In economics, both in science and in the curriculum, there is always a methodology. Methodology- this is the science of methods, the doctrine of the principles of construction, forms and methods of scientific knowledge.
Economics as a science uses a variety of forms and methods of scientific knowledge, including observation; processing the obtained material through synthesis and analysis; induction and deduction; systemic approach; development of hypotheses and their testing; conducting experiments; development of models in logical and mathematical forms.
Methods economics - a set of methods and techniques of cognition economic relations and their reproduction in the system of categories and laws.
Considering patterns of change economic processes, economic theory uses the methods of economic and mathematical modeling (the study of processes and phenomena not directly, but through auxiliary objects), which appeared in the 20th century.
In economics, methods of scientific abstraction, analysis and synthesis, a systematic approach, modeling methods (primarily graphical, mathematical and computer modeling) are widely used.
Method of scientific abstraction (abstraction) consists in abstracting in the process of cognition from external phenomena, insignificant details and highlighting the essence of an object or phenomenon. As a result of these assumptions, it is possible to develop, for example, scientific concepts expressing the most general properties and connections of the phenomena of reality - categories. So, abstracting from the countless differences in the external properties of millions of different goods produced in the world, we combine them into one economic category - goods, fixing the main thing that unites various goods - this is products intended for sale.
Method of analysis and synthesis involves the study of the phenomenon both in parts (analysis) and as a whole (synthesis). For example, studying the main properties of money (money as a measure of value, as a means of circulation, payment, savings), we can, on this basis, try to put them together, generalize (synthesize) and conclude that money is a special commodity that serves as a universal equivalent. Combining analysis and synthesis, we provide systemic (integrated) approach to complex (multi-element) phenomena economic life.
Also widely used induction and deduction.
Induction is the process of creating a theory from a set of observations. Through induction, the transition from the study of single facts to general provisions and conclusions is ensured.
Deduction– the process of predicting future events using theory. Deduction makes it possible to move from the most general conclusions to relatively particular ones.
The most important method eq. theory is systems approach, exploring functional relationships - direct and reverse dependencies between variables. Its use has shown that eq. laws and categories are not absolute, but relative, which makes it possible to move away from one-sidedness and categorical judgments.
Economic model- this is a formalized description of an economic process or phenomenon, the structure of which is determined both by its objective properties and by the subjective target nature of the study.
The model in economics gives a simplified picture of reality, allows you to make generalizations and assumptions in abstract form(graphic, mathematical).
Modeling, those. building models, reflects the main economic indicators (data, variables) of the objects under study and the relationship between them (their relationship). If the model has only the most general description indicators and their relationships, then this is a text model. If these indicators and relationships are given quantitative values, then on the basis of the text model it is possible to build a graphical, mathematical and computer model, reflecting how indicators (data, variables) change.
Models are divided into static and dynamic.
Static models - designed to study the phenomenon in a certain moment time.
Dynamic models - the model illustrates the change in the phenomenon under study over a certain period.
Economic and mathematical modeling, being one of system methods research, allows you to determine the causes of changes in economic phenomena, the patterns of these changes, their consequences, the possibilities and results of influencing the course of changes, and also makes it possible to predict economic processes.
Also used graphic method- involves the use of graphs, tables to illustrate images.
Graphic method(graphical modeling method) is based on building models using various drawings - graphs, diagrams, diagrams. The interdependence of economic indicators is especially well demonstrated by graphs - images of the relationship between two or more variables.
The dependence can be linear (i.e. constant), then the graph is a straight line located at an angle between two axes - vertical (usually denoted by the letter Y) and horizontal (X).
Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation
FEDERAL AGENCY FOR EDUCATION
State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education
RUSSIAN STATE UNIVERSITY OF TRADE AND ECONOMICS
Novosibirsk branch
Faculty of Trade and Economics
COURSE WORK
in the discipline "Economic theory"
on the topic "Methodology for the study of economic processes and phenomena"
Novosibirsk 2010
Introduction
1. The theory of studying the methods of economic processes and phenomena
1.1 Basic concepts
1.2 Characteristics of the main techniques and methods of economic analysis
1. Analysis of methodology
2.1 Concept and types
2.2 Factor analysis methodology
3. Ways to improve
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
For a correct understanding of the course "Economic theory" it is necessary to define the methods of economic theory. For three centuries, economic theorists various directions and schools contradictory another look. During this time, ideas about the sources of wealth in society, about the role of the state in economic activity and even the name of the science itself was updated.
The first reason to study economics is that it deals with problems that concern us all without exception: what kinds of jobs need to be done? How are they paid? How many goods can be bought per conventional unit wages now and during the period of galloping inflation? What is the probability that a time will come when a person will not be able to find a suitable job for himself only within an acceptable period?
Economic theory is designed to study and explain the processes and phenomena of economic life, and for this, economic theory must penetrate the essence of deep processes, reveal laws and predict ways to use them.
In economic processes, two peculiar layers of relations between people can be found: the first of them is superficial, externally visible, the second is internal, hidden from external observation.
The study of outwardly visible economic relations, of course, is available to every person. Therefore, already in childhood, people develop the usual economic thinking which is based on direct knowledge of economic life. This mindset is usually subjective in which the individual psychology of a person is manifested. It is limited to a person's personal outlook, often based on fragmentary and one-sided information;
Economic theory seeks to reveal the essence behind the external appearance of economic phenomena - their internal content, as well as the cause-and-effect dependence of some phenomena on others. Professor Paul Heine (USA) made an interesting comparison: “An economist knows the real world no better, and in most cases worse than managers, engineers, mechanics, in a word, business people. But economists know how different things are related. Economics allows us to better understand what we see, to think more consistently and logically about a wide range of complex social relations.
The relevance of the topic lies in the fact that, without knowing the methods of studying economic phenomena, it is impossible to correctly assess this or that economic event, to calculate whether the enterprise will make a profit, or vice versa.
The purpose of the course is to consider methods for studying economic processes and phenomena.
Objectives of the course work: we will consider the methodology in theory, conduct an analysis, and also consider ways to improve this topic.
1. The theory of studying methods of economic processes and phenomena
1.1 Basic concepts
To begin with, let's consider the very concept of methodology, what it includes.
The methodology of science, as you know, is the doctrine of the principles of construction, forms and methods of scientific knowledge. Therefore, the methodology of economic theory is the science of the principles of construction economic system, about methods of studying economic activity.
Methodology of economic theory - the science of methods of studying economic life, economic phenomena. It presupposes the existence of a common approach to the study of economic phenomena, a common understanding of reality, a single philosophical basis. The methodology is designed to help solve the main question: with the help of what scientific ways, methods of cognition of reality, economic theory seeks to truly illuminate the functioning and further development of a particular economic system. In the methodology of economic theory, four main approaches can be distinguished:
1) subjectivist (from the standpoint of subjective idealism);
2) neopositivist-empirical (from the standpoint of neopositivist empiricism and skepticism);
3) rationalistic;
4) dialectical-materialistic.
In the subjectivist approach, as a starting point for the analysis of economic phenomena, an economic entity is taken that influences the world around, and the sovereign “I” is relatively independent, hence everyone is equal. The object of economic analysis is the behavior of the subject of the economy ("homoeconomics"), and therefore economic theory is considered as a science of human activity, determined by the boundaries of needs. The main category in this approach is need, utility. Economics is becoming a theory of choice made by an economic entity from various options.
The neo-positivist-empirical approach is based on a more thorough study of phenomena and their evaluation. The technical apparatus of research is put at the head, which turns from a tool into an object of knowledge (mathematical apparatus, econometrics, cybernetics, etc.), and the result of the research is various kinds of empirical models, which are the main categories here. This approach involves the division of microeconomics - economic problems at the level of firms and industries and macroeconomics - economic problems on the scale of society.
The rationalistic approach aims to discover the "natural" or rational laws of civilization. This requires the study of the economic system as a whole, the economic laws governing this system, the study of the economic "anatomy" of society. Economic tables F. Quesnay is the pinnacle of this approach. The goal of human economic activity is the desire to benefit, and the goal of economic theory is not to study human behavior, and the study of the laws governing the production and distribution of the social product (D. Ricardo). This approach recognizes the division of society into classes, in contrast to the subjectivist one, which represents society as a set of equal subjects. The main attention in this approach is paid to cost, price, economic laws.
The dialectical-materialistic approach is considered the only correct one in solving scientific problems based not on empirical positivism (experience), but objective analysis characterizing the internal connections of phenomena that exist in reality. Economic processes and phenomena constantly arise, develop and are destroyed, i.e. are situated in in constant motion, and this is their dialectic. Methodology should not be confused with methods - tools, a set of research methods in science and their reproduction in the system of economic categories and laws.
The characteristic features of the method of economic analysis are: a) the definition of a system of indicators that comprehensively characterize the economic activity of organizations;
b) establishing the subordination of indicators with the allocation of aggregate effective factors and factors (primary and secondary) that affect them;
c) identification of the form of the relationship between factors;
d) the choice of techniques and methods for studying the relationship;
e) quantitative measurement of the influence of factors on the aggregate indicator.
The set of techniques and methods that are used in the study of economic processes constitutes the methodology of economic analysis. The methodology of economic analysis is based on the intersection of three areas of knowledge: economics, statistics and mathematics. Economic methods of analysis include comparison, grouping, balance and graphic methods. Statistical methods include the use of averages and relative values, index method, correlation and regression analysis, etc. Mathematical methods can be divided into three groups: economic (matrix methods, theory of production functions, theory of input-output balance); methods of economic cybernetics and optimal programming (linear, non-linear, dynamic programming); methods of research of operations and decision making (graph theory, game theory, queuing theory).
1.2 Characteristics of the main techniques and methods of economic analysis
Comparison - comparison of the studied data and facts of economic life. There are horizontal comparative analysis, which is used to determine the absolute and relative deviations of the actual level of the studied indicators from the baseline. Vertical comparative analysis used to study the structure of economic phenomena; trend analysis used in the study of the relative growth rates and growth of indicators over a number of years to the level of the base year, i.e. in the study of series of dynamics.
A prerequisite for a comparative analysis is the comparability of the compared indicators, which implies:
unity of volumetric, cost, qualitative, structural indicators; unity of time periods for which comparison is made; Comparability of production conditions and comparability of the methodology for calculating indicators.
Average values are calculated on the basis of mass data on qualitatively homogeneous phenomena. They help to determine the general patterns and trends in the development of economic processes.
Groupings are used to study dependencies in complex phenomena, the characteristics of which are reflected by homogeneous indicators and different values (characteristics of the equipment fleet by commissioning time, by place of operation, by shift ratio, etc.)
The balance method consists in comparing, measuring two sets of indicators tending to a certain balance. It allows you to identify as a result a new analytical (balancing) indicator. For example, when analyzing the provision of an enterprise with raw materials, the need for raw materials is compared, the sources of covering the need and a balancing indicator is determined - a shortage or excess of raw materials.
As an auxiliary, the balance method is used to check the results of calculations of the influence of factors on the effective aggregate indicator. If the sum of the influence of factors on the effective indicator is equal to its deviation from the base value, then, consequently, the calculations were carried out correctly. The lack of equality indicates an incomplete consideration of factors or mistakes made:
where y is the effective indicator; x– factors; /> - deviation of the result indicator due to the factor хi.
The balance method is also used to determine the size of the influence of individual factors on the change in the result indicator, if the influence of other factors is known:
Graphic way. Graphs are large-scale images of indicators and their dependencies using geometric shapes.
The graphical method does not have in the analysis independent value, but is used to illustrate measurements.
The index method is based on relative indicators expressing the ratio of the level this phenomenon to its level, taken as the basis of comparison. Statistics names several types of indices that are used in analysis: aggregate, arithmetic, harmonic, etc.
Using index recalculations and constructing a time series that characterizes, for example, the output of industrial products in value terms, one can analyze the phenomena of dynamics in a qualified manner.
The method of correlation and regression (stochastic) analysis is widely used to determine the closeness of the relationship between indicators that are not in functional dependence, i.e. the connection does not appear in each individual case, but in a certain dependence.
Correlation solves two main problems:
a model of acting factors is compiled (regression equation);
· a quantitative assessment of the closeness of connections (correlation coefficient) is given.
Matrix models are a schematic reflection economic phenomenon or process with the help of scientific abstraction. The most widely used here is the input-output analysis method, which is built according to a chess scheme and allows in the most compact form to represent the relationship between costs and production results.
Mathematical programming is the main tool for solving problems of optimizing production and economic activities.
The method of research of operations is aimed at studying economic systems, including the production and economic activities of enterprises, in order to determine such a combination of structural interconnected elements of systems, which to the greatest extent will allow determining the best economic indicator from a number of possible ones.
Game theory as a branch of operations research is a theory mathematical models making optimal decisions in conditions of uncertainty or conflict of several parties with different interests.
2. Methodology analysis
2.1 Concept and types
Analysis is the mental division of the phenomenon under study into its component parts and the study of each of these parts separately. Through synthesis, economic theory recreates a single holistic picture.
Widespread: induction and deduction. By means of induction (guidance), the transition from the study of individual facts to general provisions and conclusions is ensured. Deduction (inference) makes it possible to move from general conclusions to relatively particular ones. Analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction are applied by economic theory in unity. Their combination provides a systematic (integrated) approach to complex (multi-element) phenomena of economic life.
An important place in the study of economic phenomena and processes is occupied by historical and logical methods. They do not oppose each other, but are applied in unity, since the starting point historical research coincides, by and large, with the starting point of logical research. However, the logical (theoretical) study of economic phenomena and processes is not a mirror reflection of the historical process. In the specific conditions of a particular country, economic phenomena may arise that are not necessary for the dominant economic system. If in fact (historically) they take place, then in theoretical analysis they can be ignored. We can get away from them. The historian, however, cannot ignore such phenomena. He must write them down.
Using the historical method, economics explores economic processes and phenomena in the sequence in which they arose in life itself, developed, changed one another. This approach allows us to concretely and visually present the features of various economic systems.
historical method shows that in nature and society, development proceeds from the simple to the complex. With regard to the subject of economics, this means that in the entire set of economic phenomena and processes, it is necessary to single out, first of all, the simplest ones that arise earlier than others and form the basis for the emergence of more complex ones. For example, in market analysis, such an economic phenomenon is the exchange of goods.
Economic processes and phenomena are characterized by qualitative and quantitative certainty. Therefore, economic theory ( political Economy) makes extensive use of mathematical and statistical techniques and research tools that allow you to identify the quantitative side of the processes and phenomena of economic life, their transition to a new quality. At the same time, computer technology is widely used. A special role here is played by the method of economic and mathematical modeling. This method, being one of the systematic research methods, allows in a formalized form to determine the causes of changes in economic phenomena, the patterns of these changes, their consequences, the possibilities and costs of influence, and also makes it possible to predict economic processes. With the help of this method, economic models are created.
An economic model is a formalized description of an economic process or phenomenon, the structure of which is determined by its objective properties and the subjective target nature of the study.
In connection with the construction of models, it is important to note the role of functional analysis in economic theory.
Functions are variables that depend on other variables.
Features meet in our Everyday life and most of the time we don't realize it. They take place in engineering, physics, geometry, chemistry, economics, and so on. With regard to economics, for example, one can note functional connection between price and demand. Demand depends on the price. If the price of a commodity rises, the quantity demanded for it, ceteris paribus, decreases. In this case, the price is an independent variable, or argument, and demand is a dependent variable, or function. Thus, we can briefly say that demand is a function of price. But demand and price can change places. The higher the demand, the higher the price, ceteris paribus. Consequently, price can be a function of demand.
Economic and mathematical modeling as a method of economic theory became widespread in the 20th century. However, the element of subjectivity in the construction of economic models sometimes leads to errors. Laureate Nobel Prize The French economist Maurice Allé wrote in 1989 that for 40 years economic science has been developing in the wrong direction: towards completely artificial and detached from life mathematical models with a predominance of mathematical formalism, which is, in fact, big step back.
Most of the models, principles of economic theory can be expressed graphically, in the form of mathematical equations, therefore, when studying economic theory, it is important to know mathematics and be able to draw and read graphs.
Graphs are a representation of the relationship between two or more variables.
The dependence can be linear (i.e. constant), then the graph is a straight line located at an angle between two axes - vertical (it is usually denoted by the letter Y) and horizontal (X).
If the graph line goes from left to right in a downward direction, then there is an inverse relationship between the two variables (for example, as the price of a product decreases, the volume of its sale usually increases). prices for it. The dependence can be non-linear (ie changing), then the graph takes the form of a curved line (so, as inflation decreases, unemployment tends to increase - the Phillips curve).
As part of the graphical approach, diagrams are widely used - drawings showing the relationship between indicators. They can be circular, columnar, etc.
Schemes clearly demonstrate the indicators of models and their relationships. When analyzing economic problems, positive and normative analysis is often used. A positive analysis gives us the opportunity to see economic phenomena and processes as they really are: what was or what can be. positive statements do not have to be true, but any argument about a positive statement can be resolved by fact checking. Normative analysis is based on the study of what and how should be. A normative statement is most often derived from a positive one, but objective facts cannot prove its truth or falsity. In normative analysis, assessments are made - fair or unfair, bad or good, acceptable or unacceptable.
2.2 Method of factor analysis
All phenomena and processes of economic activity of enterprises are interconnected and interdependent. Some of them are directly related, others indirectly. Hence, an important methodological issue in economic analysis is the study and measurement of the influence of factors on the magnitude of the studied economic indicators.
Economic factor analysis is understood as a gradual transition from the initial factor system to the final factor system, the disclosure of a full set of direct, quantitatively measurable factors that affect the change in the effective indicator. By the nature of the relationship between the indicators, methods of deterministic stochastic factor analysis are distinguished.
Deterministic factor analysis is a technique for studying the influence of factors whose relationship with the performance indicator is functional.
The main properties of a deterministic approach to analysis: building a deterministic model by logical analysis; the presence of a complete (rigid) relationship between indicators; the impossibility of separating the results of the influence of simultaneously acting factors that cannot be combined in one model; study of interrelations in the short term. There are four types of deterministic models:
Additive models are an algebraic sum of indicators and have the form
Such models, for example, include cost indicators in conjunction with production cost elements and cost items; an indicator of the volume of production of products in its relationship with the volume of output of individual products or the volume of output in individual divisions.
Multiplicative models in a generalized form can be represented by the formula
An example of a multiplicative model is the two-factor sales volume model
where H is the average number of employees;
CB - average output per worker.
Multiple Models:
An example of a multiple model is the indicator of the goods turnover period (in days). TOB.T:
where ZT - average stock goods; RR - one-day sales volume.
Mixed models are a combination of the models listed above and can be described using special expressions:
Examples of such models are cost indicators for 1 ruble. commercial products, profitability indicators, etc.
To study the relationship between indicators and to quantify the many factors that influenced the performance indicator, we will present the general rules for transforming models in order to include new factor indicators.
To refine a generalizing factor indicator into its components, which are of interest for analytical calculations, the method of extending the factor system is used.
If the original factor model
then the model will take the form
To select a certain number of new factors and construct the factor indicators necessary for calculating the factor indicators, the extension method is used factor models. In this case, the numerator and denominator are multiplied by the same number:
To build new factor indicators, the method of reducing factor models is used. When using this technique, the numerator and denominator are divided by the same number.
The detailing of factor analysis is largely determined by the number of factors whose influence can be quantitatively assessed, therefore, multifactorial multiplicative models are of great importance in the analysis. Their construction is based on the following principles: the place of each factor in the model should correspond to its role in the formation of the performance indicator; the model should be built from a two-factor complete model by sequentially dividing the factors, usually qualitative ones, into components; when writing a formula for a multifactorial model, the factors should be arranged from left to right in the order in which they are replaced.
Building a factor model is the first step in deterministic analysis. Next, determine the method of assessing the influence of factors.
The method of chain substitutions consists in determining a number of intermediate values of the generalizing indicator by successively replacing the basic values of the factors with the reporting ones. This method based on elimination. To eliminate means to eliminate, exclude the influence of all factors on the value of the effective indicator, except for one. At the same time, based on the fact that all factors change independently of each other, i.e. first, one factor changes, and all the others remain unchanged. then two change while the rest remain unchanged, and so on.
In general, the application of the chain setting method can be described as follows:
where a0, b0, c0 are the basic values of the factors influencing the generalizing indicator y;
a1, b1, c1 - actual values of factors;
ya, yb,- intermediate changes the resulting indicator associated with the change in factors a, b, respectively.
The total change Dу=у1–у0 is the sum of the changes in the resulting indicator due to the change in each factor with fixed values of the other factors:
Advantages of this method: versatility of application, simplicity of calculations.
The disadvantage of the method is that, depending on the chosen order of factor replacement, the results of factorial expansion have different values. This is due to the fact that as a result of applying this method, a certain indecomposable residue is formed, which is added to the magnitude of the influence of the last factor. In practice, the accuracy of the assessment of factors is neglected, highlighting the relative importance of the influence of one or another factor. However, there are certain rules that determine the sequence of substitution: if there are quantitative and qualitative indicators in the factor model, the change in quantitative factors is considered first; if the model is represented by several quantitative and qualitative indicators, the substitution sequence is determined by logical analysis.
Under the quantitative factors in the analysis understand those that express the quantitative certainty of phenomena and can be obtained by direct accounting (the number of workers, machines, raw materials, etc.).
Qualitative factors determine the internal qualities, features and characteristics of the phenomena being studied (labor productivity, product quality, average duration working day, etc.).
Way absolute differences is a modification of the chain substitution method. The change in the effective indicator due to each factor using the difference method is defined as the product of the deviation of the studied factor by the base or reporting value of another factor, depending on the selected substitution sequence:
The method of relative differences is used to measure the influence of factors on the growth of the effective indicator in multiplicative and mixed models of the form y \u003d (a - c). with. It is used in cases where the source data contain previously defined relative deviations of factor indicators in percent.
For multiplicative models of type y = a. in. with the analysis technique is as follows: find relative deviation each factor indicator:
determine the deviation of the resultant indicator y due to each factor
The integral method makes it possible to avoid the disadvantages inherent in the chain substitution method and does not require the use of methods for distributing the indecomposable remainder over factors, since it has a logarithmic law of redistribution of factor loads. The integral method allows you to achieve complete decomposition of the effective indicator by factors is universal character, i.e. applicable to multiplicative, multiple mixed models. The operation of calculating a definite integral is solved with the help of a PC and is reduced to the construction of integrands that depend on the type of function or model of the factorial system.
2. Ways of improvement
Economic theory is the methodological foundation of a whole range of sciences: sectoral (economics of trade, industry, transport, construction, etc.); functional (finance, credit, marketing, management, forecasting, etc.); intersectoral (economic geography, demography, statistics, etc.); etc.). Economic theory is one of social sciences, along with history, philosophy, law, etc. It is designed to reveal one part social phenomena in human life, the science of law - another, the science of morality - the third, etc., and only the totality of theoretical, social and historical sciences able to explain the operation public life. Economic theory takes into account the knowledge inherent in specific economic sciences, as well as sociology, psychology, history, etc., without taking into account which the conclusions drawn by it may turn out to be erroneous.
The relationship of economic theory with other economic sciences in the most general form can be represented in the form of the following scheme (Scheme 1).
Scheme 1
The practical significance of economic theory (the well-known formula of O. Comte) is that knowledge leads to foresight, and foresight leads to action. Economic theory should underlie economic policy, and through it - permeate the field of economic practice. Action (practice) leads to knowledge, knowledge leads to foresight, foresight leads to right action. Economics is not a set of rules about how to get rich. It does not provide ready-made answers to all questions. Theory is just a tool, a way of understanding economic reality. Possession of this tool, knowledge of the basics of economic theory can help everyone make the right choice in many life situations. Therefore, it is unnecessary to stop at the achieved knowledge, but constantly look for ways to improve this knowledge.
Conclusion
In this course work, we examined the basic concepts of methodology, identified four main approaches to methodology in economic theory. They gave a description of the main techniques and methods of economic analysis, considered the concept and methodology of factor analysis. We concluded that it is better to apply research methods in a complex way in order to clearly see the result.
Today, a person cannot consider himself attached to education and culture if he has not studied and understood the laws community development, did not master the knowledge of economic theory. After all, economic theory is not a set of rules on how to become rich. It does not provide ready-made answers to all questions. Theory is only a tool, a way of understanding economic reality. Possession of this tool, knowledge of the basics of economic theory can help everyone make the right choice in many life situations. Therefore, it is not necessary to stop at the achieved knowledge, but to constantly look for ways to improve this knowledge.
In conclusion, I would like to cite the words of J. Keynes that “the ideas of economists and political thinkers, both when they are right and when they are wrong, are much more important than is commonly thought. In reality, they alone rule the world.” From this follows the conclusion that the problems of the economic organization of society are serious things that require study and which cannot be taken lightly.
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To gain new knowledge, it is necessary to consciously apply scientifically based research methods. This is important condition development of all sciences, including economic theory.
The method of science (from Gr. methodos - "the path of research") is designed to provide the most profound disclosure of the essence of its subject.
Economic theory uses a wide range of techniques and methods for studying its subject, which determine the content of its method.
Method of economic theory - this is a set of techniques, means and principles by which the categories and laws, the functioning and development of economic systems, as well as the economic behavior of its subjects are studied.
The complexity and versatility of the economic system requires adequate methods of its knowledge. The fundamental principle of the methodology of economic theory is systems approach to the analysis. The economy represents a certain integrity, in which there is an interrelation of the elements, components that make up its composition. At the same time, integrity is determined not only by the composition of its inherent elements, but also various connections between them and with the system as a whole.
The systems approach in economic theory means the study of internal cause-and-effect, structural-functional, hierarchical, direct and feedback. It is their knowledge that makes it possible to understand complex processes development of the economic system, to find out the nature of many economic processes and phenomena.
Economic theory applies both general scientific and science-specific methods of cognition of economic phenomena and processes (Fig. 1.7).
Rice. 1.7. Basic Methods of Economic Theory
Dialectics is a method of cognition common to all sciences, including economic theory. It is based on the use of the laws and principles of philosophy, justified by the still outstanding German philosopher Georg Hegel, the essence of which is: in the knowledge of economic phenomena and processes in their interconnection and interdependence; in continuous development; in the understanding that the accumulation of quantitative changes leads to qualitative leaps; that the source of development is internal contradictions phenomena, unity and struggle of opposites.
A feature of theoretical and economic research is that in the study of economic processes it is impossible to use specific methods and technical means which are widely used, for example, in natural sciences(physics, chemistry, etc.). It uses scientific economic thinking in the form of a scientific abstraction.
scientific abstraction as a method consists in in-depth knowledge of real economic processes by highlighting the main, most significant inner sides a certain phenomenon, purified (abstracted) from everything external, secondary, random, insignificant. The result of applying the method of scientific abstraction is the understanding and formulation of economic concepts, categories and laws.
Analysis and synthesis how the research technique is applied in the unity of its two components. In the analysis, the object of study is speculatively or actually decomposed into its component parts, each of which is studied separately. During synthesis, the dismembered elements of an object are combined into a single whole, taking into account the relationships between them. Analysis contributes to the understanding of what is important in each element, and synthesis completes the disclosure of the essence of the object as an integral unity of all elements.
Induction- this is a method of cognition in which the researcher collects particular facts, draws generalizing conclusions on their basis and formulates theoretical positions. Deduction- a method of cognition in which the researcher goes from the general position to the particular, from theory to specific facts. The methods of induction and deduction provide a dialectical relationship between the singular and the general, the concrete and the abstract.
Methods of historical and logical knowledge are used by economic theory to study economic processes in unity. The historical method studies these processes in that historical sequence in which they arose, developed and changed in real life. However historical development is not always characterized by certain regularities. It can be influenced by random factors. The logical method explores economic processes in their logical sequence, moving from simple to complex, while freeing itself from historical accidents, zigzags and details that are not inherent in this process.
economic modeling- this is a formalized description and quantitative expression of economic processes and phenomena (with the help of mathematics and econometrics), the structure of which compactly recreates a complex real picture of economic life. Economic models (Fig. 1.8) provide an opportunity to visually and more deeply explore the main features and patterns of development of a real object of knowledge. In addition, the use of economic and mathematical models in combination with a computer makes it possible to choose the most optimal solution to any economic problem from a variety of options.
Method of graphic images makes it possible to visualize the relationship, the relationship between various economic indicators, their "behavior" under the influence of changes in the economic situation.
economic experiment- artificial reproduction of economic processes and phenomena in order to study them in an optimal way favorable conditions and further practical implementation. An economic experiment makes it possible in practice to test the validity of scientific theories and recommendations to prevent possible mistakes and failures in the economic policy of the state. The role of experiments on turning points development of the economy, during crises, the implementation of economic reforms, stabilization, etc.
For the knowledge of socio-economic processes, economic theory also uses such general scientific methods of cognition as a combination of quantitative and qualitative analysis, the method of comparisons, and the development of scientific hypotheses.
method of qualitative and quantitative analysis . It provides a clear understanding of the qualitative certainty of the economic phenomenon and the allocation of those components, elements that are subject to quantification and identifying factors that affect their connections in the system.
The combination of quantitative and qualitative analysis is carried out using mathematical and statistical methods. Its use creates a theoretical basis for determining specific practical tasks regarding the pace and proportions of economic development, the development of economic development programs, etc.
Comparison method. To determine the similarities and differences of economic phenomena, the method of comparisons is used. The need for comparison general scientific method due to the fact that nothing in economic life can be evaluated by itself. Any phenomenon is known in comparison.
In order to know the unknown, to evaluate it, a criterion is needed, which, as a rule, is already known, previously known. Methods of comparison are varied: comparison of features, properties, statistics, economic categories, the operation of economic laws under different conditions, etc.
Development of a scientific hypothesis. If the content of the economic phenomenon that is being studied is unknown, and there are not enough facts to clarify it, then the researcher is forced to confine himself to a theoretical assumption, that is, a scientific hypothesis. To scientific hypothesis turned into a full-fledged theory, additional evidence, practical confirmation is needed.
The use of a hypothesis is essential for the development of economic science. It helps to resolve the contradiction between new facts and outdated theoretical views. The hypothesis raises problems that contribute to the effective conduct of scientific research. It allows you to check everything likely paths research and choose among them the most correct and evidence-based.
The economic processes taking place in society are complex and intricate. It takes a long way to understand their tendencies. Methods economic research they are. They help to understand scientifically the truth of what is happening. The word "method" in Greek means "the path to truth." After passing it, you can reach the goal. With regard to the economy, the end result of the study is an understanding of the patterns in economic activity at the macro level. This will help capture the perspective that the operating principles of the system will lead to.
The essence of economic research methods
The economy in real life is very complex. On the scale of one state, there are many branches of management, which, in turn, consist of many enterprises of various sizes. All these subjects are interconnected by financial, organizational, technological dependencies. Changes in the parameters of the activities of one enterprise can affect many other related companies.
Each manufacturer has its own interests, and they are aimed at maximizing profits. In contrast to businesses, consumers seek the highest quality products at the lowest prices.
Consumer preferences are constantly changing. All this leads to fluctuations in the economy. In order not to get lost among the variety of factors that affect the reality in the field of management, various methods of economic research are used. There are many ways to get the necessary knowledge on a topic of interest. There are many paths to the goal, so you should consider them in more detail.
Research stages
Any field of science uses its own methods for collecting data. In biology and medicine, a microscope is used for these purposes, in astronomy - a telescope. The economy involves the use of very different ways.
The system of economic research assumes the following sequence of actions.
- Observation of the object of economic research.
- Processing of information received at the first stage. For this, many methods are used. These include synthesis, analysis, analogy, induction, deduction, modeling, abstraction, comparison and analogy.
- Conducting experiments.
- Construction of logical and mathematical models.
To conduct economic research, a certain number of methods are used. They may be general or applied to a single industry.
Dialectics and metaphysics
Economics uses methods such as metaphysics and dialectics to obtain information about the object of study. The difference between these systems lies in their point of view on economic reality. 
Metaphysics considers the factor outside the general system. At the moment of investigation, the phenomenon is at rest and does not change over time. It helps to know internal structure industries. A feature of metaphysics is the fact that the results of economic research are obtained on the basis of disparate phenomena.
Dialectics has a greater approximation to reality. The results obtained by summarizing all processes suggest such an economic study.
The basis of dialectics are contradictions that appear in their inseparable unity. The interaction of opposites drives processes forward like a motor. Dialectics makes it possible to avoid one-sided, flat judgments about reality. This contributes to the elimination of erroneous decisions to a greater extent.
In economics, the struggle of opposites (supply and demand, monopoly and competition, etc.) is one whole, and they must be considered in their inseparable interaction. In this case, the final result of the study is close to reality.
Data processing
After observing with the help of the considered approaches, we should consider more specific tools that allow us to analyze the economy.
Apply specific and general scientific methods.
Specific approaches to the study of economic relations are applicable to a particular industry. This is a more accurate analysis. In this case, general scientific approaches are adjusted to the conditions of the object of study.
Qualitative Methods
General scientific methods include historical, logical, mathematical, statistical approaches.
The historical method considers the origins of the origin of economic processes. This allows you to understand the state of the system in different periods time. The economy is not something historically unchanged. Historical approach does not reveal the typical features of the system.
The logical method helps to penetrate into causal relationships. Objective logic helps to understand the patterns of processes.
These two methods will allow you to evaluate the system from the standpoint of its qualities. But modern approaches also seek to identify the number of factors influencing the system.
Quantitative Methods
Quantitative methods for studying processes include economic, mathematical and statistical methods research. 
In an effort to generalize a certain number of phenomena and factors, modern economic science resorts to mathematical expressions of indicators. For a certain amount of time, the studied factors change their value. Statistics are used to evaluate these changes.
Mathematical techniques allow you to calculate quantitative changes in indicators that affect the result of the study. To do this, conducting basic economic research, the relevant indicators are grouped into single system. This allows us to draw a conclusion about the impact of each of them on the final result.
Economic-mathematical and statistical methods are an integral part of the study.
Research of economic ties
After collecting information, it is analyzed and processed. This helps to draw conclusions about reality and predict the course of events. 
The Institute for Economic Research uses all sorts of techniques to build a general picture of reality. In addition to the descriptive stage of the study, knowledge of the relationships between elements is used. To do this, use the method of scientific abstraction, deduction, induction, analogy.
Economic theories are generated by creating a model of reality. Bringing existing relationships to a single predictable principle of functioning is the main technique in achieving the goals of economic research.
By developing a pattern according to which the system operates, one can understand the state of the entire system. This is comparable to a blood test. Based on a small amount of biomaterial, a laboratory assistant can judge the state of the whole organism and predict its state in the future.
Method of scientific abstraction
The presented method makes it possible to create a model of economic reality by eliminating insignificant factors. 
The object of economic research in scientific abstraction is cleared of many private, short-term, single characteristics.
At the end of this process, only the most reliable are left for research. economic ties, only frequently occurring processes.
There are no clear boundaries of abstraction. No rules have been established as to the extent to which the object of study should be generalized. If we delve into cutting off the non-essential factors of the system, we can also dismiss the indicators that affect the result of the study. Therefore, the depth of abstraction is determined intuitively, based on experience and general knowledge processes.
Deduction and induction
Induction and deduction complement each other. The goals of economic research are achieved by formulating hypotheses. Induction involves the formation general principles and provisions based on private indicators. Scattered facts are reduced to theories and laws.
Deduction applies a different philosophy. Collecting data about general provisions, explains the state of a certain economic object. Deduction puts forward a hypothesis and tests it for correctness. If the real facts fit into the proposed assumption, it is considered successful. On this basis scientific theories are developed.
Basic economic research, limited in time, is carried out by the deductive method.
Models
In order to simplify the economic reality, abstract models are compiled for clarity.
Based on the topics of economic research, models can be presented in mathematical form, in the form of graphs or tables.
The Institute for Economic Research supplements the conclusions about the analysis of indicators with visual expressions of their relationships. The most popular of them is the schedule. Words become more convincing when they are complemented by a picture of the dynamics of factors that affect the result.
The table helps to compare the quantitative indicators of the model. With the help of formulas, the economic and mathematical dependencies of the system are expressed.
Limit analysis method
Dependence between the interacting elements of the system is sometimes estimated by the method of marginal analysis.
The limiting value in the presented approach acts as additional indicator. It could be additional income enterprises, additional costs, etc.
When making sales additional unit product increases and additional costs for its production. The essence of the method of limiting analysis is the comparison of such quantities.
Depending on the topic of economic research, factors are compared, increased to maximum value. If the ratio of marginal cost and marginal income is more profitable than the indicators existing in reality, it is advisable for the enterprise to increase the volume of production. If the marginal cost begins to exceed the marginal benefit, the increase in turnover is unprofitable.
Errors in the study
Modeling processes in the economy sometimes makes a number of mistakes. These are false claims stemming from logical paths search real picture object. 
Among the most common errors are the false construction of the proof, as well as the false drawing of conclusions. Such situations should be taken into account in the course of the study.
The erroneous modeling of evidence stems from the false assumption that "what is good for one is good for others." An illustrative example of such a situation can serve as an increase in wages at one enterprise. This led to an increase in the consumer ability of its employees. But it does not mean at all that with an increase in wages at all enterprises, people will be able to buy more goods. The latter will lead to higher prices and inflation. The purchasing power will remain the same.
The second mistake lies in the false construction of the effect, the cause. This happens when the third factor C is omitted or a random (non-systemic) change A from B. For example, an increase in car prices led to an increase in sales. This is contrary to the law of demand. The car example does not take into account the inflation index, which caused consumption to rise when the price increased.
Therefore, when building economic models, maximum attention should be paid to all factors.
Research results
Existing methods of economic research to a greater or lesser extent contribute to the knowledge of factors and their interaction in the system.
Having received the result in the course of a comprehensive analysis of indicators and having gone one way or another to a theoretical conclusion, it is tested in practice.
In order to avoid a large-scale error that will be difficult to correct, an experiment should be carried out.
It is not always possible to test the correctness of the theory in practice without causing consequences among market relations. However, finding true statement, can be achieved main goal economic research - forecasting and optimization of the process in the planning period.
Having become acquainted with the main approaches that are used to understand the economic reality, one can master the understanding of the relationships between the elements of the system. The problems of the economic organization of society do not tolerate frivolity and groundlessness in their solution. The methods of economic research used in the analysis will help to minimize the risk of erroneous decisions in the field of managing market processes. Mistakes made on the way of knowing the truth can be very costly at the level of macroeconomic relations.
INTRODUCTION 3
1. SUBJECT OF ECONOMIC SCIENCE. 4
2. RESEARCH METHODS OF ECONOMIC 7
PROCESSES.
3. INEQUALITY IN THE DISTRIBUTION OF INCOME 11
IN THE MARKET ECONOMY. LORENTZ CURVE.
GINI COEFFICIENT.
4. THE ROLE OF THE STATE IN REDISTRIBUTION 15
INCOME
CONCLUSION. 20
REFERENCES 21
INTRODUCTION
In the context of the formation and development of market relations in the world and the Russian Federation in particular, for the scientific justification of radical economic reforms, ensuring the viability of markets, the expediency of applying methods of regulating economic activity, economic science is of great importance - the field of scientific knowledge that studies the patterns that govern consumption and production .
Economics deals with the study of how people exist, develop, and what they think about in their daily lives.
The first reason for studying economics is that it deals with problems that concern us all without exception: what kinds of work should be done? How are they paid? How many goods can be bought for a ruble of wages now and during a period of galloping inflation? What is the probability that a time will come when a person will not be able to find a suitable job for himself only within an acceptable period?
The relevance of economic science lies in the fact that with the help of it we can identify not only the main trends in the economic development of society throughout history, but also, based on the knowledge and methods of economic science, we can create a model of the state of the economy. Based on these studies, we can also calculate the future state of affairs in a particular sector of the economy, predict possible risks, investments and profits.
Economic science makes it possible to assess the impact of the crisis on the activities of the subjects of research and the economic situation as a whole. To evaluate the effectiveness of government measures aimed at overcoming the crisis.
1. SUBJECT OF ECONOMIC SCIENCE
The task of any science is to analyze real processes, facts, identifying internal relationships, determining patterns and trends in changes in phenomena. Economics is no exception to this. The entire history of economic science shows that it was a constant search for a holistic system analysis of the economic life of society, the desire to describe, explain and anticipate development trends, to clarify the laws of economic life, to substantiate the methods of the most rational economic decisions.
Economics, like other social sciences, has a number of features in comparison with the natural sciences. Firstly, economics deals with the activities of people and, therefore, is a social, social science, in contrast to the natural sciences, which study phenomena and processes that are not mediated by the will and consciousness of people. Second, economic action, and therefore economics, is directly related to economic interests and ideology. This poses a challenge for economics to constantly refer to other social sciences and disciplines: sociology, political science, history, etc. Thirdly, due to the direct connection of economic science with the economic interests of people, economic science is interested not just in rational economic decisions, but in the need to implement these decisions, taking into account the socially equitable distribution of products and benefits, recognized by society.
The subject of economic theory is the economic relations of society.
Since economic relations represent an integral system in society, the subject of economic science has another definition.
Economics is the science of systems of economic relations in society.
Economic science, analyzing economic relations, must answer a number of fundamental questions:
1. What is the economic system, how does it work, what are its main structural elements, goals and forms of movement?
2. How does the economic system function, how is the interconnection of its elements in the process of functioning, and what impact does economic decision making have?
3. How does the system of economic relations interact with other spheres of society and, above all, with the social sphere and politics?
Economic science, based on the study of real economic processes, develops a basis for making effective decisions both in relation to the entire economy and in solving specific problems. Since the adoption of these decisions presupposes, first of all, a comprehensive study of the object, i.e. what it represents, the initial task of economic science is to determine the content and structure of the economic system. Only by understanding the system and its features, one can make rational economic decisions, make the right economic choice.
Due to the complexity of economic systems, economic science in modern conditions is represented by a combination of areas and schools. However, despite the existing various methodological approaches to the analysis of the economy, in modern conditions a rather harmonious structure of modern economic science has been formed.
Components of modern economic science and its immediate subject separate parts can be correctly defined in the context of two fundamental features.
1. Economic science develops together with society - economics and theoretical views on the economy evolve along with the development of real economic relations.
2. The complication of economic relations, the emergence of new models of economic systems inevitably gives rise to the differentiation of economic science and the emergence of new trends and schools.
According to the scope of the field of study, economic science is divided into microeconomics, which studies the activities of firms, households, separate industries and states, and macroeconomics, which studies the national economy as a whole. AT last years the scientific literature also uses the concepts of "nanoeconomics" (studies the activities of individual economic entities), mesoeconomics (industries, regions), intereconomics ( world economy) and megaeconomics (world economy).
2. METHODS OF RESEARCH OF ECONOMIC PROCESSES.
The method of any science is those tools, techniques with which the subject of this science is investigated.
Economic science studies the general patterns of behavior of people and the economic system as a whole in the process of production, exchange, distribution and consumption of goods in conditions of limited resources. Wherein main problem is the efficient distribution and use of limited resources in order to maximize the satisfaction of human needs.
The research method depends on the subject of science. It is clear that, unlike astronomy, one cannot use a telescope or spectral methods of research in economics. Moreover, economics is not a science where laboratory experiments can be carried out in order to find the truth. What method is used in economic theory? What tools can be used, for example, to determine the principles of the functioning of a market economy?
In economic theory, two groups of methods can be distinguished: general and particular. General Methods- these are general philosophical principles and approaches that can be applied in the analysis of the economy. Such general approaches are formed within the framework of the dialectical method. In principle, dialectics is the doctrine of the most general laws of the development of nature and society.
Studying economics and using the dialectical method, economists rely on the following dialectical principles:
Everything develops, so every economic phenomenon is considered in development, in constant motion.
The internal impulses of economic development are the contradictions of different levels within the economic system.
The development of economic phenomena and processes occurs according to the laws of dialectics. This is the law of the transition of quantity into quality, the law of the unity and struggle of opposites, the law of negation of negation. Studying economic phenomena and processes, it is necessary to know their causes, essence, internal connections between them.
Private methods of studying economics include analysis and synthesis, abstraction, assumption "ceteris paribus", induction and deduction, the unity of logical and historical, mathematical and statistical methods.
The analysis involves the division of the object of study into separate elements, into simpler economic phenomena and processes, the identification of the essential aspects of phenomena and processes. The selected elements are studied from different angles, the main and essential are singled out in them.
Synthesis means the combination of the studied elements and aspects of the subject into a single whole (into a system). Synthesis is opposed to analysis, with which it is inextricably linked. In the course of analysis and synthesis, dependencies between economic processes and phenomena, cause-and-effect relationships are established, patterns are revealed.
Abstraction is a distraction from the insignificant, highlighting the most important facts and relationships in the economy. Abstraction occurs in the process of analysis.
The assumption "other things being equal" (ceteris paribus) is used in the process of analysis and synthesis. It means that only the studied phenomena and relationships change, and all other phenomena and relationships are assumed to be unchanged.
Induction is the derivation of the general from particular facts, the movement from facts to theory, from the particular to the general, as philosophers say. The study begins with the observation of economic processes, with the accumulation of facts. Induction allows you to make generalizations based on facts.
Deduction means the preliminary formulation of some theory before it is confirmed or rejected on the basis of factual verification, and the application of the formulated propositions to observable facts and economic processes. The formulated scientific assumption or assumption is a hypothesis. In this case, the study proceeds from theory to facts, from the general to the particular.
The unity of the logical and the historical. (AT this case the logical is synonymous with the theoretical, the historical is synonymous with practice.) The principle of the unity of the logical and the historical is that the theoretical analysis of economic phenomena should reflect the real historical process of the emergence and development of these phenomena. The theory must correspond to history, practice, but not copy them, but reproduce them in essence and without random phenomena and facts.
Mathematical and statistical methods. With the development of mathematics and computer science, it became possible to represent many economic dependencies in the form of mathematical formulas and models. Statistical methods make it possible to use the accumulated arrays of economic data for analyzing and identifying trends and patterns in the development of the economy, for economic forecasting.
Mathematics, informatics and statistics make it possible to build economic models with a sufficient degree of accuracy. The model in a simplified abstract form represents the most important features of the studied individual economic processes or the economy as a whole. The model reflects the most essential features of economic processes. It should be noted that the model can be represented not only in mathematical form. Models are formulated in different ways: mathematical description using equations, inequalities, etc., graphic representation, description using a table, verbal formulation. In the future, we will have the opportunity to demonstrate this when analyzing the patterns of development of a market economy, in particular, the law of demand and the law of supply.
As a result of studying economics with the help of various methods economic laws are revealed.
An economic law is a stable, repetitive, objective, causal relationship and interdependence of economic phenomena and processes.
It should be noted that economic patterns are studied and formulated at different levels of economic analysis, at the microeconomic level, macroeconomic, at the level of the world economy.
