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The scientific concept of wasteless technology is new. But its practical use in agriculture was still in ancient times. Centuries-old experience has shown that the use of manure - animal waste for fertilizing fields, orchards and orchards is not only expedient, but also necessary. Utilized in the soil, manure maintains soil fertility.
The scientific concept of the purchase is still waiting for its developers.
The scientific concept of the development of the national economy, developed in the long term, is, in turn, the basis for the formation of five-year plans. The five-year plan provides for the solution of the most urgent socio-economic tasks of the development of the national economy, individual industries production and enterprises.
Most scientific concepts are born out of experiment or are related to experiment to some extent. Other areas scientific thinking- purely speculative. However, they can be useful and remain in force as long as we keep their statute in mind.
common feature Boyle's scientific concept is its inconsistent materialistic line. Lasswitz wrote about this: Boyle is an opponent of materialism; full of genuine piety, as well as strict church swarming, he strives for reconciliation (science with theology. And indeed Boyle opens the doors of theology wider than Descartes did.
According to existing scientific concepts, the nature of the explosion of explosive and explosive substances is the same, and the theoretical explanation of the phenomenon of the explosion of both substances is identical.
The monograph outlines the scientific concept, computing technologies and numerical simulation methods designed to solve the problems of improving the safety and efficiency of the operation of main pipeline systems using modern achievements computational mechanics and mathematical optimization. The material presented in the monograph allows the reader to study in detail the proposed fundamentals of numerical modeling of main pipelines.
As a rule, a new scientific concept is formed in accordance with the methodology of cognition, which shows it the path of scientific research.
There are several hundred scientific concepts that interpret this concept.
LABOR THEORY OF COST, a scientific concept that determines the substance and value of goods by the labor expended on their production.
This book discusses a unified scientific concept of the use of various physical methods for the intensification of processes chemical technology based on research known to the author, carried out in the Soviet Union and abroad.
At the same time, the value of their scientific concepts does not depend on political regime in the fatherland of the scientist.
So, within the framework of the scientific concept of the electronic image of the Earth, a new type of information retrieval based on MSM geodata can be proposed. The conceptual and architectural solutions of search services in this case may take into account the future implementation of searching for information about unnamed and uncataloged objects. environment, which will significantly expand the paradigm information retrieval for the electronic image of the Earth.
At the present stage, the dialectics of the development of scientific concepts from the particular to the general dictates the need to use universal, generalized mathematical and informational terms and concepts when manipulating mathematical objects. In empirical computational studies involving computers, almost every researcher in the same subject area introduces his own terminology, creating a false impression of the originality of the methodology. The generality of the schematically described technique is that it extends to different ranges and conditions of remote sensing. It is important that the scenario and the atmospheric channel be considered within the framework of the radiative transfer theory.
As we can see, the assessment of scientific concepts in terms of truth or error must be approached with strict observance of the requirement to correlate their content with a specific, or reflected, subject, its elements, connections, relations. If such a correspondence is present and is reproduced under fixed (and not any) conditions, then this means that we are dealing with reliable objectively true knowledge in its entirety or (as in the case of the atomistic concept of Democritus) with reliability, truth in the main its content.
In philosophy, the concept is called " certain way understanding, interpretation of any object, phenomenon, process, the main point of view on the object or phenomenon, the guiding idea for their systematic coverage. The concept of a concept is also used "to designate the leading idea, a constructive principle in scientific, artistic ... and other types of activity." In science, concepts are most often called theoretical knowledge, which does not have its own axiomatic basis, on the basis of which the main theoretical statements are built.
So, for example, we are talking about concepts phased / planned formation of mental actions and concepts of P. Ya. Galperin, since the cultural-historical theory of L. S. Vygotsky served as its axiomatic basis.
Concept- this is a specific system of reasoned views arising from worldview positions and learned principles, shaping one or another understanding of the reality under study and predetermining the strategy for studying it.
Specificity lies, firstly, in the fact that the concept, in contrast to the worldview, reflects views on individual "fragments" of reality, judgments are made about relatively limited areas of reality, its individual manifestations. Secondly, the specificity consists in a more or less clear speech (oral or written) formalization of positions and views. Finally, the judgments that make up the concept must be reasoned, that is, logically justified or provided with references to authorities (scientific theories, religious dogmas, authoritative personalities, traditions, common sense etc.).
Thus, the concept is, as it were, a squeeze out of a worldview, a clearly formulated system of principles in relation to a particular problem. In addition, the scientific concept reflects the main research idea - what and why is being studied, that is, the subject and goals of the study are reflected, as well as a possible range of research methods (methods). In other words, the concept reflects the scientific intent of the researcher. The scientific concept relies in its argumentation mainly on certain scientific theories.
3. Approach.
This term is sometimes used as a synonym for the concept, but the tradition of using these concepts is such that the approach is called rather a constructive principle in science or practice (cf. “Gestalt approach” by the founder of Gestalt therapy F. Perls), and the concept is a way of understanding or interpreting the problem area.
Scientific approach in a broad sense, it is the personification of certain conceptual positions and principles, and in a narrow sense, it is a procedural research strategy. This strategy is built depending on the already defined subject and objectives of the study. But the progress of the research process depends on it, including the choice of specific methods and techniques at the stages of collecting, processing and interpreting data about the object under study. Thus, with a broad interpretation, the scientific approach is understood primarily as a methodological approach. content research, ascending to philosophical attitudes, and with a narrow one - mainly as its methodological the form, specified in certain methods and procedures. The approach serves as a starting point in the identification of facts and patterns, and their explanatory principles. It is no coincidence that scientific approaches in the psychological literature are sometimes presented as principles. Nevertheless, it seems that principles are initial concepts, basic for scientific approach. So, personal approach includes the principle of integrity (personality as a whole), the principle of determinism (personality as a reflection of social relations), the principle of complementarity (the description of personality as a synthesis of mental phenomena and person's incarnations) and other principles.
Within the framework of a particular concept, different approaches can be applied, which is predetermined by the variability of tasks within a single concept. If only these approaches do not contradict the basic principles that make up this concept. So, for a number of psychological directions of the past, united by the concept of "psychology of consciousness", genetic, structural, functional, and even, apparently, systemic approaches are acceptable. But personal and activity approaches are unacceptable. The behavioristic concept corresponds to an objectivist approach, it is possible to use functional and, in a simplified form, activity approaches. But it is difficult to implement the genetic approach, and the subjectivist and personal approaches are completely unacceptable.
The complexity of the relationship between the scientific approach and other categories considered, primarily principles and concepts, is manifested in the fact that sometimes the same approach can be applied in studies based on completely different worldview platforms that focus on incompatible concepts. This paradox is connected, apparently, with the fact that both the concept and the approach include certain sets of principles. And when some of the principles coincide, then the rest can be neglected. In this case, it is not the ideological component of the approach that comes to the fore, but the methodological and procedural one. By the way, this predetermines the possibility of the so-called adaptation of methods. An example of such a situation is the personal approach, which was developed in Soviet psychology, which stands on Marxist worldview positions, but is quite capable of solving the problems of Western humanistic psychology, which is very far from Marxism. The subjectivist approach of the "humanists" did not match the objectivist approach of Soviet scientists. But the recognition by both of them of the personality as the highest integrator of mental phenomena, the self-worth of the personality opens up the possibility of using personal approach in both cases. By the way, such examples allow us to be optimistic about the prospects for integrating Russian psychology, which has been developing in isolation for a long time, with world science.
Science develops in the course of human history. The question is "why" and "how" it develops.
According to the concept internalism the development of science is determined by internal scientific factors (accumulation of knowledge, curiosity of scientists, geniuses, etc.).
According to the concept externalism the development of science is determined by external, socio-economic factors.
According to the concept cumulative (lat. cumulatio- accumulation), the development of science goes through a gradual, continuous accumulation of new knowledge.
According to the concept non-cumulative, the development of science is spasmodic, catastrophic, because scientific revolutions take place here.
Scientific revolutions – special kind fundamental innovations are associated with the restructuring of fundamental scientific concepts. To the point scientific revolution include: the creation of new research methods, new theoretical concepts and new research programs.
Modern theories scientific revolutions were developed by I. Lakatos and T. Kuhn. The latter brought the concept of scientific revolutions as a change paradigms- scientific theories that serve as a model of scientific research at a certain stage in the development of science. I. Lakatos considered the concept of scientific revolutions as changes in research programs.
P. Feyerabend put forward an anarchist principle proliferation of ideas- "reproduction of theories", where the condition for the development of science is the desire for the maximum variety of mutually exclusive hypotheses and theories.
5. THE PROBLEM OF CONSCIOUSNESS
Consciousness is a manifestation of the human spirit; the inherent ability of a person to purposefully and generally reproduce reality in perfect shape; the highest form of reflection of objective reality peculiar only to man in the course of social practice. Human consciousness is characterized by active creative activity. The subject of consciousness can be a human individual, a collective, society as a whole. The carrier, form and mode of existence of consciousness is language.
There are several interpretations of consciousness:
· idealism– consciousness is a realm of ideas, feelings, will, independent of material existence, capable of creating and constructing reality (Plato, Fichte, Schelling, Hegel, etc.);
· vulgar materialism- consciousness has a material nature; thought is a product of the activity of the brain, i.e. the brain secretes the thought, “like the liver secretes bile” (Buchner, Focht, Moleschott, etc.);
· dialectical materialism– consciousness is a property of highly organized matter, the essence of consciousness is ideal;
· Consciousness is the highest form of reflection of the world, i.е. the source of its content is the objective world;
Consciousness is a product of the evolution of nature, man and society;
· Necessary factors in the formation of human consciousness are labor, society and speech (Marx, Engels, Lenin).
According to the doctrine of dialectical materialism, the basis of consciousness is reflection - a universal property of matter, which consists in the reproduction in the course of interaction by one phenomenon of the features of another object. There are three levels of reflection: inanimate nature(physico-chemical interactions), at the biological level (irritability, sensitivity, perception, representations, reflexes) and social reflection (consciousness).
Consciousness is the highest stage of development psyche – special property highly organized matter (living organisms), which consists in the active and selective reflection of reality in the form of ideal images. The psyche of animals is determined by biological laws; the human psyche is social in nature and is aimed at transforming the world.
AT structure of consciousness includes: knowledge, attention, memory, imagination, emotions, will and other phenomena.
Knowledge- the result of the process of cognition, a reflection of reality in the form of sensual and rational images.
Emotions include feelings (pleasure, joy, grief, etc.), moods (emotional well-being), passions and affects.
Feelings- experiences by a person of his attitude to the surrounding reality, to other people, to any phenomena; may be short-term or long-term. A special group is the highest feelings (senses of duty, honor, love, friendship, patriotism, aesthetic feelings, etc.).
Mood - prolonged emotional condition(joyful, depressed, etc.), which gives a certain emotional tone, coloring to all other experiences, as well as thoughts and actions of a person.
Passion - a strong and deep feeling that captures a person for a long time.
Affect(emotion) – strong and violent emotional experience – rage, horror, numbness, crying, screaming, etc.
Memory - consolidation, preservation and subsequent reproduction by the individual of his previous experience.
Imagination - the ability to create new sensory or mental images in human mind based on the impressions received
Will - the creative aspiration of a person to perform certain actions; overcoming external and internal difficulties on the way to achieving desired action and the set goal; power over oneself, over one's feelings, actions.
intention(lat. intention- aspiration) - the orientation of consciousness, thinking on any subject (scholasticism, Brentano, Husserl, neo-Thomism).
Unconscious- mental processes and phenomena uncontrolled by human consciousness. Consciousness and the unconscious are interconnected, are two relatively independent sides of the human psyche, interact with each other and are able to achieve unity.
self-awareness- this is a person's awareness and assessment of his activities, thoughts, feelings, interests, needs; a holistic assessment of oneself and one's place in life.
plays an important role in the formation of self-awareness introspection observation by a person of his inner conscious mental life.
A developed form of self-consciousness is reflection – implementation by the subject of analysis own activities and manifestations of consciousness.
Ideal- a subjective image of objective reality that arises in the process of purposeful human activity, expressed in the forms of human consciousness and will (knowledge, moral and moral standards, reasoning, etc.). In German classical philosophy, the concept of the ideal was associated with the activity and creative activity of the subject (Fichte, Kant, Hegel). Two concepts have developed in Russian Marxist philosophy:
1) socio-historical (E.V. Ilyenkov, P.V. Kopnin, etc.) - the ideal is the ability of a person in his subject-practical activity spiritually, in thoughts, goals, will, needs to reproduce a thing;
2) naturalistic-biological (D.I. Dubrovsky, I.S. Narsky) - the ideal is associated with material brain processes; it cannot be taken outside human brain and subject.
6. HUMAN COGNITIVE ABILITIES
Cognition- the process of comprehension by consciousness of the diverse aspects and connections of being; reflection in the human mind of the properties of objects of reality. In the process of cognition, ideal models of reality are formed in the mind. Cognition is such an interaction of an object and a subject, the result of which is new knowledge about the world. Cognition as a process of interaction between subject and object is first considered in German classical philosophy. Modern philosophy is characterized by the desire to overcome the opposition of the subject and the object of knowledge.
On the question of the cognizability of the world, positions of epistemological optimism, skepticism and agnosticism are distinguished.
Representatives epistemological optimism they believe in the power of the mind and argue that a person is able to receive reliable knowledge, the truth (as a rule, these are materialists and objective idealists).
Supporters skepticism express doubts about the possibility of reliable knowledge of objective reality; believe that the world is only partially cognizable, any truth is subjective (relative) in nature, there is no reliable criterion of truth (Pyrrho, Agrippa, Sextus-empiricist).
Representatives agnosticism deny the possibility of knowing the world; argue that it is impossible to unambiguously prove the correspondence of knowledge to reality (J. Berkeley, D. Hume, I. Kant, and others). The objective premise of agnosticism is real difficulties, problems in knowing the truth.
The structure of knowledge includes the subject of knowledge, the object of knowledge, knowledge, language, types of knowledge.
Subject of knowledge- a source of goal-setting activity in cognition; individual and collective carrier of subject-practical cognitive activity and assessment.
Object of knowledge- a part of reality (material and spiritual), to which the cognitive and transforming activity of the subject is directed.
Knowledge- the result of cognition, which appears as a set of reliable information about the object, which the society or the individual has.
Language- a universal means of communication between people; a system of signs that exists for receiving, storing, processing and transmitting information. In animals, language is a motor and sound form of signaling; in humans, language arose along with consciousness and denotes things, properties and relationships, acts as the basis for conscious and purposeful behavior.
There are three types of knowledge:
1. Sensory knowledge(or living contemplation) is a process of cognition carried out through the sense organs (sight, hearing, touch, etc.), through which information about the world around can penetrate into consciousness.
Forms of sensory cognition:
· sensation- display of a separate property of a material object that directly interacts with the senses;
· perception- a holistic image of the object (synthesis of sensations), directly given in living contemplation;
· performance- an indirectly sensory image of an object that acted on the senses in the past, but is not perceived at the moment; performance is associated with memory and creative imagination.
2. Rational knowledge- the process of abstract-logical thinking, rational and rational knowledge of the world.
concept- the original form of rational knowledge; unit (form) of thought, fixing general and significant properties of objects and phenomena that are fixed in their definitions (definitions). In the language, concepts are expressed by words and phrases, which are called the name of the concept.
Judgment- a form of thinking that reflects the presence or absence of certain features of things, phenomena, processes of reality, their properties, connections and relationships. The judgment is usually expressed narrative sentence and can be either true or false.
inference- a form of thinking through which new knowledge (usually in the form of a judgment) is derived from previously established knowledge (usually from one or more judgments).
Thinking– operating with concrete-sensory-
nymi and conceptual images; active process generalized and indirect reflection of reality, which ensures the disclosure of its regular connections based on sensory data and their expression in a system of abstractions (concepts, categories, etc.). Thinking is due to both the biological nature of a person (brain) and the social component (communication, speech, labor ). Thinking primitive man(according to L. Levy-Bruhl) was basically “pralogical” (since it did not seek to avoid contradictions) and mystical (collective belief in the existence of mysterious spirits and forces). The thinking of modern man is abstract-logical (strives to avoid contradictions) and naturalistic (search for causes in the laws of nature) character.
Abstract thinking - the ability to operate with concepts, judgments, conclusions.
Reason– baseline thinking, in which the operation of abstractions takes place within the limits of an unchanging scheme, template, rigid standard (formal logic).
Intelligence- the highest level of rational cognition, which is characterized by creative operation with abstractions and a conscious study of their own nature (self-reflection); the task of the mind is the unification of the manifold up to the synthesis of opposites (dialectical thinking).
3. Non-rational cognition- the process of obtaining knowledge based on the emotional and volitional abilities of a person, his subjective experiences (phenomena of faith, belief, intuition, creativity, understanding, etc.).
Experience- an emotionally colored state experienced by the subject and a phenomenon of reality, directly represented in his mind and acting for him as an event of his own life.
Faith- assessment or recognition of information as true in the face of a lack or absence of sufficient logical and factual justifications, evidence. Faith like special condition consciousness manifests itself in an uncritical attitude to this or that knowledge; associated with the value attitude to the subject of belief. The ineradicable presence of faith in life and knowledge is defended by representatives of pragmatism (J. Dewey, C. Pierce, and others).
Belief- knowledge combined with faith in it; expression inner confidence in their views, knowledge and assessments of reality.
Opinion- subjective position; a look, a person's point of view on something.
Intuition- the procedure for comprehending the truth without substantiation with the help of evidence; the ability of a person to solve problems without realizing the ways and conditions of the solution. Intuition belongs to the realm of the unconscious. Irrationalists consider intuition to be the highest cognitive procedure.
Understanding- a cognitive procedure for comprehending the meaning and meaning of an object on the basis of its experience, placing it in one's mind. The philosophical doctrine of understanding is called hermeneutics.
Creation- independent-search activity to create a qualitatively new, original, previously non-existent. result creative activity are inventions with novelty and originality.
7. THE PROBLEM OF TRUTH
True- the central category of the theory of knowledge (epistemology), the goal of knowledge; ideal reproduction in the cognition of reality, since it exists outside and independently of the cognizing subject. The question of truth is the question of the relation of knowledge to objective reality.
There are several interpretations of truth:
truth as a property of ideal objects of being ( objective idealism);
truth as the correspondence of thinking to the sensory experience of the subject ( empiricism, sensationalism);
truth as agreement of thinking with itself ( rationalism);
Truth as a process of development of knowledge ( dialectics).
The main concepts of truth are distinguished:
1) classical (correspondent) concept- truth is the correspondence of knowledge to objective reality, a true, adequate reflection of objective reality; for the first time, the definition of truth as a judgment corresponding to reality was given by Aristotle - this is the most common concept of truth: both materialists and idealists adhere to it, and agnostics do not reject it; differences within are on questions about the nature of reality and the mechanisms of conformity;
2) relativistic concept(lat. relativus- relative) - the truth is mobile and changes under the influence of various factors (time, place, point of view, value system, etc.), therefore, objective truth, i.e. knowledge that is true regardless of anything does not exist;
3) pragmatic concept- truth is such knowledge that is useful, beneficial, i.e. allow you to achieve success in a particular situation, achieve your goal; truth is what works best for us
(W. James, D. Dewey, C. Pierce);
4) conventional concept(lat. convention- contract, agreement) - truth is what is recognized as such by the majority, i.e. is a product of an agreement (for example, the truth of mathematical axioms, physical postulates, scientific theories is an agreement of scientists to choose the most appropriate and convenient to use);
5) coherent (logical-epistemological) concept(lat. cohaerentio- internal connection, linkage) - truth self-consistency, connectedness of knowledge, i.e. true knowledge is those that are consistent with each other in a certain consistent system of knowledge (K. Popper, R. Carnap).
objective truth- knowledge of the object in terms of its essential properties, relationships and development trends. This is a process in which two moments of knowledge are presented in unity - absolute (stable, unchanging in knowledge) and relative (changeable, transient; true in one respect, but false in another).
absolute truth- this is a complete, exhaustive knowledge about the objects and processes of reality (epistemological ideal); knowledge that cannot be refuted in the process of further knowledge.
Relative truth- this is incomplete, conditional, approximate, incomplete, limited knowledge about the object; knowledge dependent on the conditions, place and time of its receipt; true in one respect and false in another.
On the issue of correlation between the moments of absoluteness and relativity in knowledge, positions of dogmatism and relativism are distinguished.
Dogmatism- a way of thinking that exaggerates the importance of absolute truth (truth is knowledge that is always true, under any circumstances), turning any provisions into ossified, unchanging facts.
Relativism(lat. relativus- relative) - a way of thinking that exaggerates the significance of relative truth, based on the idea of conditionality and subjectivity of the content of knowledge, which leads to a denial of the objectivity of knowledge (to skepticism and agnosticism).
Truth Criteria:
· clarity;
Self-evidence, distinctness of knowledge, logical constructions ( rationalism);
confirmation in experience ( empiricism) or feelings ( sensationalism);
general validity ( conventionalism);
utility, efficiency pragmatism);
· practice ( dialectical materialism).
Practice- the criterion of truth in dialectical materialism; socio-historical expedient activity aimed at transforming the surrounding reality.
Practice Forms:
social production;
· scientific and experimental activity;
social and political activity;
Game practice
communication practice, etc.
The meaning of truth is different from delusions, lies and errors.
Delusion- unintentional distortion by the subject of knowledge about reality; a distorted reflection of reality, i.e. knowledge that does not correspond to its subject, does not coincide with it. Misconceptions can help create problem situations and thereby lead to the truth.
Hegel considered the problem of true and false. They refer to those definite thoughts which are invariably considered independent ( eigene) entities, of which one stands isolated and firmly on one side, and the other on the other, having nothing in common with each other. Contrary to this, it should be pointed out that truth is not a minted coin that can be given ready-made ( gegeben werden) and in the same form is hidden in a pocket. Not given ( gibt es) is neither false nor evil. True, the evil and the false are not as bad as the devil, for to regard them as the devil is to turn them into a special subject; as false and evil, they only universal, although they have their own essentiality in relation to each other. it would be false "other", would "negative" substance, which, as the content of knowledge, is true. But substance itself is essentially negative, on the one hand, as the difference and determination of content, on the other, as simple distinction, i.e. as self and knowledge in general. It is possible to have false knowledge. False knowledge about something means the inequality of knowledge with its substance, but it is precisely this inequality that is the difference, which is the essential moment. From this difference arises their equality, which is the truth. But it is truth, not as though inequality were cast aside, as the slag of pure metal is cast aside, but as a negative, as a self that is in the true as such. However, on this basis it cannot be said that the false forms some moment or some constituent part of the true. In the expression "in every lie there is some truth," both are like oil and water, which, without mixing, are only externally connected. Precisely because it is important to mark the moment perfect otherness, their expressions should no longer be used where their otherness has been removed. Just like the expressions unity subject and object, finite and infinite, being and thinking, etc., are incoherent because the object and subject, etc. mean what they represent yourself outside of your unity, and, consequently, in unity, they do not mean what is said in their expression, just as the false constitutes the moment of truth no longer as false.
Lie- deliberate, conscious distortion by the subject of knowledge about reality; socially, the transmission of disinformation.
Mistake- the result of the wrong actions of a person in any area of \u200b\u200bhis activity: errors in calculations, in politics, in business, etc.
8. MAN AND CULTURE
culture(lat. culture- cultivation, tillage) - part of the human environment, created by the people themselves; the form of people's activity in the reproduction and renewal of social life; a set of suprabiological programs of human life, ensuring the reproduction and change social life, as well as its products and results included in this activity (artifacts, "second nature").
Culture becomes the subject of study in the Enlightenment, when culture and civilization are opposed (J.-J. Rousseau).
The culture of each nation is unique and unrepeatable; related to this is the value of different cultures. Modern stage in the development of culture (XX-XXI centuries) is characterized by the development of global communication technologies which leads to a postmodern understanding of culture.
E. Cassirer believed that culture is the sphere of symbolic forms (language, myth, religion, art, etc.).
J. Huizinga considered the game to be the principle of the formation of human culture. Z. Freud substantiated the repressive nature of culture in relation to human nature.
Culture Functions:
· creative(creativity artifacts);
· educational, informational(carrier social information);
· axiological(produces and transmits values);
· communicative(transfers experience to generations);
· integrative(brings people together)
· adaptive(provides a person's adaptation to the world);
· regulating.
Cultural universalism- a concept based on the idea of creating a world culture based on universal, universal values (J.-J. Rousseau, I. Kant, I. Goethe, V.S. Solovyov, etc.).
Cultural relativism- a concept that emphasizes the originality and uniqueness of different cultures and critically assesses the possibility of creating a world culture (M. Montaigne, I. Herder, K. Levi-Strauss, O. Spengler, A. Toynbee, N.Ya. Danilevsky, L. Gumilyov and etc.).
O. Spengler interpreted culture as an “organism with a soul”, which is isolated from other “organisms”, singled out the stages of early mytho-symbolic, metaphysical-religious and late stage passing into civilization. According to A. Toynbee, reality poses the tasks of self-fulfillment (“challenge”) for cultures, to which the correct “answer” must be given.
Logic and philosophy
Conceptualization as a way of creating concepts. Features of the concept in various disciplines. Features of religious concepts. The main features of theology. Causes of the dogmatism of religious concepts. Ways to protect religious concepts from destruction. Features of scientific concepts. Science concept concept. The role of concepts in the development of science
Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation
Novosibirsk State Technical University
abstract
in the discipline "Philosophy"
on the topic:
"The role of the concept
in the development of human knowledge"
Faculty: AVTF
Group: AM-711
Student: Malakhov S.A.
2008
Table of contents
|
1. Concept concept 2. Conceptualization as a way to create concepts 3. Features of the concept in various disciplines 3.1. Features of religious concepts 3.1.1. The main features of theology 3.1.2. Reasons for the dogmatism of religious concepts 3.1.3. Ways to protect religious concepts from destruction 4. Features of scientific concepts 4.1. Science concept concept 4.2. The role of concepts in the development of science 4.3. The struggle of scientific concepts in the development of science 4.4. Interaction of scientific concepts 5. Features of philosophical concepts Conclusion |
Introduction
In modern scientific literature, the concept of concept has become very popular. New concepts appear in almost all areas of human knowledge - an example can be modern concepts economics, pedagogy, psychology.
However, in order to better understand the limits of applicability of concepts in different areas, you need to delve deeper into the very concept of the concept. The study of the features of the concept in various disciplines, such as science, religion, philosophy, allows us to more accurately determine its role and place in the structure of human knowledge.
This essay is devoted to the role of concepts in the development of knowledge about nature and society.
1. Concept concept
Considering the role of the concept, first of all, it is necessary to dwell on the very concept of the term "concept".
"Newest philosophical dictionary» ed. A.A. Gritsanova gives the following definition of the concept:
“CONCEPT (lat. conceptio - understanding, single concept, leading thought) - a system of views that expresses a certain way of seeing (“point of view”), understanding, interpreting any objects, phenomena, processes and presenting a leading idea and (and) a constructive principle that implements a certain idea in a particular theoretical knowledge practice. The concept is the basic way of designing, organizing and deploying disciplinary knowledge, uniting in this respect science, theology and philosophy as the main disciplines that have developed in the European cultural tradition.
The conceptual aspect of theoretical knowledge primarily expresses the paradigm "section" of the latter, sets its topic and rhetoric, i.e. determines the relevant areas of application and ways of expressing systems of concepts (basic concepts) constituted on the basis of the deployment of the "generating" idea. The concept proceeds from the attitudes towards fixing the limiting values for any area (“fragment” of reality) and the implementation of the widest possible “worldview” (on the basis of “reference” to the value basis of cognition).
It has, as a rule, a pronounced personal beginning, marked by the figure of the founder (or founders, who are not necessarily real historical personalities, since they can be mythical characters and cultural heroes, the transcendent divine principle, etc.), the only one who knows (knows) the original idea.
The concept introduces into disciplinary discourses ontological, epistemological, methodological and (especially) epistemological assumptions (the method of disciplinary vision and the horizons of cognition available within it) that are not necessarily explicated in them, without which the subsequent more detailed study (“unwinding”) of the presented idea is impossible. In addition, it “ontologizes” and “masks” within the original (basic) theoretical structure the components of personal knowledge, non-rationalized, but necessary representations within it, “joining” different in language design and genesis (origin) of the component, introducing a number of disciplinary metaphors for this purpose.
Thus, concepts first of all introduce into the theoretical discourses of disciplines their initial principles and premises (“absolute premises”, according to Collingwood), which determine the basic concepts-concepts and reasoning schemes, forming “ fundamental questions” (“ideas”), in relation to which special statements built within these discourses receive their meaning and justification. Collingwood believed that a change in conceptual foundations is the most radical of all that a person can experience, since it leads to the rejection of previously justified beliefs and standards of thinking and action, to a change in the initial concepts, concepts that provide a holistic perception of the world" [].
2. Conceptualization as a way to create concepts
To understand the role of the concept, it is necessary to refer to the closely related concept of conceptualization:
“CONCEPTUALIZATION is the procedure for introducing ontological representations into the accumulated array of empirical data; the primary theoretical form that provides the theoretical organization of the material; a connection diagram of concepts that reflects possible trends in the change of the referential field of objects, allowing to produce hypotheses about their nature and the nature of relationships; a way of organizing mental work that allows you to move from the material and primary theoretical concepts to more and more abstract constructs that reflect, to the limit, the assumptions underlying the construction of a picture of the vision of the studied segment of reality.
In the first three cases, we can talk about the primary conceptual explanation, which introduces into the work with the available data an interpretive (recognizing) factor that is absent in simple primary empirical generalizations, fixed in a specially invented concept - a concept (such as: "cohesion", "frustration", " conflict", etc.), which unfolds a possible (earlier developed regarding the concept) explanatory strategy.
AT last case we are talking on the development of a conceptual scheme (models, sign system) the area under study, reflecting only its most significant aspects (the minimum necessary set of initial concepts-constructs that allows you to set a picture of scientific reality). In this respect, it is comparable to an interpretative scheme that provides movement from a conceptual scheme to an empirical basis (the introduction of a factor of primary conceptual explanation), and the reverse movement from the level of data to their conceptualization in a certain model.
Conceptualization as a movement towards the abstract correlates with operationalization as a movement towards the concrete. Conceptualization makes it possible to: move towards an ever more comprehensive factor to be explained ("weakened" and "scientized" version of its understanding); inscribe one knowledge into another, more general, and ultimately into culture. The conceptual scheme sets the theoretical understanding of the integrity of the object, supports the systemic ideas about it in research procedures, and keeps the semantic unity within the scientific research community.
The problematization and (and) discrediting of the existing system of ideas occurs not only under the influence of new data that contradict them (which leads rather to refinement of the conceptual scheme), but mainly through the destruction of the objects defined by the conceptual scheme (and, consequently, itself). In conceptual assumptions, ambiguities, assumptions and contradictions are revealed, requiring the construction of a new subject and a new conceptual scheme ontologizing it (in this sense, finding the subject of study and research is the vision of the object in the light of conceptual premises arising from accumulated knowledge, or discovered ignorance).
The purpose of conceptualization is to designate the universe of currently possible ways of working at the theoretical level (including ensuring the internal coherence of the concepts and constructs used), to offer "optics", i.e. vision of the subject fields of work in the research mode, as well as to set an idea of the level organization of knowledge. The conceptual scheme itself, as a rule, has a multilevel character, inside it there is a complex network of interrelations of concepts that are not necessarily directly related to each other.
Thus, the conceptual scheme can be defined as certain set hypotheses and proposals (assumptions) about the nature of the objects under study, based on the available theoretical findings and conclusions, grasping the trends and dependencies (laws) between the individual components of the study area and corresponding to the existing system of concepts and allowing (through the interpretation scheme) to reach the level of empirical work with given objects (establishment of external connections of concepts). Most standard theoretical problems is formed and somehow resolved mainly at the level of conceptual schemes (with the connection of interpretation schemes), which serve as a universal means of theoretical description (exposition).
Within the structure of scientific theory, the conceptual scheme is reformulated as a fundamental (or particular) theoretical scheme. A good theoretical (conceptual as a whole) scheme should have a minimum of initial concepts and statements and produce as many consequences from itself as possible. In principle, the scientific picture of the world can also be interpreted as an extremely broad conceptual scheme” (V.L. Abushenko) [http://slovari.yandex.ru/dict/sociology/article/soc/soc-0518.htm?].
3. Features of the concept in various disciplines
The article of the "Newest Philosophical Dictionary" devoted to the term "concept" highlights the specificity of concepts in various disciplines of the European cultural tradition: "Concepts, being a form of expression of discipline, are specified in different ways in philosophy, theology and science."
To determine the essence of the concept, its place and role in the structure of human knowledge, it is necessary to dwell in more detail on the features of the concept in various disciplines.
3.1. Features of religious concepts
The disciplinary conceptuality of philosophy is fundamentally open into hyperspace. In this regard, theology fundamentally "closes" its horizons through the mechanisms of dogmatization, respectively, its dogmas. “The term “concept” itself is replaced here, as a rule, by the term “doctrine” close to it (lat. docere - to teach, doctrina - teaching, for example, the doctrine of the fall). Being content-relevant to the concept, the doctrine in a semantic sense focuses on the "immutability", "finiteness" of the grounds-premises that are not subject to relativization (which periodically occurs in philosophical concepts)" [http://slovari.yandex.ru/dict/phil_dict/article/filo/filo-362.htm?].
3.1.1. Key Features theology
The “immutability” of the “essential side of theology” is also emphasized by the author of the article “Epistemological paradigms of theology and science: is a synthesis possible?” :
“Unlike science, theology relies not on practical efficiency or experience available to everyone for repetition, but on a revelation given to humanity once, or the Good News, if we talk about Christianity. Truth revealed itself at a certain historical moment, and the task of theology is to preserve and better understand it, to apply it to new times and realities. Theology has a rigid foundation, without which it ceases to exist. As G. Küng writes (Küng G. Where does it go Christianity? // Way. International Philosophical Journal. 1992, No. 2, p.144-160), the change of paradigms as “the sum of beliefs, values, methods shared by members of a certain community” (T. Kuhn) does not mean a change in the permanent core of the Christian faith, or “eternal truth”: “The Word of God was, is and will be…”, “Jesus is the Christ”, “Jesus is God's Messiah and God's Son”, “God carries, guides and preserves man”. Küng, however, emphasizes that "truth is always available to us only in a historically conditioned form: unchanging, eternal truth is always transmitted in new paradigms, in new constellations of beliefs, values, methods, etc." G. Küng lists the following prominent Christian theologians who created new paradigms: the Apostle Paul, Blessed Augustine, Luther, Schleermacher and Barth16. Despite the radical change in the Christian worldview, which sometimes led to church schisms, the paradigms of all these theologians kept the main core of Christianity intact. Theological paradigms are thus limited in their variability by the rigid core of faith and cannot go beyond the limits of the Revelation given in the past. The change of paradigms is possible only as a rethinking of this Revelation. And since in theology, as noted above, there is no single way to reveal the truth on a controversial issue, then when a new paradigm arises, for example, Protestantism, the conflict between it and the old paradigm is insoluble and most often leads to splits.
"a. it is aimed at the knowledge of supersensible entities that are inaccessible to direct study;
b. it is dogmatic: it has a rigid core that does not change during paradigm shifts;
c. there are no effective methods for finding out the truth by contentious issues, so paradigm shifts tend to lead to splits;
d. theology is not monolithic, each religion and denomination has its own epistemological program.
3.1.2. Reasons for the dogmatism of religious concepts
An interesting look at the reasons for the rigid dogmatism of religious concepts and teachings is expressed by the author of the article “ The immune system"religious-mystical concept" [].
The religious-mystical concept in the article means “any ontological and / or anthropological concept of a religious, spiritual or mystical nature, which claims to be a more or less holistic teaching about a person, about the world and the higher forces existing in it.
Numerous religious and mystical concepts that exist and are currently emerging, from a psychological point of view, perform two main functions: cognitive and existential.
A person needs a holistic view of the world and himself. His knowledge must be ordered and consistent. Only in this case a person feels comfortable and psychologically safe: he seems to know what to expect from the world.
Otherwise, the world will be perceived by a person as a frightening mess with its uncertainty and unpredictability.
And the religious-mystical concept builds for a person a picture of an understandable and orderly world.
3.1.3. Ways to protect religious concepts from destruction
However, no concept, no matter how perfect and thoughtful it may be, can adequately reflect our diverse world. And since no scheme can exhaustively describe our world, there will always be facts that will contradict this scheme. There will always be some residual that does not fit within the concept's heuristic range. This residue, by its very presence, damages the concept, because it makes one doubt its truth. Therefore, any theory must have a certain buffer, a protective shell that will protect it from the influence of the destructive effects of the external environment...
... In order to "survive" in the "real world" and firmly take its place in the minds of people, any more or less developed religious and mystical concept must have its own "immune system", the task of which is to protect this concept from destruction...
... The "immune system" of the religious-mystical concept is not a deception or some kind of special effect on potential consumers of this concept; in the "immune system" both students and experts experience a natural need. The use of "immune remedies" does not occur on a conscious level, but rather on an unconscious level; 'immune remedies' help reduce anxiety caused by cognitive dissonance."
1. Rational means based on logic (means of argumentation and counterargument) - this is the smallest group, since not a single religious and mystical concept can be based solely on logic.
2. Irrational means - a huge arsenal of pseudological, pseudoscientific, figurative and emotional means from peaceful and calm to very expressive and even aggressive.
This last group of remedies is many and varied. The author of the article dwells in detail on the most common methods of psychological and conceptual self-defense:
« Denial - manifests itself in the filtering of external information and the silence of facts that contradict the picture of the world described by this religious and mystical concept, in avoiding the discussion of some dubious topics, in ignoring opponents, etc.
Adaptation - in the case when it is no longer possible to disregard the facts, one has to adapt to them. For example, not a single religious and mystical concept based on the picture of the world of ancient people can bypass modern discoveries that refute this picture of the world.
Illustrations - any theory must be able to defend itself against opponents attacking it, and a solid bank of examples and irrefutable "evidence" will help it in this. The inconsistency of these "evidences" is not always noticeable, but is necessarily revealed if one manages to distract oneself from their hypnotic influence.
Terminology - any self-respecting religious and mystical concept has a carefully developed terminological apparatus with which she describes the world. Own terminology is not only an application for a new look, a new vision of the world, but also a guarantee that no one "from the outside" will be able to make a critical revision of this concept and put things in order in it.
Interpretations – interpretations (explanations) of numerous situations and events that do not fit into this concept. The main goal of such interpretations is to endow the facts and situations that “drop out” of the concept with a new meaning, thanks to which they can be successfully integrated into this concept or even turn from refutation into evidence. For example, everyone knows a phrase like: "The Almighty will not hear the prayers of a vicious person, consumed by worthless thoughts and overwhelmed by base desires." This phrase, even if it was originally created not for this, can become an excellent “immune remedy” that explains why a person does not have certain spiritual and mystical results: if what is desired in prayer is not fulfilled, then this is not a refutation of the religious and mystical concept, this is evidence of insufficient diligence or sinfulness of the follower of this concept.
Attack – intellectually aggressive behavior directed against potential opponents: a critical review existing theories, their moral, historical, practical, etc. insolvency; endowing opponents with the value of opposing forces; direct and indirect humiliation of opponents" [http://www.ucheba.com/met_rus/k_psihologiya/k_psihollichnost/trynov.htm].
Thus, the author sees the main reason for the rigid dogmatism of religious concepts in the need of mankind to follow the teachings (and keep them from destruction), which help to comprehend the person, the world and something beyond it, and protect from the indefinite and unpredictable disorder of the world.
4. Features of scientific concepts
4.1. Science concept concept
Some philosophers of the past endowed scientific concepts with dogmatism, like religious ones, for example, P.A. Florensky in his book “At the Watersheds of Thought” (1922) wrote: “Each scientific theory proceeds from its own point of view, one of many possible ones, but asserts this point of view as the only true one. Therefore, the claim to exclusivity is reverse side convention of science. Science is a "fixed description" that strives to construct an unchanging system that would replace reality.
On the other hand, such isolation of science is only its ideal. From time to time life itself reveals the poverty of a limited field of science and the artificiality of its point of view. Science is trying to adapt to these demands of life, changing its form and content, but again trying to affirm them as the only ones. Science is conservative in principle: despite changes, it retains the requirements of immutability and limitation.].
However, despite the share of "immutability and limitation", scientific concepts, in contrast to religious dogmas, have always been rational way knowledge of the world based on empirical verification or mathematical proof.
“The Newest Philosophical Dictionary” defines the concept of “concept” in science as follows: “In classical disciplinary discourses, there was a strong tendency to identify the concept of “concept” with the concept of “theory”. Sometimes they denoted "incomplete", "non-strict", etc. theory precisely in order to emphasize its "incompleteness", "non-strictness", etc.
In non-classical science, the concept of a concept, as a rule, began to be reduced to a fundamental theoretical (conceptual) scheme (which includes the initial principles, laws universal for a given theory, basic semantic categories and concepts), or (and) to an idealized (conceptual) scheme (models). , object) of the described area (introducing, as a rule, a structural-organizational cut of the subject field, onto which interpretations of all statements of the theory are projected). Thus, the concept is reduced to a preliminary theoretical organization"material" within a scientific theory, which in its full "expansion" acts as its implementation (including "translating" the original basic concepts into constructs).
However, in science, the concept can also be an independent form of knowledge organization, especially in socio-humanitarian knowledge (for example, the dispositional concept of personality or the concept of social exchange in sociology), which “replaces” theory. The emphasis on conceptuality in scientific knowledge implicitly actualized the sociocultural and value-normative component in it, shifted the focus from “cognitive”, “logical”, “intrasystemic” in theory to “praxeological”, “semantic”, to its “discovery” outside, which actualized the problems of socio-cultural historical conditioning of scientific knowledge in general. This was explicitly realized in the postclassical methodology of science and in the sociology of knowledge.
On the whole, postclassical methodology has strongly shaken the notion of theory as highest form organization of scientific knowledge, and the idea of the possibility of overcoming its "hypothetical nature", thereby rehabilitating the concept as an independent form of knowledge" [http://slovari.yandex.ru/dict/phil_dict/article/filo/filo-362.htm?].
4.2. The role of concepts in the development of science
The views of researchers on the role of concepts in the development of science are reflected mainly in works devoted to the development of individual branches of science. Thus, the author of the work “Concepts of natural science and scientific picture nature" [http://naturalsciences.ru/content/view/21/209/] expresses his point of view on the role of concepts in the development of natural science as follows:
“In science, the term “concept” is usually used to refer to a system of concepts and principles, in particular, when explaining a certain range of phenomena and processes. Such concepts can differ markedly from each other both in the depth of disclosure of the essence of phenomena and in the breadth of their application.
As a rule, at the beginning, phenomenological concepts are used for explanation, based on a direct description of the studied phenomena, or phenomena, from where the name of this concept itself comes from.
In the future, they turn to various theoretical concepts that reveal internal mechanisms phenomena and are based on abstract concepts and principles. So, for example, when explaining optical phenomena, a phenomenological concept first appeared, which described the simplest phenomena rectilinear propagation light, its reflection and refraction. But she did not address questions about the nature of light and did not try to explain why light rays propagate in a straight line or angle of reflection. equal to the angle beam fall. The first concept that tried to explain this was the corpuscular concept, supported by Newton. She considered light as the movement of the smallest corpuscles of light and satisfactorily explained all the simplest empirical laws of light phenomena. However, the corpuscular concept was unable to explain the phenomena of interference and diffraction of light. Therefore, she was forced to give way to a new, wave concept, which considered light as a wave movement, similar to the movement of waves on the surface of water. This concept was able to explain the interference of light through the interaction of light waves (their superposition on each other), and diffraction - by bending light waves around obstacles. However weak point wave concept was the assumption of the existence of a light ether, an elastic specific medium, the transverse vibrations of which explained the propagation of light waves. Subsequently, thanks to the creation of the theory of electromagnetism by J. Maxwell, the need to refer to the light ether disappeared, and the optical phenomena themselves began to be considered as a special kind electromagnetic oscillations. The establishment of the relationship between electrical, magnetic and light phenomena contributed to their unification within the framework of a single electromagnetic concept. This concept ultimately contributed to the formation of a new electromagnetic picture of nature, which showed that, along with matter, there is also an electromagnetic field in the world.
This brief excursion into the history of physics clearly shows how theories, scientific concepts and pictures of nature created by individual sciences are formed. The same could be illustrated by the example of chemistry, biology and other sciences.
Thus, the construction of a picture of nature in a separate science goes through a series of successive stages. First, simple concepts and empirical laws are created to explain the observed phenomena. Then laws and theories are opened, with the help of which they try to explain the essence of the observed phenomena and empirical laws. In the future, fundamental theories or concepts arise that can become a picture of nature created by a separate science. dialectical synthesis pictures of the nature of individual sciences leads to the formation of a holistic picture of the world.
In the process of evolution and progress of scientific knowledge, old concepts are replaced by new ones, less general theories more general and fundamental theories. And this, over time, inevitably leads to a change in scientific pictures of the world, but at the same time, the principle of continuity, common to the development of all scientific knowledge, continues to operate. The old picture of the world is not discarded entirely, but continues to retain its significance, only the limits of its applicability are specified.
4.3. The struggle of scientific concepts in the development of science
In a number of works, the role of the struggle of concepts in the process of the development of science in particular and the knowledge of the world as a whole is considered in more depth: “The history of the formation and development of natural science is the history of the struggle of concepts and the schools behind them” (V.A.Atsyukovsky. Philosophy and methodology of modern natural science, Lecture 3. Social production and natural science, 3.4. Struggle of concepts in natural science.) ;"In the dynamics of scientific knowledge special role play stages of development associated with the restructuring of research strategies set by the foundations of science. These stages are called scientific revolutions" (V.S. Stepin, V.G. Gorokhov. Philosophy of science and technology.) [].
Speaking about scientific revolutions, about the emergence of new concepts in scientific knowledge, the authors give examples of the development of individual sciences: physics, mathematics, and natural sciences.
“But as science develops, it may encounter fundamentally new types of objects that require a different vision of reality compared to the one that the current picture of the world suggests. New objects may also require a change in the scheme of the method of cognitive activity, represented by a system of ideals and norms of research. In this situation, the growth of scientific knowledge presupposes a restructuring of the foundations of science...
An example ... is the history of quantum relativistic physics, characterized by the restructuring of the classical ideals of explanation, description, justification and organization of knowledge" [http://society.polbu.ru/stepin_sciencephilo/ch66_i.html].
4.4. Interaction of scientific concepts
New concepts, being established in some science, can then have a revolutionary effect on other sciences. “The peculiarities of this version of the scientific revolution are that in order to transform the picture of reality and the norms of the study of a certain science, in principle, it is not necessary that paradoxes be fixed in it. The transformation of its foundations is carried out by transferring paradigmatic attitudes and principles from other disciplines, which forces researchers to re-evaluate the facts that have not yet been explained. Usually, the components of the foundations of the leading science act as paradigmatic principles "grafted" into other sciences.
A case in point in this respect can serve as a revolution in chemistry XVII - the first half 19th century associated with the transfer to chemistry from physics of ideals of quantitative description, ideas about force interactions between particles and ideas about atoms" [http://society.polbu.ru/stepin_sciencephilo/ch66_iii.html].
With the development of science, therefore, the essence of the scientific concept changes significantly: the concept can no longer be perceived only as a fairly consistent system of hypotheses and interpretations of experimental data - a real scientific concept characterizes going beyond the concrete, going "outside", beyond the boundaries of narrowly disciplinary applicability.
5. Features of philosophical concepts
Giving a definition of the concept, the authors of the “Newest Philosophical Dictionary” emphasize that “the most adequate to the proper conceptual form is philosophy, which “can be interpreted as discipline in the generation and substantiation of concepts (in which culture (self) describes itself), “production” of the basic concepts of culture, defining the "conceptual possibilities" of the latter" [http://slovari.yandex.ru/dict/phil_dict/article/filo/filo-362.htm?].
In the already mentioned book “At the Watersheds of Thought”, P. A. Florensky emphasized that philosophy is not satisfied with any fixed description, all the time striving for greater completeness, always gives rise to a new question to reality, external in relation to the cognizing subject. It is in its endless path that philosophy can approach reality as close as it likes. Therefore, unlike science, philosophy is objective as the completeness of all possible points of view deployed in accordance with their internal logic: “Science is content with a single experience and, having built a scheme, enveloping it with a scheme, works on an enveloping scheme; philosophy seeks a perpetually unfading experience, and thought rushes from itself to life and from life back to itself. This warping is a dialectic, a philosophical method... the rhythm of questions and answers... No answer is a borderline-ultimate answer. Compared with reality, it prompts a new question, but the answer to this question will not be the last" [http://www.researcher.ru/methodics/development/Lnp/a_1xj0be.html].
Scientific knowledge is based on the firm ground of facts. Even the most daring scientific hypotheses must be confirmed by experimental data. Only knowledge verified by experience is considered true in science. But philosophical concepts concerning the original, "ultimate" foundations conscious attitude people to reality, are statements that can neither be proved nor disproved by any set of experimental facts. The reason for this lies precisely in the “ultimate” nature of such ideas: their “ultimacy” lies in the fact that they go beyond the scope of our experience and act as standards for thinking about what is not given in experience.
Since in many cases it is impossible to “definitely” prove or disprove philosophical statements with the help of experimental data, insofar as on the same issue in philosophy there can be various points vision. Pluralism of philosophical theories and concepts is a necessary condition for the development of philosophical thought. different and even contradictory To each other, solutions to philosophical problems may contain some share of truth - each in its own way. historical experience testifies that in the process of development of philosophy, the formulation of "eternal" problems changes, their understanding deepens, and often truths that seemed incompatible subsequently combine and complement each other.
Philosophical concepts are not aimed at the particular - they reveal patterns common to natural phenomena, the development of society and human knowledge. “Philosophy, unlike science, makes universal judgments and seeks to discover the laws of the entire world whole” [http://www.krugosvet.ru/articles/102/1010261/1010261a1.htm]. This reveals not only the most general ideas and principles that are a prerequisite for the development of objects at a given stage in the development of science and society, but also conceptual schemes are formed, the significance of which is revealed only at future stages of the evolution of knowledge.
Conclusion
So, let's summarize briefly. Possessing a number of specific characteristics that distinguish the concept from theories and hypotheses accepted in classical science, the concept is an important component of non-classical, humanitarian disciplines. Indeed, the emergence and flourishing of such sciences as sociology and psychology, which are fundamentally not reducible to a set of statements verifiable by formulas, naturally formulated the question of the methods of scientific knowledge in such disciplines, primarily of the place and role of the concept.
The studies presented in the work various parties consider the concept as an established concept and phenomenon, defining its role in classical and non-classical science, religion, and philosophy. Most of them converge on the primacy of the concept in relation to such forms as theory, hypothesis, assumption, primarily due to the fact that concepts define what in classical science was called "school": a set of philosophical and ethical categories intended to describe facts and events. in this discipline. Such a breadth of approach allows concepts to go “beyond the flags” of narrowly disciplinary applicability: if a change in a theory is limited only to its field, then a change in the concept causes a cascade of changes in related and not only disciplines (it is enough to recall the revolutionary changes in scientific knowledge at the beginning of the 20th century).
This “breadth” makes the notion of a concept especially important for philosophy, since it is precisely philosophical knowledge initially as "general" as possible and has the widest area of applicability. Thus, the definition of the essence of the concept, its place and role in the structure of human knowledge is far from an idle question, and therefore it can be argued that in the near future the concept of "concept" will take its rightful place among others. classical methods knowledge.
Literature:
1. The latest philosophical dictionary: 3rd ed., corrected. - Minsk: Book House. 2003.- 1280 p. - (The world of encyclopedias). Compiler and chief scientific editor: A.A. Gritsanov (http://slovari.yandex.ru/dict/phil_dict/article/).
2. Sociology: Encyclopedia / Comp. A.A. Gritsanov, V.L. Abushenko, G.M. Evelkin, G.N. Sokolova, O.V. Tereshchenko, 2003(National Sociological Encyclopedia http://voluntary.ru/dictionary/568/)
3. Dmitry Trunov. "Immune system" of the religious-mystical concept. – "Journal practical psychologist", 2004, №6 (http://www.ucheba.com/met_rus/k_psihologiya/k_psihollichnost/trynov.htm).
4. Internet resources:
http://www.atsuk.dart.ru/books_online/04filmetest/filmetest_text3.shtml (V.A.Atsyukovsky. "Philosophy and Methodology of Modern Natural Science").
http://society.polbu.ru/stepin_sciencephilo/ch66_i.html (V.S. Stepin, V.G. Gorokhov. "Philosophy of science and technology").
http://www.standrews.ru/private/standrews/prices/2007_Kalmykova.pdf(Kalmykova E.O. “Epistemological paradigms of theology and science: is synthesis possible?”.
http://naturalsciences.ru/content/view/21/209/ (“Concepts of natural science and the scientific picture of nature”).
http://www.krugosvet.ru/articles/102/1010261/1010261a1.htm#1010261-L-104("On Philosophy").
http://www.researcher.ru/methodics/development/Lnp/a_1xj0be.html(Gorelov A.S. Relationship between science and reality in the philosophy of Pavel Florensky).
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the leading idea of the synthesis or development of any object, process, from which it would be possible to derive those activities that will help to bring this idea to life. There is a second interpretation, in which the concept is a point of view, a position, scientific theory on the basis of which the ongoing processes are explained. However, in relation to the current situation in higher education, it is relevant to consider the concept as a leading idea. At its core, the concept should contain indications of the direction in which education should be developed in our time. Such features require special attention to the methodology of conceptual work. In order to ensure the objectivity and evidence of the concept of higher education, the reality of the planned changes, it is necessary to carry out in the process of its creation and implementation four essential functions: research, communicative, normative, executive. The development of the concept should begin with the specification and objectification of the goals that it is desirable to achieve. Until goals are formulated and concretized, subsequent work on the concept does not make sense. This stage of the work is to establish what exactly is "progress" on this stage object development. For all its seeming simplicity, this function cannot be carried out by a simple development of some text, even by a team of specialists.
