Factors that influenced the emergence and development social ecology:

First, new concepts appeared in the study of man as a social being.

Secondly, with the introduction of new concepts in ecology (biocenosis, ecosystem, biosphere), the need to study patterns in nature, taking into account the data of not only natural but also social sciences, became obvious.

Thirdly, the research of scientists led to the conclusion that it is possible for a person to exist in a deteriorating state of environment caused by ecological imbalance.

Fourthly, the emergence and formation of social ecology was also influenced by the fact that the threat to ecological balance and its violation arise not only as a conflict between an individual or a group with its natural environment, but also as a result of a complex relationship between three sets of systems: natural, technical and social. The desire of scientists to understand these systems led to the emergence and development of social ecology, with the aim of coordinating them in the name of protecting and protecting the human environment (as a natural and social being).

Social ecology is a relatively young scientific discipline. In fact, the emergence and subsequent development of social ecology were a natural consequence of the ever-increasing interest of representatives of various humanitarian disciplines - sociology, economics, political science, psychology, etc., - to the problems of interaction between man and the environment. From this it becomes clear why the term “social ecology” itself appeared thanks not to environmental biologists, but to social psychologists - American researchers R. Park and E. Burges. They first used this term in 1921 in their work on the theory of the behavior of the population in the urban environment. Using the concept of "social ecology", they wanted to emphasize that in this context we are talking not about biological, but about social phenomenon, which, however, has biological characteristics. Thus, in America, initially social ecology was more of a sociology of the city or urban sociology.

In our country, "social ecology" was originally understood as another field of knowledge, which is designed to deal with the problem of harmonizing the relationship between society and nature. And this is possible only when rational environmental management becomes the basis of the socio-economic development of society.

Social ecology was officially recognized at state level in the first quarter of the twentieth century. In 1922, H. Burroughs addressed the American Association of Geographers with a presidential address called Geography as Human Ecology. The main idea of ​​this appeal is to bring ecology closer to man. The Chicago school of human ecology has gained worldwide fame: the study of the mutual relations of man as whole organism with its complete environment. It was then that ecology and sociology first came into close interaction. Ecological techniques began to be applied to the analysis of the social system.

Significant progress in the development of social ecology and the process of its separation from bioecology occurred in the 60s of the current century. The 1966 World Congress of Sociologists played a special role in this. The rapid development of social ecology in subsequent years led to the fact that at the next congress of sociologists, held in Varna in 1970, it was decided to create a Research Committee of the World Association of Sociologists on Problems of Social Ecology.

During the period under review, the list of tasks that this branch of scientific knowledge, which was gradually gaining independence, was called upon to solve, significantly expanded. If at the dawn of the formation of social ecology, the efforts of researchers were mainly limited to the search for the behavior of territorially localized human population analogues of laws and ecological relations characteristic of biological communities, then from the second half of the 60s the range of issues under consideration was supplemented by the problems of determining the place and role of man in the biosphere, developing methods for determining optimal conditions its life and development, harmonization of relationships with other components of the biosphere. The process of its humanitarization, which has embraced social ecology in the last two decades, has led to the fact that, in addition to the above tasks, the range of issues developed by it included the problems of identifying the general laws of functioning and development. public systems, studying the influence natural factors on the processes of socio-economic development and the search for ways to control the action of these factors.

In our country, by the end of the 1970s, conditions had also developed for separating social and environmental issues into an independent area of ​​interdisciplinary research.

There are three main stages in the development of this science.

The initial stage is empirical, associated with the accumulation of various data on the negative environmental consequences of the scientific and technological revolution. The result of this area of ​​environmental research was the formation of a network of global environmental monitoring of all components of the biosphere.

The second stage is the "model". In 1972, the book by D. Meadows et al., The Limits to Growth, was published. She was a huge success. For the first time, data on various aspects of human activity were included in mathematical model and researched with a computer. For the first time, a complex dynamic model of interaction between society and nature was studied at the global level.

Criticism of The Limits to Growth has been comprehensive and thorough. The results of criticism can be reduced to two provisions:

1) computer modeling of socio-economic systems at the global and regional levels is promising;

2) Meadows' "models of the world" are far from being adequate to reality.

Currently, there is a significant variety of global models: the Meadows model is a lace of direct and feedback loops, the Mesarovic and Pestel model is a pyramid cut into many relatively independent parts, the J. Tinbergen model is a “tree” of organic growth, the model of V. Leontiev - also a tree.

The beginning of the third - global political - stage of social ecology is considered to be 1992, when the International Conference on Environment and Development was held in Rio de Janeiro. The heads of 179 states adopted an agreed strategy based on the concept of sustainable development.

In order to better represent the subject of social ecology, one should consider the process of its emergence and formation as independent industry scientific knowledge. In fact, the emergence and subsequent development of social ecology was a natural consequence of the ever-increasing interest of representatives of various humanitarian disciplines - sociology, economics, political science, psychology, etc. - to the problems of interaction between man and the environment.

The term "social ecology" owes its appearance to American researchers, representatives of the Chicago School social psychologists -R. Park and E. Burges, who first used it in his work on the theory of population behavior in an urban environment in 1921. The authors used it as a synonym for the concept of "human ecology". The concept of “social ecology” was intended to emphasize that in this context we are talking not about a biological, but about a social phenomenon, which, however, also has biological characteristics.

One of the first definitions of social ecology was given in his work in 1927 by Dr. R. McKenzil, characterizing it as a science of territorial and temporal relations of people, which are influenced by selective (selective), distributive (distributive) and accommodative (adaptive) forces of the environment. Such a definition of the subject of social ecology was intended to become the basis for the study of the territorial division of the population within urban agglomerations.

It should be noted, however, that the term "social ecology" seems to be best suited to designate a specific area of ​​research. human relationships as a social being with an environment of its existence, and did not take root in Western science, within which preference from the very beginning began to be given to the concept of "human ecology" (human ecology). It created known difficulties for the formation of social ecology as an independent, humanitarian in its main focus, discipline. The fact is that in parallel with the development of the socio-ecological problems proper, within the framework of human ecology, bioecological aspects of human life were developed in it. Passed by this time a long period formation and due to this, having more weight in science, having a more developed categorical and methodological apparatus, human biological ecology for a long time “shielded” humanitarian social ecology from the eyes of the progressive scientific community. Nevertheless, social ecology existed for some time and developed relatively independently as the ecology (sociology) of the city.

Despite the obvious desire of representatives of the humanitarian branches of knowledge to free social ecology from the "yoke" of bioecology, it continued for many decades to experience significant influence from the side of the latter. As a result, social ecology borrowed most of the concepts, its categorical apparatus from the ecology of plants and animals, as well as from general ecology. At the same time, as D. Zh. Markovich notes, social ecology gradually improved its methodological apparatus with the development of the space-time approach social geography, economic theory distribution, etc.

Significant progress in the development of social ecology and the process of its separation from bioecology occurred in the 60s of the current century. special role the World Congress of Sociologists, held in 1966, played a role in this. The rapid development of social ecology in subsequent years led to the fact that at the next congress of sociologists, held in Varna in 1970, it was decided to create a Research Committee of the World Association of Sociologists on Problems of Social Ecology. Thus, as noted by D. Zh. exact definition her subject.

During the period under review, the list of tasks that this branch of scientific knowledge, which was gradually gaining independence, was called upon to solve, significantly expanded. If at the dawn of the formation of social ecology, the efforts of researchers mainly boiled down to searching in the behavior of a territorially localized human population for analogues of laws and ecological relations characteristic of biological communities, then from the second half of the 60s, the range of issues under consideration was supplemented by the problems of determining the place and role of man in the biosphere. , working out ways to determine the optimal conditions for its life and development, harmonization of relationships with other components of the biosphere. The process of its humanitarization, which has embraced social ecology in the last two decades, has led to the fact that, in addition to the above tasks, the range of issues developed by it included the problems of identifying general laws functioning and development of social systems, studying the influence of natural factors on the processes of socio-economic development and finding ways to control the action of these factors.

In our country, by the end of the 1970s, conditions had also developed for separating social and environmental issues into an independent area of ​​interdisciplinary research. A significant contribution to the development of domestic social ecology was made by E.V. Girusov, A. N. Kochergin, Yu. G. Markov, N. F. Reimers, S. N. Solomina and others.

One of critical issues facing researchers on present stage formation of social ecology is the development of a unified approach to understanding its subject. Despite the obvious progress made in the study various aspects relationship between man, society and nature, as well as a significant number of publications on social and environmental issues that have appeared in the last two or three decades in our country and abroad, on the issue of what exactly this branch of scientific knowledge studies, there are still different opinions. In the school reference book "Ecology" by A.P. Oshmarin and V.I. Oshmarina, two options for defining social ecology are given: in narrow sense it is understood as the science of interaction human society with the natural environment", and in a broader sense - the science of "the interaction individual person and human society with natural, social and cultural environments”. It is quite obvious that in each of the presented cases of interpretation we are talking about different sciences that claim the right to be called “social ecology”. No less revealing is the comparison between the definitions of social ecology and human ecology. According to the same source, the latter is defined as: “I) the science of the interaction of human society with nature; 2) ecology of the human personality; 3) the ecology of human populations, including the doctrine of ethnic groups. One can clearly see the almost complete identity of the definition of social ecology, understood "in the narrow sense", and the first version of the interpretation of human ecology. The desire for the actual identification of these two branches of scientific knowledge, indeed, is still characteristic of foreign science, but it is quite often subjected to well-reasoned criticism by domestic scientists. S.N. Solomina, in particular, pointing out the expediency of breeding social ecology and human ecology, limits the subject of the latter to consideration of the socio-hygienic and medical-genetic aspects of the relationship between man, society and nature. V.A. Bukhvalov, L.V. Bogdanova and some other researchers agree with such an interpretation of the subject of human ecology, but N.A. Agadzhanyan, V.P. Kaznacheev and N.F. discipline covers much more wide circle issues of interaction of the anthroposystem (considered at all levels of its organization - from the individual to humanity as a whole) with the biosphere, as well as with the internal biosocial organization of human society. It is easy to see that such an interpretation of the subject of human ecology actually equates it with social ecology, understood in broad sense. This situation is largely due to the fact that at present there has been a steady trend of convergence of these two disciplines, when there is an interpenetration of the subjects of the two sciences and their mutual enrichment through the joint use of the empirical material accumulated in each of them, as well as methods and technologies of socio-ecological and anthropoecological research.

Everything today more researchers tend to broaden the interpretation of the subject of social ecology. So, according to D.Zh.Markovich, the subject of study of modern social ecology, understood by him as a private sociology, are specific links between man and his environment. Based on this, the main tasks of social ecology can be defined as follows: the study of the influence of the environment as a combination of natural and social factors on a person, as well as the influence of a person on the environment, perceived as the framework of human life.

A somewhat different, but not contradictory to the previous, interpretation of the subject of social ecology is given by T.A. Akimova and V.V. Khaskin. From their point of view, social ecology as part of human ecology is a complex of scientific branches that study the relationship of social structures (starting with the family and other small community groups), as well as the relationship of man with the natural and social environment their habitats. This approach seems to us more correct, because it does not limit the subject of social ecology to the framework of sociology or any other separate humanitarian discipline, but emphasizes its interdisciplinary nature.

Some researchers, when defining the subject of social ecology, tend to emphasize the role that this young science is called upon to play in harmonizing the relationship of mankind with its environment. According to E.V. Girusova, social ecology must first of all study the laws of society and nature, by which he understands the laws of self-regulation of the biosphere, implemented by man in his life.

Development environmental perceptions people from ancient times to the present day. The emergence and development of ecology as a science.

The emergence of social ecology. Her subject. Relationship of social ecology to other sciences: biology, geography, sociology.

Topic 2. Socio-ecological interaction and its subjects (4 hours).

Man and society as subjects of socio-ecological interaction. Mankind as a multi-level hierarchical system. Key features a person as a subject of socio-ecological interaction: needs, adaptability, adaptation mechanisms and adaptability.

The human environment and its elements as subjects of socio-ecological interaction. Classification of the components of the human environment.

Socio-ecological interaction and its main characteristics. The impact of environmental factors on humans. Human adaptation to the environment and its changes.

Topic 3. The relationship between society and nature in the history of civilization (4 hours).

The relationship between nature and society: historical aspect. Stages of formation of the relationship between nature and society: hunting-gathering culture, agrarian culture, industrial society, post industrial society. Their characteristic.

Prospects for the development of relationships between nature and society: the ideal of the noosphere and the concept of sustainable development.

Topic 4. Global problems of mankind and ways to solve them (4 hours).

population growth, population explosion". Resource Crisis: land resources(the soil, mineral resources), energetic resources. Increasing aggressiveness of the environment: water pollution and atmospheric air, growth of pathogenicity of microorganisms. Changing the gene pool: factors of mutagenesis, genetic drift, natural selection.

Topic 5. Human behavior in the natural and social environment (4 hours).

Human behavior. Levels of behavior regulation: biochemical, biophysical, informational, psychological. Activity and reactivity as fundamental components of behavior.

Needs as a source of personality activity. Groups and types of needs and their characteristics. Characteristics of human ecological needs.

Human adaptation in the natural and social environment. Types of adaptation. The peculiarity of human behavior in the natural and social environment.

human behavior in natural environment. Characteristics of scientific theories of the influence of the environment on a person.

Human behavior in the social environment. organizational behavior. Human behavior in critical and extreme situations.

Topic 6. Ecology living environment(4 hours).

Elements of the human living environment: social and living environment (urban and residential environments), labor (industrial) environment, recreational environment. Their characteristic. The relationship of a person with the elements of his living environment.

Topic 7. Elements of environmental ethics (4 hours).

Moral aspect relationship between man, society and nature. The subject of environmental ethics.

Nature as a value. Anthropocentrism and Naturocentrism. Subject-ethical type of attitude to nature. Non-violence as a form of attitude towards nature and as a moral principle. The problem of non-violent interaction of man, society and nature in various religious concepts(Jainism, Buddhism, Hinduism, Taoism, Islam, Christianity).

Topic 8. Elements of environmental psychology (4 hours).

Formation and development of environmental psychology and its subject. Characteristics of psychological ecology and environmental ecology.

Subjective attitude to nature and its varieties. Basic parameters of subjective attitude to nature. Modality and intensity of subjective attitude to nature. Typology of subjective attitude to nature.

Subjective perception of the world nature. Forms and methods of endowing subjectivity natural objects(animism, anthropomorphism, personification, subjectification).

Ecological consciousness and its structure. Structure of anthropocentric and ecocentric ecological consciousness. The problem of formation of ecological consciousness in the younger generation.

Topic 9. Elements of environmental pedagogy (4 hours).

The concept of ecological culture of personality. Types of ecological culture. Pedagogical conditions its formation.

environmental education personality. Development of environmental education in Russia. Modern content environmental education. School as the main link in environmental education. The structure of environmental education of the future teacher.

Ecologization of education. Characteristics of the greening of education abroad.

EXAMPLE TOPICS OF SEMINAR LESSONS

Topic 1. The formation of the relationship between man and nature at the dawn of the history of civilization (2 hours).

Man's exploration of nature.

Features of the perception of nature by primitive people.

The formation of ecological consciousness.

Tylor B.D. primitive culture. - M., 1989. - S. 355-388.

Levy-Bruhl L. Supernatural in primitive thinking. -M., 1994.-S. 177-283.

Topic 2. Modern environmental crisis and ways to overcome it (4 hours).

Ecological crisis: myth or reality?

Prerequisites for the emergence ecological crisis.

Ways to overcome the ecological crisis.

Literature to prepare for the lesson

White L. Historical roots of our ecological crisis // Global problems and human values. - M., 1990. -S. 188-202.

Atfield R. Ethics environmental responsibility// Global problems and universal values. - M., 1990. - S. 203-257.

Schweitzer A. Reverence for life. - M., 1992. - S. 44-79.

Topic 3. The ethical aspect of the relationship between man and nature (4 hours).

What is environmental ethics?

The main ethical and ecological doctrines of the relationship between man and nature: anthropocentrism and naturocentrism.

The essence of anthropocentrism and its general characteristics.

The essence of naturocentrism and its general characteristics.

Literature to prepare for the lesson

Berdyaev N.A. Philosophy of freedom. The meaning of creativity. - M., 1989.-S. 293-325.

Rolston X. Is there an environmental ethics? // Global problems and universal values. - M., 1990. - S. 258-288.

Schweitzer A. Reverence for life. - M., 1992. - S. 216-229.

Topic 4. Ecology and ethnogenesis (2 hours).

The essence of the process of ethnogenesis.

The influence of landscape features on ethnogenesis.

Ethnogenesis and evolution of the Earth's biosphere.

Literature to prepare for the lesson

Gumilyov L. N. Biosphere and impulses of consciousness // The end and the beginning again. - M., 1997. - S. 385-398.

Topic 5. Man and the noosphere (2 hours).

The idea of ​​the noosphere and its creators.

What is the noosphere?

The formation of the noosphere and the prospects of mankind.

Literature to prepare for the lesson

Vernadsky V.I. A few words about the noosphere // Russian cosmism: an anthology of philosophical thought. -M., 1993. -S. 303-311.

Teilhard de Chardin. The human phenomenon. -M., 1987.-S. 133-186.

Men A. History of religion: In search of the Way, Truth and Life: In 7 vols.-M., 1991.-T. 1.-S. 85-104; pp. 121-130.

In order to better present the subject of social ecology, one should consider the process of its emergence and formation as an independent branch of scientific knowledge. In fact, the emergence and subsequent development of social ecology was a natural consequence of the ever-increasing interest of representatives of various humanitarian disciplines - sociology, economics, political science, psychology, etc. - to the problems of interaction between man and the environment.[ ...]

The term "social ecology" owes its appearance to American researchers, representatives of the Chicago School of Social Psychologists - R. Park and E. Burges, who first used it in their work on the theory of population behavior in an urban environment in 1921. The authors used it as a synonym for the concept " human ecology. The concept of "social ecology" was intended to emphasize that in this context we are talking not about a biological, but about a social phenomenon, which, however, also has biological characteristics.[ ...]

It should be noted, however, that the term "social ecology", apparently best suited to designate a specific direction of research into the relationship of a person as a social being with the environment of his existence, has not taken root in Western science, in which preference from the very beginning began to be given to the concept of "human ecology" (human ecology). This created certain difficulties for the formation of social ecology as an independent, humanitarian in its main focus, discipline. The fact is that in parallel with the development of the socio-ecological problems proper within the framework of human ecology, bio-ecological aspects of human life were developed in it. Having passed by this time a long period of formation and, due to this, having more weight in science, having a more developed categorical and methodological apparatus, human biological ecology for a long time “shielded” humanitarian social ecology from the eyes of the progressive scientific community. Nevertheless, social ecology existed for some time and developed relatively independently as the ecology (sociology) of the city.[ ...]

Despite the obvious desire of representatives of the humanitarian branches of knowledge to free social ecology from the "yoke" of bioecology, it continued to experience a significant influence from the latter for many decades. As a result most concepts, social ecology borrowed its categorical apparatus from the ecology of plants and animals, as well as from general ecology. At the same time, as D. Zh. Markovich notes, social ecology gradually improved its methodological apparatus with the development of the spatio-temporal approach of social geography, the economic theory of distribution, etc.[ ...]

During the period under review, the list of tasks that this branch of scientific knowledge, which was gradually gaining independence, was called upon to solve, significantly expanded. If at the dawn of the formation of social ecology, the efforts of researchers mainly boiled down to searching in the behavior of a territorially localized human population for analogues of laws and ecological relations characteristic of biological communities, then from the second half of the 60s, the range of issues under consideration was supplemented by the problems of determining the place and role of man in the biosphere. , working out ways to determine the optimal conditions for its life and development, harmonization of relationships with other components of the biosphere. The process of its humanitarization that has engulfed social ecology in the last two decades has led to the fact that, in addition to the above tasks, the range of issues it develops includes the problems of identifying the general laws of the functioning and development of social systems, studying the influence of natural factors on the processes of socio-economic development and finding ways to control the action. these factors.[ ...]

In our country, by the end of the 1970s, conditions had also developed for separating social and environmental problems into an independent area of ​​interdisciplinary research. A significant contribution to the development of domestic social ecology was made by E. V. Girusov, A. N. Kochergin, Yu. G. Markov, N. F. Reimers, S. N. Solomina and others.

V.V.Haskin. From their point of view, social ecology as part of human ecology is a complex of scientific branches that study the relationship public structures(starting with the family and other small social groups), as well as the connection of a person with the natural and social environment of their habitat. This approach seems to us more correct, because it does not limit the subject of social ecology to the framework of sociology or any other separate humanitarian discipline, and emphasizes its interdisciplinary nature.[ ...]

Some researchers, when defining the subject of social ecology, tend to emphasize the role that this young science is called upon to play in harmonizing the relationship of mankind with its environment. According to E.V. Girusov, social ecology should first of all study the laws of society and nature, by which he understands the laws of self-regulation of the biosphere, implemented by man in his life.[ ...]

Akimova T. A., Khaskin V. V. Ecology. - M., 1998.[ ...]

Agadzhanyan H.A., Torshin V.I. Human ecology. Selected lectures. -M., 1994.

Social ecology - young scientific discipline. In fact, the emergence and development of social ecology reflects the growing interest of sociology in environmental problems, that is, a sociological approach to human ecology is born, which first led to the emergence of human ecology, or humane ecology, and later social ecology.

According to the definition of one of the largest contemporary ecologists, Yu. Odum, “ecology is an interdisciplinary field of knowledge, the science of the structure multilevel systems in nature, society, their interrelationships.

Researchers have been interested in environmental issues for a long time. Already in the early stages of the formation of human society, links were found between the conditions in which people live and the characteristics of their health. The writings of the great physician of antiquity Hippocrates (c. 460-370 BC) contain numerous evidence that factors external environment, lifestyle have a decisive influence on the formation of bodily (constitution) and mental (temperament) properties of a person.

In the 17th century medical geography appeared - a science that studies the influence of natural and social conditions different territories on the health of the people inhabiting them. Its founder was the Italian physician Bernardino Ramazzini (1633-1714).

This indicates that an ecological approach to human life existed before. According to N.F. Reimers (1992), almost simultaneously with the classical biological ecology, albeit under a different name, human ecology arose. Over the years, it has been formed in two directions: the actual ecology of man as an organism and social ecology. The American scientist J. Buce notes that the line "human geography - human ecology - sociology" originated in the works French philosopher and sociologist Auguste Comte (1798-1857) in 1837 and further developed by D.S. Mill (1806-1873) and G. Spencer (1820-1903).

Ecologist N.F. Reimers gave the following definition: “the socio-economic ecology of man is scientific field, exploring the general structural-spatial, functional and temporal laws of the relationship between the biosphere of the planet and the anthroposystem (its structural levels from the whole of humanity to the individual), as well as the integral patterns of the internal biosocial organization of human society. That is, everything comes down to the same classical formula “organism and environment”, the only difference is that the “organism” is the whole of humanity as a whole, and the environment is all natural and social processes.

The development of social ecology begins after the First World War, at the same time the first attempts to define its subject appear. McKenzie was one of the first to do this. famous representative classical ecology person.

Social ecology arose and developed under the influence of bioecology. Insofar as technical progress constantly violates the biotic and abiotic environment person, it inevitably leads to an imbalance in biological ecosystem. Therefore, along with the development of civilization with fatal inevitability, it is accompanied by an increase in the number of diseases. Anything further development society becomes fatal for a person and calls into question the existence of civilization. That is why in modern society talk about the "diseases of civilization".

The development of social ecology accelerated after the World Sociological Congress (Evian, 1966), which made it possible at the next World Sociological Congress (Varna, 1970) to create a research committee of the International Sociological Association on social ecology. Thus, the existence of social ecology as a branch of sociology was recognized, the prerequisites were created for its more rapid development and a clearer definition of its subject matter.

Factors that influenced the emergence and formation of social ecology:

1. The emergence of new concepts in ecology (biocenosis, ecosystem, biosphere) and the study of man as a social being.

2. The threat to the ecological balance and its violation arise as a result of a complex relationship between three sets of systems: natural, technical and social

Subject of social ecology

According to N.M. Mammadova, social ecology studies the interaction of society and the natural environment.

S.N. Solomina believes that the subject of social ecology is the study global problems humanity: problems energy resources, environmental protection, the problem of eliminating mass starvation and dangerous diseases, the development of the wealth of the ocean.

Laws of social ecology

Social ecology as a science should establish scientific laws, evidence of objectively existing necessary and essential connections between phenomena, the signs of which are general character, constancy and the ability to foresee them.

H. F. Reimers, on the basis of private laws established by such scientists as B. Commoner, P. Danero, A. Turgo and T. Malthus, points to 10 laws of the "man - nature" system:

I. Rule historical development production through successive rejuvenation of ecosystems.

2. Boomerang law, or feedback interaction between man and the biosphere.

3. Law of irreplaceability of the biosphere.

4. The law of renewal of the biosphere.

5. The law of irreversibility of interaction between man and the biosphere.

6. The rule of measure (degree of possibility) of natural systems.

7. The principle of naturalness.

8. Law of diminishing returns (of nature).

9. The rule of demographic (techno-socio-economic) saturation.

10. The rule of accelerated historical development.

When forming the laws of N.F. Reimers comes from " general patterns”, and thus, the laws of social ecology, to one degree or another, contain expressions of these laws.