduct scientific experiments. For docking in space, ships are equipped with special connecting nodes. American spacecraft "Apollo" lunar module - a compartment for landing astronauts on the moon and returning them back.

We will get acquainted with the structure of the spacecraft on the example of the Soviet Soyuz spacecraft, which replaced the Vostok and Voskhod. On the Soyuz, maneuvering and manual docking in space were carried out, the world's first experimental space station was created, and two cosmonauts were transferred from ship to ship. These ships also worked out the system of controlled descent from orbit and much more.

AT instrument-aggregate compartment"Soyuz" are placed corrective brake propulsion system, consisting of two engines (if one engine fails, the second one turns on), and instruments that ensure flight in orbit. Outside the compartment installed solar panels, antennas and radiator system thermoregulation.

Chairs are installed in the descent vehicle. Astronauts are in them during launching the ship into orbit, maneuvering in space and during descent to Earth. In front of the astronauts is the control panel of the spacecraft. The descent vehicle contains both descent control systems and radio communication systems, life support systems, parachute systems, etc. descent control motors and soft landing engines.

A round hatch leads from the descent vehicle to the most spacious compartment of the ship - orbital. It is equipped with workplaces for cosmonauts and places for their rest. Here the inhabitants of the ship are engaged in sports exercises.

Now we can move on to a more detailed account of the systems of the spacecraft.

space power plant
In orbit, the Soyuz resembles a soaring bird. This similarity is given to it by the "wings" of the open solar panels. For the operation of instruments and devices of the spacecraft, electrical energy is needed. The solar battery recharges those installed on. board chemical batteries. Even when solar battery is in the shade, the instruments and mechanisms of the ship are not left without electricity, they receive it from batteries.

AT recent times On some spacecraft, fuel cells serve as sources of electricity. In these unusual galvanic cells, the chemical energy of the fuel is converted into electrical energy without combustion (see article "GOELRO Plan and the Future of Energy"). Fuel - hydrogen is oxidized by oxygen. Reaction gives birth electricity and water. This water can then be used for drinking. Along with high efficiency, this is a great advantage of fuel cells. The energy intensity of fuel cells is 4-5 times higher than that of batteries. However, fuel cells are not without drawbacks. The most serious of them is a large mass.

The same disadvantage still hinders the use of atomic batteries in astronautics. Protection of the crew from radioactive radiation of these power plants will make the ship too heavy.

Orientation system
Separated from the last stage of the launch vehicle, the ship, rapidly rushing by inertia, begins to rotate slowly and randomly. Try to determine in this position where the Earth is and where the "sky" is. In a tumbling cabin, it is difficult for astronauts to determine the location of the ship, it is impossible to observe celestial bodies, and the operation of a solar battery is also impossible in such a position. Therefore, the ship is forced to occupy a certain position in space - its orient. When astronomical observations are guided by some bright stars, sun or moon. To get current from a solar battery, you need to direct its panels towards the Sun. The approach of two ships requires their mutual orientation. Maneuvers can also only be started in an oriented position.

The spacecraft is equipped with several small attitude control jet engines. Turning them on and off in a certain order, the astronauts turn the ship around any of the axes they choose.

Recall a simple school experience with a water spinner. Reactive force a stream of water splashing from the ends of a tube bent in different directions, suspended on a thread, makes the pinwheel rotate. The same thing happens with the spacecraft. It is suspended perfectly - the ship is weightless. A pair of micromotors with oppositely directed nozzles is enough to rotate the ship about some axis.

Included in a certain combination, several thrusters can not only turn the ship in any way, but also give it additional acceleration or move it away from the original trajectory. Here is what pilot-cosmonauts A. G. Nikolaev and V. I. Sevastyanov wrote about the control of the Soyuz-9 spacecraft: optical instruments, to orient the ship relative to the Earth with great accuracy. An even higher accuracy (up to several arc minutes) was achieved when the spacecraft was oriented toward the stars."

Spacecraft "Soyuz-4": 1 - orbital compartment; 2 - descent vehicle, in which astronauts return to Earth; 3 - solar panel
night batteries; 4 - instrumentation compartment.

However, "low thrust" is only sufficient for small maneuvers. Significant changes in the trajectory already require the inclusion of a powerful corrective propulsion system.

The Soyuz routes run 200-300 km from the Earth's surface. During a long flight, even in the very rarefied atmosphere that exists at such heights, the ship gradually slows down on the air and descends. If “no measures are taken, the Soyuz” will enter the dense layers of the atmosphere much earlier than the specified time. Therefore, from time to time the ship is transferred to a higher orbit by turning on the corrective braking propulsion system. The corrective system works not only when moving to a higher orbit. The engine turns on during the rendezvous of ships during docking, as well as during various maneuvers in orbit.

On the spacecraft "Soyuz" "fur coat" of screen-vacuum insulation.

Orientation is a very important part of space flight. But just orienting the ship is not enough. He still needs to be kept in this position - stabilize. In unsupported outer space, this is not so easy to do. One of the simplest stabilization methods is rotation stabilization. In this case, the property of rotating bodies is used to maintain the direction of the axis of rotation and resist its change. (All of you have seen a children's toy - a spinning top, stubbornly refusing to fall to a complete stop.) Devices based on this principle - gyroscopes, are widely used in automatic control systems for the movement of spacecraft (see the articles "Technology helps to drive aircraft" and "Automatic devices help navigators"). A rotating ship is like a massive gyroscope: its axis of rotation practically does not change its position in space. If the sun's rays fall on the solar panel perpendicular to its surface, the battery generates an electric current. greatest strength. Therefore, while recharging the batteries, the solar battery must "look" directly at the Sun. For this, the ship is spin. First, the astronaut, turning the ship, is looking for the Sun. The appearance of a luminary in the center of the scale of a special device means that the ship is oriented correctly. Now the micromotors are turned on, and the ship is spinning around the ship-Sun axis. By changing the inclination of the ship's axis of rotation, astronauts can change the illumination of the battery and thus regulate the strength of the current received from it. Spacecraft control Rotation stabilization is not the only way maintain the position of the ship in space. While performing other operations and maneuvers, the ship is stabilized by the thrust of the attitude control system engines. This is done in the following way. First, the cosmonauts turn on the appropriate micromotors to turn the spacecraft into the desired position. At the end of the orientation, the gyroscopes begin to rotate control systems. They "remember" the position of the ship. As long as the spacecraft remains in a given position, the gyroscopes are "silent", i.e., they do not give signals to the orientation engines. However, with each turn of the ship, its hull shifts relative to the axes of rotation of the gyroscopes. In this case, gyroscopes give the necessary commands to the engines. The micromotors turn on and, with their thrust, return the ship to its original position.

However, before "turning the steering wheel", the astronaut must imagine exactly where his ship is now. The driver of ground transport is guided by various fixed objects. In outer space, astronauts navigate by the nearest celestial bodies and distant stars.

The Soyuz navigator always sees the Earth in front of him on the control panel of the spacecraft - navigation globe. This "Earth" is never covered by a cloud cover like a real planet. It's not just a three-dimensional image the globe. In flight, two electric motors rotate the globe simultaneously around two axes. One of them is parallel to the axis of rotation of the Earth, and the other is perpendicular to the plane of the spacecraft's orbit. The first movement simulates the daily rotation of the Earth, and the second - the flight of the ship. On the fixed glass, under which the globe is installed, a small cross is applied. This is our "spaceship". At any time, the astronaut, looking at the surface of the globe under the crosshairs, sees what region of the Earth he is currently above.

To the question "Where am I?" stargazers, like sailors, are helped to answer by a long-known navigational device - sextant. A space sextant is somewhat different from a sea sextant: it can be used in the cockpit of a ship without leaving its "deck".

Astronauts see the real Earth through the porthole and through optical sight. This device, mounted on one of the windows, helps to determine the angular position of the ship relative to the Earth. With its help, the Soyuz-9 crew performed orientation by the stars.

Not hot and not cold
Turning around the Earth, the ship plunges either into the dazzling incandescent rays of the Sun, or into the darkness of a frosty cosmic night. And the astronauts work in light sports suits, not experiencing either heat or cold, because the room temperature familiar to a person is constantly maintained in the cabin. The ship's instruments also feel great in these conditions - after all, man created them to work in normal earthly conditions.

The spacecraft is heated not only by direct sunlight. About half of all solar heat that hits the Earth is reflected back into space. These reflected rays additionally heat the ship. The temperature of the compartments is also affected by the instruments and units operating inside the ship. They do not use most of the energy they consume for its intended purpose, but emit it in the form of heat. If this heat is not removed from the ship, the heat in the pressurized compartments will soon become unbearable.

Protecting the spacecraft from external heat flows, dumping excess heat into space - these are the main tasks thermal control systems.

Before the flight, the ship is dressed in a fur coat screen-vacuum insulation. Such insulation consists of many alternating layers of a thin metallized film - screens, between which a vacuum is formed in flight. This is a reliable barrier to hot sun rays. Layers of fiberglass or other porous materials are laid between the screens.

All parts of the ship, which for one reason or another are not covered by a screen-vacuum blanket, are coated with coatings capable of reflecting most of the radiant energy back into space. For example, surfaces coated with magnesium oxide absorb only a quarter of the heat incident on them.

And yet, using only such passive means of protection, it is impossible to protect the ship from overheating. Therefore, on manned spacecraft apply more effective active thermal control means.

There is a tangle of metal tubes on the inner walls of sealed compartments. A special liquid circulates in them - coolant. Installed outside the ship radiator-refrigerator, the surface of which is not covered by screen-vacuum insulation. The tubes of the active thermal control system are connected to it. The coolant liquid heated inside the compartment is pumped into the radiator, which “throws out”, radiates unnecessary heat into space. The cooled liquid is then returned to the ship to start over.

Warm air is lighter than cold air. When heated, it rises; pushing down the cold, heavier layers. There is a natural mixing of air - convection. Thanks to this phenomenon, the thermometer in your apartment, in whatever corner you put it, will show almost the same temperature.

In weightlessness, such mixing is impossible. Therefore, for uniform distribution heat over the entire volume of the spacecraft cabin, it is necessary to arrange forced convection in it with the help of ordinary fans.

In space as on Earth
On Earth, we don't think about air. We just breathe it. In space, breathing becomes a problem. Around the ship space vacuum, emptiness. In order to breathe, astronauts must take air supplies from Earth with them.

A person consumes about 800 liters of oxygen per day. It can be stored on the ship in cylinders either in a gaseous state under high pressure or in liquid form. However, 1 kg of such a liquid "drags" into space 2 kg of metal from which oxygen cylinders are made, and even more compressed gas - up to 4 kg per 1 kg of oxygen.

But you can do without balloons. In this case, not pure oxygen is loaded on board the spacecraft, but chemicals containing it in bound form. There is a lot of oxygen in the oxides and salts of some alkali metals, in the well-known hydrogen peroxide. Moreover, oxides have another very significant advantage: simultaneously with the release of oxygen, they purify the cabin atmosphere, absorbing gases harmful to humans.

The human body continuously consumes oxygen, while producing carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, water vapor and many other substances. Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide accumulated in the closed volume of spacecraft compartments can cause poisoning of astronauts. Cabin air is constantly passed through vessels with alkali metal oxides. In this case, a chemical reaction occurs: oxygen is released, and harmful impurities are absorbed. For example, 1 kg of lithium superoxide contains 610 g of oxygen and can absorb 560 g of carbon dioxide. Activated carbon, tested in the first gas masks, is also used to purify the air of sealed cabins.

In addition to oxygen, astronauts take food and water into the flight. Plain tap water stored in durable polyethylene containers. So that the water does not deteriorate and does not lose its taste, a small amount of special substances, the so-called preservatives, is added to it. So, 1 mg of ionic silver dissolved in 10 liters of water keeps it drinkable for six months.

A tube comes out of the water tank. It ends with a mouthpiece with a locking device. The astronaut puts the mouthpiece in his mouth, presses the button of the locking device and sucks in water. That's the only way to drink in space. In weightlessness, water slips out of open vessels and, breaking up into small balls, floats around the cabin.

Instead of pasty purees, which the first cosmonauts took with them, the Soyuz crew eats ordinary "terrestrial" food. The ship even has a miniature kitchen where cooked meals are heated up.

In pre-launch photos, Yuri Gagarin, German Titov and other space explorers are dressed in suits, smiling faces look at us through the glass helmets. And now a person cannot go into outer space or onto the surface of another planet without a spacesuit. Therefore, spacesuit systems are constantly being improved.

The space suit is often compared to a pressurized cabin reduced to the size of a human body. And this is fair. The suit is not one suit, but several worn on top of each other. The outer heat-resistant clothing is dyed in White color well reflecting heat rays. Under the outer clothing - a suit made of screen-vacuum thermal insulation, and under it - a multilayer shell. This provides the spacesuit with complete tightness.

Anyone who has ever worn rubber gloves or boots knows how uncomfortable a suit that does not allow air to pass through. But astronauts do not experience such inconvenience. The spacesuit ventilation system saves a person from them. Gloves, boots, a helmet complete the "outfit" of an astronaut going into outer space. The porthole of the helmet is equipped with a light filter that protects the eyes from blinding sunlight.

The cosmonaut has a knapsack on his back. It has a supply of oxygen for several hours and an air purification system. The satchel is connected to the suit with flexible hoses. Communication wires and a safety rope - a halyard connect the astronaut with the spacecraft. A small jet engine helps an astronaut "float" in space. American astronauts used such a gas engine in the form of a pistol.

The ship continues to fly. But astronauts do not feel lonely. Hundreds of invisible threads connect them with their native Earth.

Space games are hard to imagine without spacecraft control. However, in most space strategies, ships are just another unit that can be framed and sent to destroy the enemy. List of games in which ship management takes the same important place in gameplay, as well as "piu-pysch" in zero gravity, it is much shorter. Therefore, in our top you will find action games and space flight simulators on PC, in which, in order to achieve victory, you need to master and upgrade your craft.

IMO

1. Star Conflict

This session online game about spaceships, developed by the Russian studio StarGem Inc and published by the real monster of Russian game development, Gaijin Entertainment, invites you to sit at the helm of the ship of your choice and plunge headlong into dynamic battles against bots, raid bosses and live opponents. In addition to the session format, an open world story campaign is also available here.

The game is distinguished by bright and juicy graphics, fairly convenient controls (which is generally uncharacteristic in full 3D), a huge selection of ships available for pumping and high online servers. You can download the game client on the Gaijin official website.

2. Star Trek Online

Good movie games, unfortunately, are considered a huge rarity. Good games based on television series can be counted on the fingers. And even though Star Trek Online cannot be called a masterpiece of space MMORPGs, this project still deserves the title of at least a “good game”.

3 Entropia Universe

4. Star Ghosts

5. EVE Online

The top spaceship games on PC are inconceivable without this grandiose MMO with super-scale battles and a huge number of players on servers, because at any given time there are tens of thousands of gamers in the game world - and this despite the fact that in May 2018 EVE turned a solid 15 years.

Few MMOs can boast such a longevity. The giant game world, a huge variety of ships and modules, and many professions available for learning, including both combat skills and crafting skills.

6 Elite: Dangerous

Playing "Elite" is the lot of selected connoisseurs of the hardcore space sim genre. No one will lead you by the hand, chew on the details of the controls or throw in cool gear at the start - you only have a ship, 1000 credits and many paths in front of you.

Singles

1. FTL: Faster Than Light

Unlike most of the games in our selection, in which large-scale and ambitious goals are set for the player, in FTL, at first glance, everything is much simpler - you just need to bring the ship from point A to point B.

The devil, as always, is in the details - the death of each crew member here is almost irreversible, the loss of the ship means the failure of the mission, and the journey turns out to be full of meetings with rebels, pirates, and aggressive cosmites. The essence of the gameplay is the competent distribution of the crew and the energy of the ship's reactor between different compartments.

2. Space Rangers HD: A War Apart

The HD re-release of the legendary hit of the early 2000s will please gamers not only with noticeably prettier graphics, but also with tons of new quests (including the text quests so beloved by the players).

Not without new equipment and ship hulls, and even an additional story campaign dedicated to confronting the powerful pirate fleet who decided to invade the Coalition's systems in the middle of the chaos of the war with the Dominators.

3 Rebel Galaxy

If most of the games on our list invite you to try yourself as a star fighter pilot, then Rebel Galaxy is all about controlling epic battleships carrying thousands of fighters and hundreds of weapon turrets.

The gameplay here is more like naval battles of the 17th century than on high-speed notches like Star Conflict - the ships gradually converge, turn sides and bring down terawatts of laser-plasma fury at each other.

4. Series X

The games of this famous series allow gamers to feel like a real admiral of the star fleet - after all, in this space sim you can not only personally pilot fighters and huge battleships, but also create formations from your ships and send them to complete tasks on their own.

As a result, each of the games in the series combines the zarub drive in the spirit of Elite with the scope of strategies like Master of Orion.

5. Everspace

At a time when even the creators of the Elite series gave up and riveted MMOs, the German company Rock Fish Games dared to release a single-only space sim.

Everspace manages to combine high-quality graphics, sane engine optimization (which is rare for 2017 games), dynamic gameplay, a well-thought-out ship module damage system and convenient controls (which is not very typical for space sims). But in terms of hardcore and twisted plot, Everspace is inferior to many other games from our top.

6. Freelancer

In the first months after the release, Russian gamers greeted this game almost enthusiastically - after all, in fact, it reproduced the very gameplay of Space Rangers, moreover, in full 3D and with the ability to personally run around the planets and space bases.

What else is needed for happiness? As it turns out, we need side quests, which are full of more successful games from our top. You can go through Freelancer once, admire the graphics that are remarkable by the standards of 2003 and the variety of ships available.

Where to buy: The game could not be found on official digital services.