Mark Terentius Varro (lat. Marcus Terentius Varro; 116 - 27 BC). Roman scientist, encyclopedist and writer of the 1st century BC. e., at the place of birth called Varro of Reatin. The authority of Varro as a scientist and original writer was already undeniable during his lifetime.

The philosophical views of Varro are eclectic, he is close to the Cynics, Stoics, Pythagoreanism. The highest good, in his opinion, should satisfy the needs of the soul and body. Virtue is defined as an art of living that leads to well-being and can be learned. Varro was a champion of the old Roman manners, but he never acted as a staunch defender of tradition. He appreciated authentic culture regardless of its external form.

Mark Terentius Varro was born in 116 BC in Sabine Reata. On the public service passed all the positions up to the presidency. During civil war in 49 BC. e. fought on the side of Pompey in Spain. At the end of the war, Caesar forgave him and appointed him head of the public library.

Having settled in Rome, Varro finally devoted himself to historical research and literary activity that had long interested him. However, for personal reasons, Mark Antony proscribed it, and Varro lost part of his library and his land. From 43, he began to study only scientific work and literary activity. Worked until old age. Some of his works were written at the age of eighty.

Basic literary work Varro’s philosophical and moral “Menippian satires” (lat. Saturae menippeae) in 150 books are considered (each book corresponds to one satire; 591 short fragments from 96 books have been preserved; none of Varro’s complete satires could be reconstructed). They are named after their specific form, borrowed by the author from the cynical writer Menippus, whom Varro highly valued. Actually, the name of the corresponding genre comes from Varro - the Menippean satire. According to, written in adolescence.

There is an incomplete catalog of Varro's works compiled by Jerome, on the basis of which it is established that Varro wrote over 70 works, total number over 600 books. He studied, in particular, grammar, jurisprudence, art, history, literary history, music theory.

The treatise “On Agriculture” (“Res rusticae”) has been preserved in 3 books, 5-10 books of the work “On the Latin Language” (“De lingua Latina”; there were 25 books in total). This work is based on the findings of his teacher Stilon.

Great importance had a 9-volume encyclopedia of Varro "Disciplinae" (lost), responses to which can be found among prominent scientists of late antiquity and early medieval, among which, Marcianus Capella, Cassiodorus, Isidore of Seville. Traditionally, Varro's encyclopedia is said to have consisted of grammar, dialectics, rhetoric, geometry, arithmetic, astronomy (astrology), music (i.e. music theory), medicine, and architecture, from which it is concluded that Varro was the first to describe the liberal arts in the form of a cycle (though with the addition of medicine and architecture).

Now it is considered reliable that Varro is the author of at least treatises on music and land surveying (De mensuris, which is also interpreted as geometry), traces of other treatises are not traced. Regardless of whether the "Music" was included in a 9-volume set or was written as an independent treatise (the second is more likely), Varro can be considered the first Roman music theorist.

His works are widely known under the general title "Logistoriki" ("Logistorici"), consisting of 76 books in the form of philosophical dialogues, the main content of which is formed by ethical reasoning with examples from mythology and history. The word logistoricus is Varro's neologism, his exact value unknown. In one of the monographs "On Philosophy" (De philosophia), the author presents philosophy as the doctrine of the right way life.

AT historical research stand out "Human and Divine Antiquities" ("Antiquitates rerum humanarum et divinarum") in 41 books (the work is lost). This is an encyclopedia of the history of Roman culture. Thanks to Christian writers, especially Augustine, the content of the second part of the study (books 26 - 41), which Varro dedicated to Caesar, is known. Valuable Quotes from "Antiquities" and "Logistorians" also leads Censorinus.

In the books "On the Origin of the Roman People" (De gente populi Romani) and "On the Life of the Roman People" (De vita populi Romani) (both in 4 volumes), Varro devoted the history of the Romans and the contribution of Rome to the history of civilization.

In the book "Images" ("Hebdomades vel de imaginibus"; 15 books), Varro presented 700 portraits of the great personalities of Greece and Rome. In it, he argued the equal position of Greek and Roman cultures.

The role of Varro in the development of grammar and linguistics is great. Fragments of Varro's works "History of the alphabet" ("Historia litterarum"; 2 books), "On the origin of the Latin language" ("De origine linguae Latinae"; 3 books) and some other fragments have been preserved.

On the one hand, Roman science can be understood as all science that developed during the period of the Roman Empire on a vast territory that included Greece, Egypt, and Pergamum. Having captured Greece and borrowed from her achievements in the field of philosophy and art, the Romans passed by the enormous achievements of Greek science. In the five centuries of their existence, they have not made a single significant discovery in the field of natural sciences. Rome gave the world great poets, jurists, moralists and historians, and not a single thinker in the natural sciences. However, ignoring theoretical science, they made a number of discoveries in applied disciplines- construction, medicine, agriculture and military affairs.

The only scientist - the encyclopedist of Ancient Rome can be considered Tita Lucretia Kara who wrote the poem "On the Nature of Things". However, this scientist only outlined the concept of the Greek atomist Epicurus practically without any additions and comments on his part. In describing the principles of Epicurean atomism, he devoted much space to the analysis of the principles of the motion of atoms. Like his teacher, he identified three types of movement:

• uniform,
• rectilinear under the influence of gravity
• spontaneous internal, causing a deviation from a straight line.

Lucretius, like Epicurus, emphasized that each atom consists of several smallest indivisible parts, and the sizes of the atoms themselves are limited. From this it is concluded that atoms cannot be infinitely diverse in their forms. Indivisible parts cannot exist outside the atom. Speaking in terms modern physics, the "smallest parts" of Epicurus and Lucretius are elementary particles.

Roman achievements in areas Agriculture impress. In ancient Rome, agriculture was a highly respected occupation, and noble citizens themselves delved into the affairs of their latifundia. Two can be distinguished theoretical work in the field of agriculture:

• treatise of Cato the Elder,
• a thorough encyclopedia of agriculture in Columella.

In his book, written in the form of instructions to his son, Cato describes the methods of sowing, processing, harvesting and marketing the main crops, managing estates, citing economic calculations of the labor efficiency of workers on plantations of various crops.

Columella gives advice on the most rational organization of the estate, on the agricultural technology of vineyards, fruit trees, and crops. Several books are devoted to animal husbandry, beekeeping, poultry farming and fisheries. AT latest book in question about the duties of the manager of the estate. The main idea of ​​the work- The decline of Italian agriculture is due to the ignorance of the people who manage the estates and work on the land. Therefore, his treatise is something like a textbook for rural farmers.

The largest representatives of natural science were the encyclopedic scientists Gaius Pliny Secundus the Elder, Mark Terence Varro and Lucius Annei Seneca. Ancient Roman philosophy developed mainly in the wake of Greek, with which it was largely connected. Stoicism is the most widespread in philosophy. Remarkable progress was made by Roman science in medical field. Among eminent physicians Ancient Rome can be noted:

• Dioscorides - pharmacologist and one of the founders of botany,
• Soran of Ephesus - obstetrician and pediatrician,
• Claudius Galena - a talented anatomist who revealed the functions of nerves and the brain.

Encyclopedic treatises written in the Roman era remained the most important source scientific knowledge during most of the Middle Ages.

At the turn of Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the accumulation of natural science knowledge slowed down sharply. Religion sharply intensified, and philosophy itself began to take on an increasingly religious character. Why did this happen? Firstly, because at the turn of the epochs there was no personality close in scale to Plato and Aristotle. Therefore, all scientific activity focused on interpreting the ideas of these two thinkers. In addition, it was simply impossible to prove some postulates of Aristotle at that level of science. There were no methods or technical possibilities for these proofs. This situation led to the deification of nature. Plato and Aristotle themselves were not alien to this. But Aristotle, believing the presence of the Creator to be obligatory, argued that subsequent changes in nature occur naturally. And their popularizers and epigones were forced to come to the conclusion that the Gods, and later the only God, act from the very beginning and constantly. Disillusioned with the possibility of knowing nature, people began to look for explanations for everything that happens in supernatural sources of knowledge - in mysticism and religion. The medieval era began.

Scientists of Ancient Rome Claudius Ptolemy Claudius Ptolemy (approximately 87 - 165 AD) - mathematician, astronomer, geographer. Among the sciences in which Claudius Ptolemy showed particular interest in his biography are astronomy, physics (in particular, optics), and geography. His main astronomical work is The Great Construction (or Almagest). In it, the scientist described the geocentric model of the world. Also for your short biography Ptolemy created a catalog of the starry sky of 48 constellations that he could observe in Alexandria.

Other works of Ptolemy were also very famous - "Guide to Geography" (8 books) (from 1475 to 1600 42 editions of this work were published). It provides a complete, well-organized summary geographical knowledge ancient.

He gave coordinates of 8000 points (in latitude from Scandinavia to the upper Nile, and in longitude from the Atlantic Ocean to Indochina), based, however, almost exclusively on information about the routes of merchants and travelers, and not on astronomical definitions. Attached to the treatise is one general and 26 special cards earth's surface.

Astronomical observations dated in antiquity to the years of the reign of kings. In this regard, Ptolemy compiled The Chronological Canon of Kings, which is an important source for chronology. The five-volume treatise on optics he wrote was considered completely lost. But in 1801 an almost complete latin translation him, made from Arabic. Of greatest interest in it are the theory of mirrors developed by Ptolemy, tables of refraction angles during the transition of a light beam from air to water and glass, as well as the theory and table astronomical refraction

Marin of Tire - an ancient Greek geographer, cartographer and mathematician, is considered the founder of mathematical cartography Marin was born in the second half of the 1st century. n. e. in the city of Tire, which at that time belonged to the Roman province of Syria. The works of Marina of Tire have not survived to this day, they are known from Ptolemy's references in his work Geography

According to Ptolemy, Marinus of Tyre revised the approach to compiling nautical charts. His main merit is that he was the first to introduce the concept of latitude and longitude for each point on the map. He used the longitude of the mythical Isles of the Blessed as the prime meridian; latitude of the island. Rhodes served as zero latitude, or the equator. Ptolemy mentioned several works by Marinus of Tyre, dating back to 114 CE. e. In these works, Marin estimated the length of the equator at 180,000 stadia. If we accept that Marin operated on Greek stages, then the length of the equator will be 33,300 km, which is about 17% less than the present size.

For the first time in the Roman Empire, an image of China appears on the maps of Marina. Marine of Tire is considered the founder of the equirectangular projection still used in maps. Some of Marin's ideas are cited by Ptolemy. Among them is the assumption that the surrounding ocean is divided into three continents: Europe, Asia, etc. Africa. Marin believed that people inhabit the Earth at latitudes between the island of Thule in the north (associated with the Shetland Islands), and the Tropic of the South respectively in the South; in longitude - from the Isles of the Blessed to China. Marine of Tire first introduced the term Antarctica as the area opposite the Arctic.

The history of the Roman Empire has many mysteries. Expanding to an unprecedented size, she created ordinary subjects of the Caesars, who in fact were her bonding solution.

On January 10, 705 from the founding of Rome (49 BC), the soldiers of the 13th legion, who had followed the ruler of Gaul from one bloody campaign to another for eight years, found themselves at a stream so unremarkable that even its location was forgotten, but which will become a symbol of determination and a dangerous step. Now educated people say "cross the Rubicon", the then Romans used the Latin word discrimen, which meant not only "the dividing line", but also used in the sense of a moment of painful tension, when all life is at stake.

Crossing the Rubicon River, Gaius Julius Caesar committed a terrible crime - it was tantamount to declaring civil war on Rome. This event ultimately influenced the fate of not only the eternal city but throughout the history of civilization.

Crossing with weapons in the hands of pomerium - the ancient border of sacred Rome, which passed along the furrow drawn by the plow of Romulus and preserved from the time of the kings - was not allowed to any of the mortals. Within the pomerium, Jupiter, the guardian and protector of the City, ruled. The first to cross the line of Rome was Sulla, nicknamed "Felix", meaning Happy. He was the first to push the boundaries of the pomerium, which no one had dared to do before him either. These were the first steps towards the destruction of the Roman Republic.

His hypothesis explaining this metamorphosis was recently proposed by the American historian William Broadhead, an associate professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology(MIT). How is it that Julius Caesar was able to make his legions serve one man and not the senate of Rome or the people of Rome? "He was dealing with an efficient mercenary army loyal to an individual commander, not a city-state," William Broadhead writes in MITNews. "How did this situation come about?"

Based on the processing of many of the most different sources, from ancient texts (associate professor studied Latin and ancient Greek at Middlebury College in Vermont) to the latest archaeological discoveries, Broadhead put forward a new hypothesis about how Caesar - just like Sulla a few decades before him, and Augustus a few years later - could lead his legions to Rome.

"My interpretation is based on demographics," says Broadhead. ancient italy was a country of high mobility of the population and, contrary to stereotypes, not a place inhabited by settled peasants.

Similarly, the inhabitants of numerous cities, which the Roman Republic also traditionally recruited into its army, in search of a better life, often left either for the newly conquered outskirts of the Roman world, or for other areas of Italy itself.

Recruitment into the Roman army during the Republic was carried out according to the strict principle formula togatorum (literally "wearing a toga" - an attribute of Roman citizens who wore these clothes only in Peaceful time), which clearly defined how many recruits a particular city could give. Roman citizenship (civitas Romana) allowed, among other rights, to serve as legionnaires. The servicemen of the auxiliary troops of the auxiliaries (from the Latin word auxilia - "help"), which consisted of strangers, received the rights of Roman citizenship after the end of the full (30 years) service life.

According to the ancient Greek historian Polybius, “the Romans annually recruit four legions, and the legion has about four thousand infantry and two hundred cavalry. If more important work is to be done, then each legion consists of five thousand infantry and three hundred cavalry. As for the allies, then their infantry is equal in number to the Roman legions, while the cavalry is usually three times more numerous than the Roman. The Roman historians Appian and Velleius Paterculus also mention similar contributions from Rome's allies.

This principle, which is the basis of recruitment for the army, lasted for many years. However, over time high mobility population has led to the fact that the call on a geographical basis has lost its former importance. Was born new system recruitment of military personnel. The commander appealed to the people to go to his service, tempting future landsknechts with military trophies and other benefits. As a result, "patronage-clientele" relations arose between the commander and his soldiers, and as we remember, in ancient Rome, clients (citizens under the patronage noble person) were obliged to support their patron (patron) in everything. So they supported him in everything - even in an effort to cross the pomerium.

So, according to the scientist, it was precisely the fact that soldiers recruited from migrants began to defend the interests of their patron, and not the state, led to a change political system Rome. In his book "Hegemony and Mobility in Roman Italy" (Hegemony and Mobility in Roman Italy), Associate Professor Broadhead not only outlined his hypothesis in detail, but also indicated that not only the works of Livy, Plutarch and Cicero pushed him to this conclusion, but also finds and recent studies, which made it possible to correctly assess the size of ancient urban centers and their change over time, as well as to trace the geography of the distribution of ceramics with the marks of the masters, which indicated the place of their origin.

Ancient Rome has richest history and culture. There was a time when ancient Rome was considered the most mighty empire among all other civilizations. At the height of its power in the 1st and 2nd centuries. AD The Roman Empire occupied vast territory 6.5 million square kilometers. The population ranged from 50 to 90 million people. Among these people were individuals who left a noticeable mark on history. These are emperors, and tyrants, and gladiators, and poets. Many of them are well known to us from history books, films and works of art.

The most famous and famous people of ancient Rome

Julius Caesar

Julius Caesar is the most famous and famous Roman general and statesman. He was a great military leader who won many wars, which allowed him to gain power and become the sole ruler of Rome.

During his reign, he managed to conquer Gaul, invade Britain and repel countless raids from the Germanic tribes.

Octavian August

Octavian Augustus was the son of a wealthy Roman banker. Julius Caesar was his great-uncle. Augustus was adopted by Julius Caesar and appointed as his heir. Octavian Augustus began an active struggle against Mark Antony, who seized power in Rome after the death of Julius Caesar. Subsequently, they came to mutual agreement and agreed to share power over the Roman Republic. They also found and punished Caesar's killers. When Octavian found out about the love affair between Mark Antony and the Egyptian queen Cleopatra, he considered this a threat to Rome and turned away from Antony. After the death of Mark Antony, Octavian Augustus became the first emperor of Rome.

Rome significantly expanded its territories during the reign of Octavian Augustus. He conquered the Iberian Peninsula and expanded the borders of the Roman Empire as far north as the Danube River. He also regularly restored dilapidated buildings and built roads to the far reaches of the empire.

After his death, Octavian Augustus was highly revered in Rome due to his successful reign.

Nero

Nero became emperor of Rome in 54 AD. at a fairly young age - he was only 17 years old. He turned out to be a very cruel and merciless ruler who killed his own mother.

At first, Nero was a fairly good-natured and reasonable ruler. He was actively involved in trade and culture in the empire. But over time, his actions became more and more cruel and unpredictable.

According to rumors, it was he who started the fire in Rome, which destroyed most cities. He blamed the fire on Christians, whom he persecuted throughout his reign. In 68, Nero realized that he had no support left in the Senate, and he committed suicide.

Remus and Romulus

Remus and Romulus were twins who, according to legend, founded the city of Rome. According to legend, they were abandoned by their parents in early age. They put them in a basket and let it go along the Tiber River. This basket was found by a she-wolf, who pulled it out of the river and took the twins to a shepherd who took them in to be raised.

As time went. The twins grew up and became men. They decided to build a city, but a dispute arose between them over the place of construction. The dispute escalated into a fight, as a result of which Remus was killed by his brother Romulus. Romulus built the city and became the first king of Rome. He became famous ruler and great commander.

Mark Brutus

Marcus Brutus was a Roman senator who is considered the organizer of the assassination of Julius Caesar in the struggle for political power. March 15, 44 B.C. Mark Brutus and his associates attempted to assassinate Julius Caesar when he entered the Senate for an assembly. After that, power in Rome passed to the Senate, which appointed Brutus as a manager. eastern territories Roman Empire. He was subsequently defeated by Octavian Augustus and Mark Antony at the Battle of Philippi in 43, after which he committed suicide.

Adrian

Hadrian became emperor of Rome in 117 AD. Hadrian is especially known for being active in construction during his reign. He completed the construction of the Roman Pantheon, built a stone wall in Britain to protect against foreigners. Adrian also traveled a lot and visited every corner of the empire. He admired Ancient Greece and even wanted to make Athens cultural capital Roman Empire. He is rightfully considered one of the most peaceful rulers of Rome. Hadrian died in 138 AD.

Virgil

Virgil was the greatest poet Rome. He was born in 70 BC. in northern Italy. My creative activity he began during his studies in Rome and Naples. His most famous work is the unfinished epic "Aeneid". Taking Homer's Odyssey and Iliad as a basis, Virgil tells about the adventures of Trojan hero named Aeneas, who wandered on western lands and founded the city of Rome. In this epic poem, Virgil shows the greatness of Rome and his admiration for its rulers.

In his other poems, Virgil describes the life of Rome and its inhabitants. After his death, Virgil's fame spread throughout Rome. In Roman schools, students read his poems and studied his biography. Writers of the Middle Ages very often referred to Virgil in their works.

Guy Marius

Gaius Marius lived between 157 and 86. BC. He was a famous military leader, statesman and was elected consul several times. Gaius Marius reorganized the Roman army and defeated many northern tribes. He is known for his love of recruiting poor citizens into the Roman army, promising to make them happy and proud citizens of their country.

Cicero

Cicero (106-43 BC) was a great Roman philosopher, orator and writer. He was considered the most prominent translator from Greek into Latin. He was expelled from Rome by the first triumvirate, but was later allowed to return. He was distinguished by oppositional views on politics, because of which he was killed in 43 BC. Until now, students around the world study the works of Cicero in Latin.

Constantine the Great

Constantine the Great (275-337 AD) became the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity. During his reign, Christians and other religious groups received freedom from persecution. He rebuilt ancient greek city Byzantium, calling it Constantinople and the Christian center of Ancient Rome.

Cleopatra

Cleopatra (69-30 BC) was the queen of Egypt during the period of Roman rule. She took great care of her appearance and always looked great. At the same time, she proved herself to be a ruthless ruler. She ascended the Egyptian throne at the age of 18. She became best known for her connections with Julius Caesar and Mark Antony.

Pontius Pilate

Pontius Pilate was the Roman prefect of Judea, a Roman province. He became famous as a judge during the trial of Jesus Christ. He passed the death sentence on Jesus Christ for high treason, tk. Jesus proclaimed himself king of the Jews. The rulers of Judah considered him a dangerous person for the Roman Empire.

However, according to the Bible, Pontius Pilate claimed that he did not want the crucifixion of Christ.

We have considered only some of the most famous people of that time. There were others less famous figures. Together they created the history of Ancient Rome.

source

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10. The contribution of the ancient Romans to science

Roman science did not reach the scope of Greek science, because it was dependent on the specific needs of the growing Roman Empire. Mathematics, geography, natural science and other sciences among the Romans were of a narrowly applied nature. A noticeable mark in science was left by the works of Menelaus of Alexandria on spherical geometry and trigonometry, Ptolemy's geocentric model of the world, works on optics, astronomy (a catalog of more than 1,600 stars was compiled), experiments were made on animals in physiology. The physician Galen came close to discovering the meanings of nerves for motor reflexes and blood circulation. Construction equipment developed, which made it possible to create the Flavian Colosseum, a one and a half kilometer bridge across the Danube under Trajan, etc. The mechanics were improved, lifting mechanisms were used. According to Seneca, the "despicable slaves" each time invented something new: pipes through which steam went to heat the rooms, a special polishing of marble, mirror tiles to reflect sun rays. The art of mosaic spread: even in the houses on the Rhine, glass was inserted into the windows. Both Menelaus and Ptolemy were Greek scholars working in Rome.

Astrology was very popular, which was studied by the largest astronomers. Basically, Roman scholars comprehended and commented on the Greeks. " Special place in the culture of the ancient Romans occupied philosophy and jurisprudence. In ancient Roman philosophy, the principles of various teachings of Greek thinkers, especially the Hellenistic era, are eclectically combined. Philosophers adopted their scientific apparatus, terminology, the most important directions. Importance for Roman philosophy acquired the ideas of the moral improvement of man and mystical moods characteristic of the time. Among the philosophical trends, Stoicism and Epicureanism were most widespread in Republican, and later in Imperial Rome.

The golden age of Roman science is characterized not so much by the multiplication of knowledge as by encyclopedism, the desire to master and systematically present already accumulated achievements. The natural-scientific theories of the Greeks in an eclectic, as it were, averaged form were accepted as given once and for all, without discussion. Along with this, a keen interest in the scientific, rational knowledge of nature remained, a whole galaxy of outstanding creative minds wonderful scientists. Pliny the Elder, on the basis of two thousand works of Greek and Roman authors, compiled the encyclopedic "Natural History", which included all areas of the then science - from the structure of the cosmos to fauna to flora, from descriptions of countries and peoples to mineralogy.

The most important cultural innovations of Roman antiquity are associated with the development of politics and law. Ancient Rome is the birthplace of jurisprudence.

If in the small Greek city-states with their diverse and frequently changing forms of government, many issues could be resolved on the basis of the direct expression of the will of the ruling elite or the general assembly of citizens, then the management of the huge Roman dermis government agencies, clearly organized administrative structure, legal laws governing civil relations, legal proceedings, etc. The first legal document is the Law of 12 books, which regulates criminal, financial, and commercial relations. The constant expansion of the territory leads to the emergence of other documents - private law for the Latins and public law governing relations between the Latins and the conquered peoples living in the provinces.

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Science of Ancient Rome Scientists of Ancient Rome Claudius

Scientists of Ancient Rome Claudius Ptolemy Claudius Ptolemy (approximately 87 - 165 AD) - mathematician, astronomer, geographer. Among the sciences in which Claudius Ptolemy showed particular interest in his biography are astronomy, physics (in particular, optics), and geography. His main astronomical work is The Great Construction (or Almagest). In it, the scientist described the geocentric model of the world. Also for his short biography, Ptolemy created a catalog of the starry sky of 48 constellations that he could observe in Alexandria.

Other works of Ptolemy were also very famous - "Guide to Geography" (8 books) (from 1475 to 1600 42 editions of this work were published). It gives a complete, well-systematized summary of the geographical knowledge of the ancients.

He gave coordinates of 8000 points (in latitude from Scandinavia to the upper Nile, and in longitude from the Atlantic Ocean to Indochina), based, however, almost exclusively on information about the routes of merchants and travelers, and not on astronomical definitions. One general and 26 special maps of the earth's surface are attached to the treatise.

Astronomical observations were dated in antiquity to the years of the reign of kings. In this regard, Ptolemy compiled The Chronological Canon of Kings, which is an important source for chronology. The five-volume treatise on optics he wrote was considered completely lost. But in 1801 an almost complete Latin translation of it, made from Arabic, was found. Of greatest interest in it are the theory of mirrors developed by Ptolemy, tables of refraction angles during the transition of a light beam from air to water and glass, as well as the theory and table of astronomical refraction

Marin of Tire - an ancient Greek geographer, cartographer and mathematician, is considered the founder of mathematical cartography Marin was born in the second half of the 1st century. n. e. in the city of Tire, which at that time belonged to the Roman province of Syria. The works of Marina of Tire have not survived to this day, they are known from Ptolemy's references in his work Geography

According to Ptolemy, Marinus of Tyre revised the approach to drawing nautical charts. His main merit is that he was the first to introduce the concept of latitude and longitude for each point on the map. He used the longitude of the mythical Isles of the Blessed as the prime meridian; latitude of the island. Rhodes served as zero latitude, or the equator. Ptolemy mentioned several works by Marinus of Tyre, dating back to 114 CE. e. In these works, Marin estimated the length of the equator at 180,000 stadia. If we accept that Marin operated on Greek stages, then the length of the equator will be 33,300 km, which is about 17% less than the present size.

For the first time in the Roman Empire, an image of China appears on the maps of Marina. Marine of Tire is considered the founder of the equirectangular projection still used in maps. Some of Marin's ideas are cited by Ptolemy. Among them is the assumption that the surrounding ocean is divided into three continents: Europe, Asia, etc. Africa. Marin believed that people inhabit the Earth at latitudes between the island of Thule in the north (associated with the Shetland Islands), and the Tropic of the South respectively in the South; in longitude - from the Isles of the Blessed to China. Marine of Tire first introduced the term Antarctica as the area opposite the Arctic.

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Dysentery amoeba, helminths and other adorable creatures abounded in ancient Rome, or rather, in the ancient Romans, researcher Piers Mitchell, a lecturer in biological anthropology at the University of Cambridge in the UK, found out.

Despite the fact that modern people admire ancient Roman plumbing, baths and toilets, none of these things seem to have improved the sanitation of the Eternal City, but may have allowed the ancient Romans to smell good, the scientist noted.

About 2000 years ago, public baths and toilets, sewerage appeared in Rome, and the cleanest drinking water began to be supplied to the city by aqueducts. The authorities passed laws according to which human waste was taken out of the city.

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Abstract Outstanding Scientists of Ancient Rome

Outstanding Scientists of Ancient Rome

big development in the 1st - 2nd centuries AD, they received education and science. Education for children was organized in Rome and many provincial centers. So, private teachers either at home or in in public places, or simply gathered groups of children in the gardens and taught them to read, write and count for a fee. It happened like this: the teacher pronounced the letters and words, and the students repeated them aloud, then he wrote letters and words on a waxed board, and the students wrote them off. In such primary schools studied children from 7 to 12 years. The next link in education was "grammar", where the course of study lasted four years. The premises of such schools were decorated with busts of writers and philosophers. Here the students read and commented on excerpts from the works of poets and writers, did written exercises. Greek and Latin literature were studied as individual items. Having reached the age of 36, the students moved to the school of "rhetoric", which can be compared with modern high school. Such schools were very popular, because, despite the strengthening of imperial power, the art of eloquence continued to be valued in the country. The emperors themselves provided funds for the maintenance of schools of Latin and Greek rhetoric. "Rhetors" - teachers of eloquence were frequent guests in the estates of the aristocracy. They taught their listeners the art of constructing phrases, the sophistication of the language, organized competitions for listeners, and the winners, as a rule, were presented with a book.

In the Roman Empire, the historical centers of scientific thought continued to develop - Rome proper, Alexandria, Pergamum, Rhodes, Athens, Carthage, Massilia. In Alexandria there was a Museum and a library, in Athens - the famous philosophical schools, founded by Plato (Academy) and Aristotle (Likeion). Pergamum and Rhodes remained great cultural centers, where the children of the Roman nobility came to complete their education. And near the city of Pergamon a large scientific medical center- Asklepion.

Now, in fact, scientific achievements. In the second half of the 1st c. Pliny Secundus wrote the great Natural History, which was the first encyclopedia on physical geography, botany, zoology and mineralogy. At the end of I - beginning of II century. the famous Roman historian Tacitus in his two works "Acts of Publius Valerius Agricola" and "Germany" described the life and social order tribes of Central Europe, continued to maintain their independence from the Roman Empire.

In the II century. high level progress in medical science. Even during the reign of Emperor Augustus, a school for the training of doctors was established in Rome. Such schools also existed in Asia Minor. At the end of the II century. The doctor Galen became famous, he conducted experiments on the study of respiration, the activity of the spinal cord and the brain.

As well as natural sciences astronomy and astrology were further spread, but here the successes were not so much as in other fields of knowledge. Thus, Claudius Ptolemy abandoned the heliocentric theory of Aristarchus of Samos. Instead, he proposed a theory according to which the center solar system was the Earth, and the Sun and other celestial bodies revolved around it. Later, this theory was borrowed by Christian theologians and became the basis of the medieval understanding of the structure of the universe. Astrology was brought to Rome from Mesopotamia and was popular in the 2nd and especially in the 3rd centuries.

Athens remained the main philosophical center in the 1st-2nd centuries. In the early stages, Stoicism and Epicureanism were very popular. Among the plebs, wandering philosophers - Cynics, who often spoke with sharp criticism of representatives of the aristocracy, were popular. The most famous Stoic philosopher in the II century. was the emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (121 - 180). The years of his reign are significant in that at present crisis phenomena within the empire became more and more intense, higher public classes refused to change anything in order to preserve the existing social order. In Stoic ethics they saw certain means of the moral rebirth of society. In his reflections "To himself" the emperor proclaimed: "The only thing that is in the power of a person is his thoughts ... Look into your insides. There, inside, there is a source of goodness that can beat, NOT drying up if you constantly dig."

The natural, distinctly materialistic for its time, philosophy of antiquity in Rome was Epicureanism, which spread significantly in last years Roman Republic and early imperial rule. The founders of this philosophical trend, such as Titus Lucretius Carus (95 - 55 BC), supported the conviction of the early representatives of the atomistic doctrine and defended the basic principles of atomism. They talked about the non-creation of matter as such. With the indestructibility and non-creation of matter, that is, with its infinity in time, they connected the infinity of matter in space. Atoms, according to Lucretius, are characterized by movement. Lucretius tried to justify deviations from rectilinear motion atoms. Together with the size and shape of atoms, movement, according to the philosopher, is the cause of the diversity and variety of things in the world. Lucretius considers the soul to be material - a special combination of air and heat. It flows through the whole body and is formed by the finest and smallest atoms.

Lucretia, TIT Lucretius Carus (Titus Lucretius Carus) (about 99 - about 55 BC), Roman poet, author of the didactic epic About nature (De rerum natura). Lucretius is a Roman citizen, possibly of noble birth, judging by the expressions in which he dedicates his work to the prominent statesman Gaius Memmius (praetor in 58 BC). Everything we know about the life of Lucretius comes down to the message of St. Jerome, in all likelihood a quote from Swithonius, says: "Filled with a love potion, Lucretius lost his mind, in bright intervals he wrote several books, later issued by Cicero, and took his own life." The story of Lucretius's insanity and suicide (inspired by Tennyson's poem Lucretius) and Cicero's role in his literary destiny became the subject of heated debate. In a letter to his brother Quintus, written in February 54 BC, that is, shortly after the death of the poet, Cicero mentions his poem, but only to recognize in it "many glimpses of genius, but also great art."

The poem On Nature is the largest exposition of philosophy that has come down to us, Epicurus (c. 340-270 BC). It consists of six books. The first three establish the fundamental principles ("Nothing comes from nothing", "Nothing ever perishes"). Further, Lucretius systematically expounds the doctrine of the universe, consisting of an infinite number tiny indivisible particles(atoms) and infinite empty space, through which these particles fall forever. Lucretius also claims that atoms have no qualities other than a certain size and shape, and all other properties of objects that we perceive (color, smell, warmth, etc.) arise as a result of various combinations of atoms acting on human senses. Everything that is made of atoms, including