1. Social order Ottoman Empire in 17-18 centuries.

2. Stages of reforms in the empire. Tanzimat

3. " Eastern question» in the politics of European powers

4. Young Turk Revolution

The Turkish people are one of the youngest in the history of mankind. As something independent and separate from other tribes, it took shape around the 13th century. common ancestors Turks and Turkmens were burdens. These are the tribes living to the east of the Caspian Sea. In the 11th century part of the burdens went on a march to the west, who remained - the current Turkmens. At the end of the 11th century this part settled on the peninsula of Asia Minor. She reminded them of their homeland, only she had a more favorable climate: plenty of pastures for their nomadic lifestyle. The first Turkish statehood arose there. To do this, they had to push the Greeks and Armenians, partly the Arabs. This statehood turned out to be very shaky and in the 13th century. it was defeated by the Mongols during their invasion. This former statehood is called the statehood of the Seljuk Turks. The Seljuks are the name of their ruling dynasty, which the Mongols ended.
Until the 14th century The Turks did not have statehood. The Ottoman dynasty begins to rise, which ruled until the 20th century. The state they created was called the Ottoman Turks.

Features of Turkish statehood. It is "the only true military power Middle Ages". The whole system of life was permeated with militarism. "Our state was created by a saber, it can only be supported by a saber."

The Turks created the only military contingent in the world, which no one else had thought of until that time - the Janissaries. They took boys of 7 years old from 7 conquered peoples, converted them to Islam, made them the guards of the Sultan: ferocious and cruel warriors who were forbidden to marry, were engaged only in military affairs. But they could swear not only over the conquered peoples, but also over the Turks, who did not respect the Sultan. There were cases when even their own fathers were killed.

The Turks were Muslims and always remained so. The rise of the Ottoman dynasty was associated with a special zeal in matters of faith. The Turks attracted ghazis - fighters for the faith.
The rise of the power of the Ottoman dynasty was associated not only with religious trends. These ghazis hoped to cash in on the campaigns that the Ottomans made against the Christians. In 1389 The Ottomans defeated the Serbs in Kosovo. This is the day of national mourning for the Serbs. 9 years before that, Russia defeated the horde on the Kulikovo field.
1453 when the Turks took Constantinople. The Turks blocked all routes to the east. They created a huge empire. The Ottoman Empire inspired fear and horror throughout Europe. In the 16th century they were already not far from Vienna, i.e. possessions stretched to Central Europe.

Social structure of the Ottoman Empire. The social structure rested not only on the fear of the Turkish saber. They had the same classes as other states. This is -

People of the sword, i.e. military;

People of the pen are officials;

Farmers;

The people of the bazaar are merchants and artisans;

Non-Muslims stood apart - they were called "herd".

These estates were all Muslim countries. But among the Turks, the military class was especially strong. Janissaries were only a part of this estate and not the largest. The main part was made up of sipahis (horsemen). They had their own land, they had several horses, servants. In fact, it was a small detachment, 10-15 people walked with one sipah. It was the sipahis who received for participation in campaigns not only part of the booty, but also the right to collect taxes from land grants. In Europe, medieval flax was given as the whole territory, with a castle, roads. And among the Turks - flax was not their possession, they collected taxes only from them. After the Sipah and the Janissaries, all the rest were much lower. So it was in the 16th and, in part, in the 17th centuries.

The situation began to change, and for the worse.

In the 18th century The Ottoman Empire is in crisis, and in the 19th century. the question arises about its further existence - the "Eastern Question", who will get the Ottoman inheritance. On the European language not Ottomans, but Ottomans.

Where did the crisis come from? With all the power of the Ottoman state, it initially had defects and vices that corroded it.

Sultan. His Turks called padishah. Each of them tried to secure unlimited power for himself, using even the most extreme measures. The style of government was harsh and rude.

The second social vice, even more terrible, is corruption. It didn't spread instantly. She has been in many societies. It was practically legalized. They introduced bookkeeping and took taxes from it. This system corroded even the Janissary corps. They were no longer interested in military service, long trips. They wanted to extort gifts from the sultans and from everyone else. Many people appeared among them who had nothing to do with military service at all, they simply bought themselves a Janissary diploma. When the sultan did not suit the Janissaries, anything could happen to him. Sultan Selin 3 at the beginning of the 19th century. was first overthrown, then killed by the Janissaries.

The third vice is inter-religious and inter-ethnic strife. Muslim Turks oppressed Christians and other non-Muslims. (The position of the Jews was normal, because they had trading houses that the Turks needed). Christians from their subjects were Slavs (Bulgarians, Serbs, Armenians) and Greeks. For these oppressions, the Christians fiercely hated the Turks. There were constant uprisings and unrest. Many Greeks lived in Italy, in Russia. Turks were hated and Muslims who were not Turks often fought with them. The Turks have always won in court. Arabs and Kurds, who were Muslims, often fought with the Turks. This strife and mutual hatred constantly weakened the empire. In the 19th century some began to get rid of Turkish yoke, no longer obeyed the Sultan (the Greek uprising of 1821, the Greeks became independent). Egypt seceded. The Ottoman Empire was in decline, it seemed that nothing could save it.

2. In the 18th century. It became clear to the ruling elite of Turkey that change was needed as the state weakened, corruption grew, and the Turks even began to suffer military defeats from their neighbors.

Sultan Selim 3 at the end of the 18th century. initiated these reforms. They were not very wide and aimed at strengthening the army. New military manufactories were built. The fleet was fortified. Those who did not carry military service, deprived of the right to receive timars ( land from which they were going to file), but the reforms caused a lot of discontent, in Turkish army, especially among the Janissaries. They overthrew the Sultan, then killed him. The Sultan was also a caliph, i.e. had the title of a Muslim community.

The Sultan's successors understood that it was necessary to put the Janissaries in their place, otherwise nothing could be done.

Sultan Mahmud 2 prepared very thoroughly for the fight against the Janissaries, in 1826. he managed to deal with them. By this time, the Sultan had brought up specially prepared units in the capital and secretly placed them in the vicinity. And then his close associates provoked a riot of the Janissaries. Angry Janissaries rushed to the center of Istanbul to the Sultan's palace, but there were pre-disguised cannons that advanced against the rebels and began to shoot them. The rebellion resembles outwardly the Decembrist uprising. Those who did not have time to be shot were immediately killed, hanged, dealt with mercilessly, the Janissary corps was almost completely destroyed. Thus began the reforms of Sultan Mahmud 2.

Only 13 years later, in 1839. reforms were continued. They lasted until the early 70s. These reforms were called Tanzimat ("transformations"). These reforms still do not have an unambiguous assessment. Previously, it was believed that they were unsuccessful and not wealthy. Recently, these reforms have been rated higher, especially by Orientalists.

The Sultan declared that he guaranteed the property of all the subjects of the empire, not only the Turks, not only the Muslims. It was a declaration. This was not always done. But this was already a responsible statement, it was a step towards recognizing the rights of the oppressed peoples of the Ottoman Empire. A fair conscription for military service was established, limited to 5 years. Those who performed poorly in their service were removed from their posts. Secular education developed. Studied technical disciplines, there was even a university. Some restrictions on trade and entrepreneurial activity were lifted: the guild regulation of artisans was abolished. Invitation of foreign experts: military advisers, engineers and doctors. The results of this policy are evaluated in different ways. crisis phenomena managed to weaken. The position of non-Muslims improved, but not all, but only the most prosperous - the commercial Greek bourgeoisie. But the reforms could not fundamentally change the whole situation. Reforms are a building that is erected on a completely shaky foundation.

3. By the beginning of the 19th century. The military and political power of the Ottoman Empire was greatly weakened. In its development, it noticeably lagged behind its European neighbors, and this had an effect. The Russian emperor Nicholas 1 compared the Ottoman Empire with a sick person. If the empire collapsed, the question arose of who would get the Ottoman inheritance. This was the essence of the Eastern question. The great powers were not interested in the rapid collapse of the empire, because this could create difficulties with the liberated peoples, who could start riots. Therefore, they delayed the process of the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, a weak empire was quite convenient than 10 independent states. There were differences between Russia and all other states in their approach to the Eastern Question. As one of the Austrian emperors noted: "I would like to see better Janissary turbans in Constantinople than Cossack hats." In other words, the Western powers were afraid of excessive strengthening of Russia in this matter. They wanted to use the Ottoman Empire as a counterbalance to Russian power. All this was clearly manifested during the Crimean War. It began as a war between the Russian and Ottoman empires. Then Great Britain and France got involved. These countries used the support to their advantage. More and more they were introduced into the Turkish economy, participated in the internal affairs of the Ottomans. France has been using since the 18th century. capitulation regime. These are unilateral concessions that the sultans provided to Western participants in the Turkish market. Western empires were created in 1881. Office of the Ottoman public debt. This department was created under the pretext of the insolvency of the Sultan's government, because. it was bad at repaying debts. The administration began to operate on Turkish territory itself, using internal Turkish taxes.

4. In 1876 Abdul-Hamid 2 became the sultan in the empire. His reign lasted more than 30 years.

At the beginning of his reign, he granted his subjects the first constitution in history. He made such a move to impress his allies that Turkey is also among the legal European states. But the real policy of the Sultan was increasingly in conflict with the declarations of the constitution. The subjects themselves called this policy "zulyum" ("oppression"). It was a regime of surveillance, whistleblowing and intimidation. The Sultan even established a kind of scammers who sent their reports to the name of the Sultan. These reports were called "journals". In Turkish society, there was an increasing Turkization and Islamization. At this time, the Turks moved from the outskirts of the empire to its center, to the peninsula of Asia Minor, because. Turkey was losing its positions on the outskirts. For the second half of the 19th century. up to 5 million people moved. Greeks, Armenians, partly Slavs, on the contrary, left the central regions of the empire, there were about a million of them. They went to Russia, Europe and North America.

A new phenomenon is pan-Turkism. This idea of ​​uniting all Turkic peoples under the authority Turkish Sultan. In 1910 they started publishing their own magazine. The ideologist of the current was Zia Gok Alg. They advocated the unity of those peoples who lived on the territory of the Russian Empire: Tatars, Bashkirs, Kazakhs, etc. This trend could not be approved Islamic tradition, because she placed ethnic solidarity over religious solidarity.

Under the conditions of the reign of Sultan Hamid, opposing currents appeared - the Young Turks. They were a liberal and pro-Western organization. Talk about order and progress. Under conditions of political oppression, the Young Turks were forced to exist illegally. Therefore, the Young Turks used Masonic lodges for their activities. Through their brothers in the west they received financial assistance. They were associated with Italian lodges. By joining these lodges, from the point of view of Islam, they committed a terrible sin. The Young Turks were also helped by the fact that Abdul-Hamid made many enemies for himself, even outside of Turkey itself. The European powers feared the strengthening of Turkey, that the Sultan would become completely independent. Hamid in the early 20th century close to Germany. Hamid also quarreled with the Jews.

By the end of the 19th century - Zionist movement for the return of Jews to Palestine and the creation of a Jewish state there. Their leader Theodor Herzl twice asked the Sultan to allow the return of the Jews to Palestine. The Sultan actually introduced "red passports" for the Jews, which made it difficult for them to move around the country.

The lands of the Ottoman Empire, every inch of which was conquered by the sword, stretched across three continents. The possessions of the Sultan were more extensive than those of the emperors of ancient Rome.

They covered all southeastern Europe and the coast of North Africa to the borders of Morocco; they came close to the shores of the Caspian, the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf; The Black Sea was an internal "Turkish lake". Sitting in Constantinople, the sultan ruled great cities so distant from each other and so dissimilar as Algiers, Cairo, Baghdad, Jerusalem, Athens and Belgrade. In the former territories of the Ottoman Empire fit more than two dozen modern states. These endless expanses contained mountains, and deserts, and rivers, and fertile valleys; about 25 million people lived here - a huge figure for those times, almost twice the population of any European state or empire, except France. The Ottoman Empire was Muslim - in the middle of its possessions, in the heart of Arabia, lay the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. The Turkish sultan, who is also the caliph - the ruler of the faithful, was obliged to keep and protect the shrines of Islam. The Ottoman Turks constituted the dominant group of the Muslim population of the empire; Arabs, Kurds, Crimean Tatars, peoples of the Caucasus, Bosnians and Albanians also lived here. In addition, millions of Christians were subject to the sultan - Greeks, Serbs, Hungarians, Bulgarians, Romanians, Moldavians and others.

Needless to say, the political ties that united these multilingual peoples committed different religions were weak and unreliable. The sultan was in Constantinople, and in the localities the power was represented by a motley flock of pashas, ​​princes, governors, beys, khans and emirs, some of whom were only nominally subordinate to the sultan. For example, the Christian princes of the wealthy provinces of Wallachia and Moldavia were appointed by the sultan himself, but in fact they ruled autonomously and all their duties to the central government were limited only to the annual payment of tribute. Every year wagons loaded with tribute in gold and other coins arrived from the north to the High Port in Constantinople. The power of the Crimean Khan over the peninsula was absolute, and only when the Sultan called him to war, he left his capital, Bakhchisarai, and appeared under the banner of his overlord at the head 20 000-30 000 riders. 1,200 miles to the west lay the Berber states of Tripoli, Tunisia, and Algeria. AT war time they served their Ottoman overlord by directing fast corsair ships - on which in regular time profitably traded in piracy, robbing everyone indiscriminately - against the fleets of Venice and Genoa, powerful Christian maritime powers.

In the XVI century, under Sultan Suleiman the Legislator, or, as the Europeans called him, Suleiman the Magnificent (1520-1566), the Ottoman Empire reached the heyday. It was the golden age of Constantinople * - huge wealth flowed into the city, majestic mosques were built here, and beautiful country palaces were built along the shores of the Bosphorus and the Sea of ​​​​Marmara.

Suleiman himself patronized literature, arts and sciences; he was fond of music, poetry and philosophy. But above all, he was a warrior. The Ottoman armies moved north along the great military road that led to Belgrade, Buda, and finally to Vienna, and where they passed, among the Balkan mountains and valleys, mosques and minarets grew. The Christian monarchies of the West, outraged by these obvious symbols of Islamic occupation, looked at the Turks as the oppressors of the Greeks and other Christian peoples of the East. However, the Ottoman Empire, more generous in this respect than most European states, was tolerant of the Gentiles. The Sultan officially recognized the Greek Church and confirmed the jurisdiction of its patriarch and archbishops, while the Orthodox monasteries retained their property. The Turks preferred to govern through pre-existing local power structures, so that the Christian provinces were allowed, subject to the payment of tribute, to maintain their own system of government and class hierarchy.

It is curious that the Ottoman Turks rendered the "highest honor" to their Christian subjects: officials of the central imperial administration were recruited from their number and special regiments of the Sultan's guard - Janissaries * were formed.

Non-Muslims in the Ottoman Empire were denied access to administrative and military careers. Therefore, a Christian could rise through the ranks only by converting to Islam - as described below.

In the subjugated Balkan provinces, the conversion to Islam opened the road to success for capable Christian youths. They were sent - at first by force - to Muslim schools, where they received a harsh upbringing aimed at eradicating all memory of their mother, father, brothers and sisters, destroying the slightest traces of Christianity in their souls. They were brought up in selfless loyalty to the Koran and the Sultan and joined the ranks of his fearless followers, ready to perform any service. The most gifted got to the court or for training in government agencies and could rise to the heights of power. Many people have walked this path prominent people, and the often powerful Ottoman Empire was ruled by those born into Christianity.

Turkish Janissaries

But most of the young people entered the Janissary Guards regiments. All their lives, from childhood, they lived in the barracks - they were forbidden to marry and start a family, so that their devotion to the Sultan remained undivided. In his position, the Janissary was no different from a slave; the barracks was his home, Islam his faith, the sultan his master, and war his service. AT early centuries the existence of the empire, the Janissaries resembled an order of fanatical warrior monks who took a vow to fight the enemies of Allah and the Sultan. In the Ottoman army, they formed a steel corps of superbly trained, reliable infantry, and there were no troops in all of Europe equal to the Janissaries until a new one appeared. french army Louis XIV.

The detachment of the Janissaries was a picturesque sight. They wore red caps embroidered with gold, white shirts, puffy trousers and yellow boots. The Janissaries of the personal guard of the Sultan were distinguished by red boots. In peacetime, they were armed only with a curved saber, but, going into battle, the Janissaries could choose weapons to their taste - a spear, sword, arquebus or, later, a musket.

In the XIV century there were 12,000 Janissaries, and in 1653 there were 51,647 of them. Over time, Janissaries of respectable age were allowed to retire and start a family. Both Muslim and Christian families dreamed of having their sons enrolled in the corps, and in the end, the circle of those to whom this privilege extended was limited to the sons and relatives of former Janissaries. Janissaries have become a hereditary caste of free people. In peacetime, they, like the archers, were engaged in crafts and trade. Gradually, like the guards in many other countries, they became more dangerous for their own masters than for their enemies. Grand viziers and even sultans came to power and were overthrown at the whim of the Janissaries, until the corps was disbanded in 1826.

From the sea, ancient Constantinople seemed like an endless flowering garden. Above the blue waters of the Bosphorus and the Sea of ​​Marmara, above the dark green of cypresses and blossoming caps of fruit trees rose the domes and minarets of one of the most beautiful cities in the world. And today Istanbul is full of life, but it is no longer the capital. The government of the Republic of Turkey has moved to the austere modern cleanliness of Ankara in the middle of the Anatolian Plateau. In the 17th century, Constantinople was the capital of the Muslim world, the military, administrative, commercial and cultural center of the mighty Ottoman Empire. Its population reached 700,000 - such a number of inhabitants was not in any European city, just as there were not so many different races and religions. Everywhere were seen majestic buildings mosques, madrasas, libraries, hospitals and public baths. The bazaars and marinas were heaped with goods from all over the world. The parks and gardens were fragrant with flowers and fruit trees. In the spring, rose hips bloomed, and nightingales overflowed in dense thickets of hedges.

Where the Golden Horn Bay separates the Bosphorus and the Sea of ​​Marmara, Topkapi Saray, the Sultan's palace, or rather the palace complex, rose above the city. Here, behind high walls, countless mansions, barracks, kitchens, mosques, gardens with babbling fountains, and long avenues of cypress lined with roses and tulips* were hidden.

It was the center of the political and administrative life of the empire, here, as in the Moscow Kremlin, all central state institutions were concentrated, all state affairs were decided. There were three parts in Topkapi - three courtyards. The first courtyard housed the financial administration, the archive, mint, arsenal. The second housed the Divan - an advisory council under the sultan, as well as the sultan's office and the state treasury. The third courtyard was the residence of the Sultan, his harem and treasury. The grand vizier lived near Topkapi, and the barracks of the Janissary corps numbering up to 12 thousand people were also located.

A city within a city that existed solely for the pleasure of one person, the palace was incredibly expensive for the subjects of the Sultan. Every year ships sailed here from all the provinces of the empire and wagons loaded with rice, sugar, peas, lentils, peppers, coffee, almonds, dates, saffron, honey, salt, plums in lemon juice, vinegar, watermelons. Once they even brought 780 carts of snow. Inside this city, 5,000 people served the Sultan. The chief keeper of the tablecloth was in charge of the Sultan's table, who was assisted by the elder over the tray carriers, fruit, pickles and marinades, sherbet, the foreman of the coffee makers and the water dispenser (Muslim sultans were teetotalers). There was also a senior turban winder with a staff of assistants, a custodian of the Sultan's dress, heads of washers and bath attendants. The staff of the senior barber included a manicurist, who every Thursday tidied up the nails of the Sultan. In addition, there were pipe lighters, door openers, musicians, gardeners, grooms, and a whole army of dwarfs and deaf-mutes - the latter used by the Sultan as messengers, but they were especially indispensable as servants when strict confidentiality was required.

polygamy

But this palace itself, carefully hidden from the eyes of its subjects, served only outer shell inner, even more closely guarded private world - the harem. The Arabic word "haram" means "forbidden", and the Sultan's harem was forbidden to everyone except the Sultan himself, his guests, the inhabitants of the harem and the eunuchs - their guards. From the palace it was possible to get there only through a single passage, which was blocked by four doors, two iron and two bronze. Each door was guarded day and night by eunuchs who were entrusted with a single set of keys. This passage led to a tangled labyrinth of luxurious chambers, corridors, stairs, secret doors, courtyards, gardens and pools. Many rooms were adjoined on all sides by other rooms, and therefore the light seeped into them from above, through stained-glass windows in glazed domes and roofs. The walls and ceilings of the Sultan's chambers were covered with intricate patterns of blue and green Nicene tiles. The floors were covered with bright carpets, here and there were low sofas on which the inhabitants could sit cross-legged "Turkish" - sip strong coffee or eat fruit. In those rooms where the Sultan liked to talk face to face with his adviser, there were fountains that, with their murmur, did not allow curious ears to hear what was being said.

The harem was a closed world of veils, gossip, intrigues and, whenever the Sultan wished, bodily pleasures. But besides, it was a world that obeyed strict rules protocol and subordination. Before Suleiman the Magnificent, sultans officially married; Islam allowed them to have four wives. But Suleiman's wife, a red-haired Slav named Roksolana, interfered in state affairs with such perseverance that since then the Ottoman sultans stopped marrying and the sultan's mother became the ruler of the harem. The Turks believed that “under the feet of the mother lies the sky” and that no matter how many wives and concubines you have, you have only one mother and no one in the world can replace her. Sometimes, if the sultan was too young or weak in character, his mother herself gave orders on his behalf to the grand vizier. The place after the mother of the sultan was occupied by the mother of the heir to the throne, if there was one, and after her - other women who gave birth to sons from the sultan, and only then all the other odalisques, or concubines. All these women, at least formally, were slaves, and since it was not supposed to enslave a Muslim woman, therefore, the entire harem was made up of foreign women - Russians, Circassians, Venetians, Greeks. With late XVI century, most women entered the harem from the Caucasus - the inhabitants of these places were famous for their beauty. Once having crossed the threshold of the harem, the woman remained in it forever. There could be no exceptions. Once in the harem, usually at the age of ten or eleven, the girl diligently learned the science of seduction from experienced mentors. Having completed the full course, the girl waited with hope for the moment of preliminary approval, when the sultan threw a scarf at her feet, and she became “gozde” (“seen”). Not every “gezde” waited for a happy moment when she was called to the Sultan and she turned into an “ikbal” (“who had been on the bed”), but those who were lucky received their own chambers, servants, jewelry, outfits and monetary support. And since the women of the harem were completely dependent on how pleased the Sultan was with them, they all longed to get into his bed, and once there, they tried their best to please him. They were so zealous that several sultans, fed up with endless days and nights of passion with these hordes of passionate, adoring women, simply went crazy. Into this solitary women's World no man was allowed to enter except the sultan. Eunuchs stood guard over the harem. At first, the eunuchs were white - they were mostly taken out from the Caucasus, as well as women for the harem. But by the beginning of the 17th century, all two hundred eunuchs guarding the harem were blacks. Usually they were bought as children when the annual caravan with slaves came from the upper Nile, and along the way, near Aswan, they were castrated. It is curious that, since this is prohibited by Islam, the operation was carried out by the Copts, a Christian sect living in the area. The crippled boys were then presented to the Sultan as a gift from his deputies and governors of Lower Egypt.

Theoretically, eunuchs were slaves and servants of slaves - the inhabitants of the harem. But often they acquired great power due to their proximity to the Sultan. In the incessant circulation of palace intrigues, women, in alliance with eunuchs, could seriously influence the ebb and flow of the Sultan's favors, and the distribution of posts. Over time, the chiefs of black eunuchs, who had the title of "kyzlar agasy" - "lord of the girls", or "aga of the House of Bliss", often began to play a large role in public affairs, turning into a thunderstorm of the entire palace, and sometimes occupied the third place in the imperial hierarchy after the sultan and the grand vizier. Yeah, black eunuchs have always been surrounded by lush luxury, had many privileges and big staff servants, which included several of his own concubines, whose functions, it must be confessed, are difficult to imagine.

In the harem, as in the whole empire, the Sultan was looked upon as a demigod. No woman was allowed to come to him without being summoned. When he approached, everyone was supposed to quickly hide. One of the sultans, in order to announce his approach, wore shoes with silver soles that rang on the stone slabs of the passages. When preparing to bathe, the sultan first went to the dressing room, where young slave girls took off his clothes; then to the massage room, where his body was anointed with oils; then to a bath with a marble bath, fountains of hot and cold water and golden taps: here, if he wished, he was washed - usually this duty was assigned to rather old women; finally, he was dressed and smeared with incense - again young women. When the Sultan wanted to have fun, he went to the reception hall - a chamber in blue tiles, covered with crimson carpets. There he sat on the throne, his mother, sisters and daughters sat on the sofas, and the concubines - on cushions on the floor, at the feet of the Sultan. If dancing dancers were arranged, they could call on court musicians, but in this case they were carefully blindfolded to protect the harem from male gazes. Later, a balcony was built over the hall for the musicians, with a side so high that curious glances could not penetrate it, but the music was clearly audible.

In this hall, the Sultan sometimes took foreign ambassadors seated on a marble throne in a long brocade robe with sable trim and a white turban adorned with a black and white plume and a giant emerald. He usually turned in profile so that not a single infidel would dare to look directly into the face of the Sultan - the earthly Shadow of Allah. As long as the Ottoman Empire existed, it always remained a conquering state. All power was in the hands of the Sultan. If the sultan was a strong and gifted man, the empire prospered. If he was weak, the empire began to crumble. It is not surprising that from a harem life among ardent women and eunuchs indulging any whim, the breed that came from victorious conquerors almost completely degenerated. Another circumstance, acting gradually over the long history of the Ottoman Empire, led to a deterioration in the personal qualities of the sultans. It began, oddly enough, with an act of mercy. Until the 16th century there was Ottoman tradition, according to which one of the numerous Sultan's sons who came to power immediately ordered to strangle all his brothers so that not one could encroach on the throne. Sultan Murad III, who ruled from 1574 to 1595, produced more than a hundred children, of which twenty sons survived him. The elder, having ascended the throne under the name of Mehmet III, destroyed nineteen of his brothers, and in addition, in an effort to get rid of possible rivals, he killed seven pregnant concubines of his father. However, in 1603, the new sultan, Ahmed I, ended this nightmarish custom by refusing to strangle the brothers. Instead, in order to neutralize them, he walled everyone up in a special pavilion, the so-called "cage", where they lived, deprived of any connection with the outside world. Since then, all the Ottoman princes spent their days idle there, surrounded by eunuchs and concubines, who, in order to avoid the appearance of offspring, were incapable of childbearing due to their age. If, nevertheless, due to an oversight, a child was born, then he was killed so as not to complicate the genealogical tree of the ruling family. Therefore, if the sultan died (or was dismissed) without leaving a son, then his brother was called from the “cage” and declared the new earthly Shadow of Allah. Among this collection of ignorant, relaxed princes of the blood, the Janissaries and Grand Viziers could rarely find a man with sufficient mental development and political maturity to rule the empire.

At all times, but especially when the Sultan was weak, in fact the Grand Vizier ruled the Ottoman Empire on his behalf. From an imposing building erected in 1654 next to the palace and known to Europeans as the High Port, the grand vizier oversaw the administration and army of the empire - he controlled everything except the Sultan's palace. Officially, the Grand Vizier was considered a servant of the Sultan. Assuming office, he accepted a ring with a seal from the Sultan's hands; the signal for his resignation was the demand to return state seal. In fact, the grand vizier was the true ruler of the empire. In the days of peace, he was the head of the executive and judiciary. During the war, he acted as the commander-in-chief of the army, and with him were the Janissary agha and the kapudan pasha, that is, the admiral. He led the meetings of his council - the Divan - in a large vaulted hall, the walls of which were decorated with mosaics, arabesques, blue and gold draperies. Here sat on benches that ran in a circle along the walls, the highest officials of the empire, and the colors of their fur-trimmed robes with wide sleeves - green, purple, silver, blue, yellow - meant their rank. In the middle sat the grand vizier himself in a white satin outfit and a turban with a gold border.

The position of grand vizier gave great power - it happened that grand viziers overthrew sultans - but it was also extremely dangerous, so that its owner had little chance of dying a natural death. Wine for military defeat was assigned to the Grand Vizier, and there inevitably followed his removal, exile, and often strangulation. Only outstanding masters of intrigue could achieve this post and hold on to it. Between 1683 and 1702 the twelve grand viziers succeeded each other at Diwan and at the High Port. And yet, in the 17th century, it was the grand viziers who saved the empire, while the sultans basked in harems, indulging their inclinations and whims *. By this time, the central government had become so sickly that the Venetian ships cruised near the Dardanelles, and the Dnieper Cossacks on their "seagulls" robbed the Bosphorus. The empire was choking in corruption, spreading to pieces, plunging into anarchy, and it was saved by three representatives of the same kind - and in fact, a dynasty - grand viziers: father, son and son-in-law

* One sultan, Ibrahim the Mad, encased his beard in a diamond net and spent his time tossing gold coins to fish in the Bosporus. He did not want to see and touch anything except furs, and introduced a special tax that was used to buy sables from Russia in order to upholster the walls in the Sultan's chambers with these precious furs. Believing that the larger the woman, the more pleasant she is, he sent out messengers to look for the fattest women throughout the empire. An Armenian woman of incredible size was brought to him, who delighted the Sultan so much that he showered her with riches and honors and finally made her the ruler of Damascus.

In 1656, when the empire was on the verge of collapse, the harem camarilla was forced to appoint a stern Albanian of seventy-one years old, Mehmed Köprül, to the post of Grand Vizier, who set to work without pity. By executing 50,000-60,000 people, ca. completely cleared the Ottoman administration of bribery and corruption. When he died five years later, the collapse of the empire had already stopped. Under his son Ahmed Köprülü, and later under his son-in-law Kara Mustafa, there was a brief revival of the Ottoman Empire. The fleets and armies of the Christian powers - Austria, Venice and Poland - were thrown back from its borders. In 1683, in response to the call of the Hungarians for help against Emperor Leopold, Kara Mustafa decided to take Vienna. More than 200,000-strong army, raising banners and bunchuks, led by Kara Mustafa himself, climbed the Danube, conquered all of Hungary and, for the second time in the history of the Ottoman Empire, approached the walls Austrian capital. Throughout the summer of 1683, Europe followed the events with excitement. Regiments of soldiers from the German states rose under the banner of the Austrian emperor to fight the Turks. Even Louis XIV, sworn enemy The Habsburgs and a secret ally of the Turks, could not but help in saving the great Christian city. On September 12, 1683, the allied army came to the rescue, attacked the Turkish siege lines from the rear and put the Turks to flight down the Danube. By order of Sultan Kara Mustafa was strangled. After the defeat at Vienna, the Turks were pursued by continuous misfortunes. Buda fell, followed by Belgrade, the Austrian troops approached Adrianople. The famous Venetian admiral Francesco Morosini captured the Peloponnese, crossed the Isthmus of Corinth and laid siege to Athens. Unfortunately, during the shelling of the city, one shot hit the Parthenon, where the Turks set up a powder warehouse, and on September 26, 1687, this temple, which until then had remained almost in its original state, exploded and acquired its present appearance.

In 1703, the Janissaries deposed Sultan Mustafa II in favor of his thirty-year-old brother Ahmed III, who ascended the throne after imprisonment in a "cage" and ruled for twenty-seven years. Gloomy, unbalanced, all his life under great influence mother, this aesthete loved women and poetry; He also liked to draw flowers. He also had a taste for architecture, building beautiful mosques to please his subjects, and planting beautiful gardens to please himself. Along the banks of the Golden Horn, he erected a chain of luxurious pavilions - some in Chinese style, some in French - where he sat in the shade of trees, surrounded by his favorite concubines, and listened to poetry. Ahmed loved theatrical performances; in winter, intricate performances of Chinese shadow theater were staged at the court, after which gems, sweets and honorary robes were distributed to guests. In the summer they arranged skillful amusing naval battles and fireworks. His yard was engulfed in tulip mania. On spring evenings, the sultan and courtiers, accompanied by musicians, strolled through the garden, hung with lanterns or pierced by moonlight, stepping carefully among hundreds of turtles that crawled in tulips and grass with lighted candles on their shells.

In a city with more than 400 fountains, Sultan Ahmed III's fountain is considered one of the most beautiful. This architectural masterpiece that adorns Yuskudar Square was built in the Ottoman Baroque style, emphasizing European influence on classical Ottoman architecture

Located in front of the Imperial Gate of Topkapı Palace, the fountain was built in 1728. This unusual building with a gabled roof covers an area of ​​10x10 meters. The extraordinary lightness and beauty of the building is given by the original reliefs, elegant vaults, decorated with tiles, and a hinged roof.

On the days of Ramadan and religious holidays, free sherbet was distributed to the population at the walls of the fountain. And on the main facade of the building, everyone could read the instruction of Ahmed III: "Pray for Khan Ahmed and drink this water after saying your prayers."

In this closed, fragrant atmosphere, Ahmed III existed in the same years that witnessed the active, stormy reign of Peter in Russia. Ahmed's reign lasted longer than that of Peter's, and in the end acquired a typically Ottoman flavor. In 1730, the empire was again in turmoil, and Ahmed thought to calm his enemies by ordering the then Grand Vizier to be strangled - and at the same time his son-in-law - and to give his body to the crowd. But it only put aside for a while own death Sultan. Soon he was deposed and replaced on the throne by his nephew - it was he who poisoned Ahmed.

About the Russian-Turkish wars and the gradual degradation of the empire, it makes sense to put separate topic. And not one.

Here I will limit myself to stating the fact that already outside the period under review, the described processes of weakening the power of the Sultan and the entire Ottoman Empire forced the next Sultan to renounce absolute power and introduce a constitution:

• Proclamation of the constitution in Istanbul on December 23, 1876. Engraving. 1876

• On December 23, 1876, the solemn announcement of the constitution of the Ottoman Empire took place.
  The 1876 constitution, known as the Midhat constitution, proclaimed the establishment of a constitutional monarchy in Turkey. It provided for the creation of a bicameral parliament, members of the Senate were appointed by the Sultan for life, the Chamber of Deputies was elected on the basis of a high property qualification. The Sultan had the power to appoint and dismiss ministers, declare war, make peace, impose martial law, and terminate civil laws.
  All subjects of the empire were declared Ottomans and were considered equal before the law. The constitution recognized Turkish as the state language and Islam as the state religion.

The description of the order in the Ottoman Empire was given by Prince Zbarazhsky, the ambassador of the Commonwealth in Turkey.

The text is not very, very bad, facts, analysis, and forecasts were confirmed in the future. The decline in the morals of the Empire is also not badly described.

What was the position of the Ottoman monarchy in old times, what is it like now? Where does this disorder come from and is healing possible? What powers does she have at sea and on land? What can be expected from this world, and what are the arguments for and against it?

The order and splendor of the Ottoman monarchy once struck. Comparing those times with the present, which seems to be a shadow of the past, it is difficult, in my opinion, to even come close to understanding its structure (as can be known and seen in other states). After all, they (Turks. - Per.) nothing is written down, everything is based on the observance of traditions and rules. In the very mixture of peoples and tribes, different parts of the world, various languages and religions are formed such a chaotic mixture that is not found in any country in the world. [In a state where no one can gain fame, where they do not know their ancestors, they do not travel abroad, where there is no spiritual life, no striving for glory that induces people to all sorts of exploits (for few of them remember their ancestors), there miraculous transformations take place: from a gardener, a trapper - immediately into kings, monarchs, and now again it becomes nothing, as if characters in some comedy. What is rejected in other countries [here] is preserved. All this is beyond comprehension. With all the surrounding monarchies, tyrannies, [the Ottoman Empire] has only some similarities, but there are many differences. An amazing manifestation of divine providence is manifested in the fact that, having created this monarchy, different from all others, opposite to them in form, [God] multiplied it, preserved and preserves. Christians, who naturally should have been hostile to the faith of the Turks, as their tyrants and invaders, forgetting God and their faith, living there and constantly seeing the temples of their faith, forgetting their origin, torment and torment their own fathers and relatives when they fall into captivity . They do not remember about their homeland and freedom, in which they were born, soul and body grow together with their laws and orders. And not the Turks, but the Christians and their descendants are the basis and support of the empire and its masters. All nations have always had and still have words on their lips about how sweet [memories] of the father's house are. Images of native places, native penates elevate the soul. Faith, once realized, is seldom forgotten. All this has no weight there. Heirs of honest families, having fallen into captivity or own will having found themselves there, they never return to good thoughts, although they remember their origin, they are the worst and furious [servants of the Sultan]. As does everyone else, and I note this with amazement. What could I learn and understand about the order in this empire and the changes that have taken place?

In Turkey, there were and exist only two estates, although they also have various categories, but they all have one sovereign, [before him all] the rest are slaves. The power of this sovereign is absolute, from him, as from an earthly God, good and evil come, the condemnation of which in human souls is dishonor and sin. This monarch is the basis and support of everything. Everything is his will. Without it, slaves have no family, no honor, no hereditary heritage. Therefore, no parties, no unions are formed, because tomorrow not a son, but a sultan will inherit your property. Such is the fate of all. Elevation is determined not by birth, not by merit. The son of a slave is better [live than the legitimate heir], therefore, they do not interfere with any love relationships, do not enter into marriages.

Whom the sovereign raises, he flourishes for some time, as soon as he lowers, he immediately fades. Therefore, between them (subjects. - Per.) there is no lasting friendship, constant envy and rivalry. One pushes the other to take his place; reveal all secrets to the sovereign. Whoever is in a public position, he orders and he is held in high esteem. The overthrown loses everything, no one honors him.

No less important than good deeds and punishments at the will of [the sovereign], were training and exercises in the palace to maintain order in the state. Everyone went through this officials as through a school, and were a model for all the earth. Christian sons were selected according to their energy and abilities and used in different cases. Especially diligently dealt with those who were to rise to the service of the monarch. teaching writing, most attention devoted to the education of modesty, abstinence and observation. They did not neglect various military exercises. The first step was service under the Sultan: it was necessary to carry his bow, arrows, saber, buzdygan, take care of his food and drinks, toilet, store clothes, etc. Having shown himself well in this field (servants - Per.), moved to lower positions [at the court]: falconer, kennel, huntsman. Then they became lieutenants (ketkhuda. - Per.), reached the position of Agha Janissaries. From here, the path led to the positions of Asian and European pashas (beylerbeevs. - Per.), and then, if they managed well, to the vizier ranks, so that they could take a closer look at management. So, gradually, they reached the highest post, from where they were rarely dismissed, except perhaps for some great abuse. [Thanks to] the long reign of [viziers] the power of the state grew. And they themselves, multiplying glory, did magnificent deeds, erected buildings that brought glory and benefit to the state. The people who were under their command, when a vacancy appeared, could adequately take these places. They, in turn, taught and educated their close associates. Thus, the knowledge of each class multiplied, the desire to develop virtues grew. Under former sovereigns, people rarely came to high positions in any other way.

The highest award was considered when the chosen one was honored with honorary clothes sent from the palace. This gave him mental strength for diligent service in the palace, for the desire to skillfully wield weapons. All this led to the fact that the greatness and power of the sovereign increased, and human souls rose above the insignificance of their origin.

The army had an unbreakable order for many years. First of all, everyone had his own clothes, depending on the position and type of service, no one interfered in other people's affairs. No one, under pain of execution, aspired to expensive outfits, the luxury and effeminacy that are destroying them now were condemned and eradicated. Salaries and other rewards were small. Timars, which are land holdings, were so divided that no one exhibited more than two sabers (two warriors. - Per.) from the land from which he served, but since the expenses were small, everyone was satisfied with a moderate income [from the timar]. Since obedience and abstinence were revered above all else, whenever they fought, it was not a burden to them. This cord [of power], so beautifully woven, was in the hands of one owner, that is, the monarch himself. As long as this order was observed, the foundations [of the state] were not undermined. Under such rule, this state grew and expanded for almost a thousand years, that is, more than all other monarchies in the world. None of them retained their perfection and power for so long, especially without any reforms. But even the Roman state did not escape this misfortune, which underwent significant changes in the 4th century. Then many states were included in the prosperous Eastern [Roman] Empire, in total it included 23 provinces, [each] the size of a kingdom, without the number of cities and fortresses. It included the father of luxury - New Rome (Constantinople. - Per.). The nurse of higher wisdom - Greece - is bogged down in these networks. There the top of the whole world is Egypt. There is golden Arabia. There - related one way wonderful Cairo and Memphis. Above all, there, in the handful of this stepmother ( Eastern empire), - earth, honey and mammal, given as the highest reward to the virtues of Abraham, given to him by God and for the greater desire of his children, punished by a long, almost eight hundred years of hunger. Grains from this handful are already gradually falling out, but you will hear how this happens.

Changes in the Empire

Since the integrity of this state and autocracy depended on respect for customs, observance of the old ways and their preservation, the only guardian of which was the Sultan, the change of the sovereign, the guardian [of customs], should have led to their change, and then affect the integrity of the state. After Suleiman, lazy and pampered sovereigns, namely Mehmed and Ahmed, who admired their greatness, but were not interested in how they achieved this greatness, almost until the present time ruled. First of all, they spoiled the estate of officials, who began to receive benefits not for merit, but for money. And all because of the Sultan's wives, who through their husbands contributed to the promotion [of officials in the service], taking money for this and getting rich. Those who bought positions in order to enrich themselves and recoup the costs, beneficiaries (timars. - Per.), those who fell into their hands were sold for money, and those who were more worthy of merit and courage [than themselves] were completely exterminated. Then it came to ordinary soldiers, who began to pay off their duties and became, as they call, Oturaks. So trade [in posts] first of all infected the army. Also, Christians, from whose children the Janissaries are recruited, preferred to ransom their sons, seeing that everything had turned into an object of trade. The recruitment of troops was carried out carelessly, it was only important to ensure its numbers. Misdemeanors and atrocities that were previously punishable by death were now forgiven for bribes to senior bosses. Many bad examples have led to the growth of various vices. This poison, penetrating into the environment of warriors, although experienced, but arrogant and arrogant, in conditions of impunity and self-will, quickly grew.

More worthy and experienced warriors see that self-will is not followed by punishment, but for good service - a reward, that more than military prowess, any service in the palace is valued, when each soldier of the border garrison tries to achieve exaltation as soon as possible with the help of some a woman [from the seraglio] or a eunuch than merit in the eyes of a military leader. Gradually, weapons became disgusting to them, and bows became pleasant. Those who resorted to these methods began to live in luxury. Drunkenness, which used to be punished as homicide, began to take root. Following such examples, many preferred to pay off military service, which could be easily achieved. The fact is that the viziers, going to war, more money collected than people. The bad consequences of this disease quickly manifested themselves.

First of all, near Eger, before the eyes of the sovereign, a lack of courage [of soldiers] was revealed. Returning home, they revolted against the favorites of the Sultan, the brother of the current Khalil Pasha and the treasurer. The Sultan was forced to execute them and put their heads on public display. Then the uprising of the common people began in Asia, later - [performance] of the most prominent pashas, ​​who were joined by those who were dissatisfied [with the government] and those who believed that their merits were not appreciated. Significant devastation occurred in those countries, because from their arable land and their houses, everyone who could, rushed into the ranks of lawless gangs.

And since they could not be destroyed, the authorities turned to other methods of appeasement: distributions, salary increases, changing the order of providing equipment, forgiveness of various misconduct 10 . From here, the power of the Sultan's decrees and the veneration of officials began to weaken.

Since, due to generous distributions and devastation, the revenues of the treasury decreased and a significant part of them went to palace expenses and luxury, the salary went infrequently to them (warriors. - Per.) act. Khalil Pasha himself, who fought in Persia, told me that when it came to hostilities, [the soldiers] demanded their pay, arguing defiantly with the commanders until the battle began.

As a result of all this, due to a lack of money, they began to extort them from rich people under various pretexts. From this arose the suspicion of sovereigns, who dishonored noble and worthy people for the slightest reason. So many subjects died, destroyed almost all worthy people.

After those [sultans], the impetuous and angry rather than reasonable sovereign Osman ascended the throne, believing that he would achieve everything, like the first sultans, with one severity, which neither his father nor grandfather had. Not listening to anyone, only flatterers, he began to insult the elders 11 , drown others for misconduct and severely punish for already widespread crimes, introducing the old discipline in everything, especially in the army. After the war, he wanted to change the whole army 12 . His severity led him to premature death, and those [warriors] to despair, because they saw that they were losing both their daily bread and life itself. Since this entire monarchy has hitherto been supported on a weak foundation - only on the head [of the Sultan] and his entourage, then, having crumbled after the fall of the foundation, everything returned to its full circle. [Everything began to be ruled] by common people who do not know customs, without honor and nobility, dressed in satin, without noble [ancestors], without relatives, without respect and reverence for anyone. So eight months after the first [in the Ottoman Empire] assassination of the monarch, hardly a shadow remained of the former [order], not a single estate was preserved in its nobility, did not save its qualities unsullied. Instead of virtues, all vices prevailed, terrible drunkenness, open depravity, luxury, incredible covetousness, hypocrisy, open betrayal. 13 .

All this is incurable even in the house of sovereigns themselves. The current monarch (Mustafa. - Per.) - simply a madman, who understands nothing and is incapable of anything, so because of him his mother also despairs, in whose hands all control is. But since she acts secretly, supposedly on behalf of the Sultan, among such corrupt people, she does it under great fear, and not with the help of [state] wisdom or according to established rules, but only with the help of money; meanwhile, the Sultan's madness manifests itself more and more openly. His closest heirs are four. One of them, Murad, is 12 years old, the other is 8 or 9, the rest are even younger. Murad has a number of defects (which I know from the chief court physician - an Arab), namely, he has some kind of convulsions, similar to insanity, although there are light intervals. In addition, he has one hand dry. His mother [Kösem-sultan], a woman still young and luxurious, is very wasteful. Of course, her reign will be the same or worse. The second one seems to be better than this one, but he has a bubble between his shoulder blades that has grown monstrously. Plus, he's not the right age. Among the present chief dignitaries, who could properly provide guardianship or advice in Constantinople, there is none, with the exception of two. One is the current vizier, the other is Khalil Pasha, a sea captain (kapudan pasha. - Per.). The current vizier (Mere Hussein Pasha. - Per.), of course, a more suitable person, but with him [the Turks] will not last long, because they are afraid of him and his reign. Fear seized them all, but they will not overthrow him, but, probably, they will kill him. Khalil Pasha - not so prominent and less influential person. His character is softer, he avoids danger, does not want this (to become a sadrazam. - Per.), even wants to become a dervish. Of the other [viziers], no one else has either a statesman's mind or authority, they call each other cattle. In Asia, a certain Nafis Pasha 14 has some influence, but as if he is a very old and sick person. There is also a Budinsky [pasha], but this one will not come, as they themselves say, because he has sufficiently strengthened his dominance there. When he was transferred to the service under the Sultan, the soldiers did not want to let him go and the one who came [in his place] was almost killed. None of the others have been heard of.

In the city [among the warriors] strife. First of all, among the Janissaries and Sipahs, over whom the Janissaries take over in the capital, because there are more of them, and it’s easier for the foot soldiers [in the city]. And where there are more sipahis, they threaten the Janissaries. Noble and honest people, men of the council, take the side of the Sipahis. Insolent upstarts [to the Janissaries] join, although there is no less hatred between them. The fact is that the newcomers would like to get rid of the old warriors, of which 15 thousand are over the norm, and those, in turn, from these new Janissaries. There is a palace party, to which belong the ichoglans, bostanjs, that is, gardeners, and many palace artisans, with whom the hajis, students of religious schools, are associated, of which there are many. They all [hold] the same line. There are also reasons for quarrels among the Sipahis. They own unequal timars, the poorer ones would like to divide the possessions of the rich.

Further: they would like to divide the property of the clergy and the waqf among themselves, and this is a hard bone that cannot be gnawed. Especially in Asia, where if a sipahi meets a janissary, and a sipahi janissary, then one seeks to kill the other, each blaming the enemy for killing Osman. Against Constantinople [soldiers] general hatred. Although they are separated by the sea and long distances, [the Asiatic sipahis] say: let these Constantinopolitans with their sultan remain, but we do not want to know him. From Egypt, Cairo, tribute has not been received and will not come; black (Berber. - Per.) Arabs consider it a great insult to themselves that after Osman they were deprived of almost all their posts, that they are despised. Some Safoglu and Manoglu, the leaders [of the rebels], threaten war 15 . Babylon, the capital of his eastern possessions (sultan. - Per.), busy with some Bekir Pasha, a traitor 16 . In Erzerum, having killed the Janissaries, Abaza Pasha fortified 17 . Raids, robbery do not stop. This was also expected in the European possessions, because [fermentation] was already beginning there. If [Porta] wants to stop the unrest by force of arms, a civil war will certainly begin.

The power of the Ottoman monarchy at the present time

[Janissaries.] Power is more in words than in deeds. The best proof of this was [the reign of] Osman, during which the sovereign was portrayed as having sufficient numbers of troops. It is absolutely indisputable that they (Turks. - Per.) make it their goal to have 30,000 Janissaries in all provinces, including recruits and gunners. I believe that this [figure] can serve as a basis for [calculating] salaries and embezzlement from the treasury, but not the number of soldiers themselves. In fact, Osman, who would gladly take all the inhabitants into the army, had [in the Khotyn campaign] no more than 10 thousand [janissaries]. In Asia, where there is no recruitment of troops, there are fewer of them than in Europe. There are especially many of them in the Hungarian border castles - to threaten the emperor's neighbor. From there, they, of course, will not be sent on any campaign, and they themselves, adhering to custom, will not go, just as they did not go with Osman. Right there, near Constantinople, you can rarely see them, because there are no fortresses. In Constantinople itself, they say, 20 thousand. I just can’t accept it, because with everyone I mentioned earlier, it turns out no more than 10 thousand.

Berber Janissaries, called Jezair 18 , there are 12 thousand. But they are with them (Turkish Janissaries. - Per.) they never went to war and now they didn’t accept the order of the Sultan: with me [it became known] that they didn’t go.

What are these Janissary warriors? I'll start with weapons. They have janissaries, which give a very strong return, you can’t shoot close to your face, you have to take it off your shoulder. Gunpowder is very poor, aimed shooting is very difficult. A single shot will not kill, although a volley will cause great damage. Young warriors have little practice in shooting. This is a real rabble - they have grown long beards and treat them like something sacred. The boys are young and spoiled. They are run by people with no experience. There are also a few old Janissaries, among them quite decrepit ones come across. Of the new [chiefs], not a single one can withstand [several] weeks, let alone months, in the post of agha Janissaries, they never knew what war was before. The current aga Janissary was Osman's barber, he is already being deposed; in his place again there will be some gardener or palace creature.

Sipahis are the second military class. They are believed to be numerous, but, as I definitely found out, under the late Sultan Osman there were no more than 120 - 130 thousand, even including not only the sipahis, but also others who were their subordinates. 19 . Sipahian detachments, called Buluks, are divided into European and Asian, led by seven chiefs. Their main banner is red, it is held to the right of the Sultan. There, in the most honorable place, are the best warriors. This banner has warriors, each with a flag on a spear - a sign of nobility and honesty. Another banner, yellow, is to the left of the Sultan. It is in second place in terms of importance. Other banners are less revered. Outwardly, however, [very impressive when] warriors under these seven banners ride wonderful, well-fed horses, in beautiful turbans and very expensive trousers, with feathers and wings, which adorn not only warriors, but also horses. They form the retinue of the sovereign, make up the color of the cavalry.

Types of weapons - almost all [those that] were used under Osman: jida - a kind of spear with an Indian reed shaft, they are also made of naturally light wood, very flexible, easy to fly. To strengthen them, the iron tip is hardened. There are very few copies, and they are used very ineptly, they are used only by Albanians and other inhabitants of the outskirts of the state. I can definitely say that there were no more than 5 thousand spearmen with Osman. Onions are also rarely used and poorly wielded. Barely one in a thousand has guns, usually our renegades. Spears are not suitable for attack, except for fights before a fight, when you have to fight in all directions and on light (without armor) horses. [Heavy] weapons and shells are not used.

Warriors from Europe are better than Asians, more hardy than they are. Among Asiatics, effeminacy and laziness were great even under the Romans. Sitting on camels and elephants, they fight most often in short silk shirts, with light weapons. When, one October, a cold rain with wind fell near Khotyn, all these poor fellows huddled in the cold. Apparently, the Ottoman tyrant was proud of the number of soldiers rather than true strength, in whose registers the number of people and horses was unusually large. The Asiatics used to have more horses and camels, but now they have diminished. The war with us is so disgusting to everyone that the European [sipahis] dissuade [from participating in it] with poverty, which is true, the Asian ones - with an unfavorable time of the year, shout loudly that they don’t want to go to war in Europe, they don’t want to be frozen : apparently, well, those in shirts are frozen.

Without Asiatic animals it is impossible to wage a serious war in Europe. Those carts with which they burden themselves, carrying all the comforts and riches, require a large number camels and mules, and they are already there (in Asia. - Per.) not enough, because many [cattle] were lost during the Khotyn war.

There is no more accurate criterion for the number of troops and well-being than the settlement of the territory of the state, which is in desolation. In Asia there were no less than 1,900,000 tribute-paying families, now it is believed that there are a little more than 70,000 of them. Europe (European possessions of the empire. - Per.) all wasted. Those who travel as far as Buda tell how often they have to stop in the field, because there is no village for many miles. The same [on the way] from Constantinople to the Danube, where the troops of the Sultan passed: Dobruja is all empty, ruined; on the road to Ruschuk there are no more than 70 cities, towns, villages, large and small, counting not only those where they passed, but also those that were visible to travelers. There is a saying that where the horse of the Turkish Sultan steps, grass does not grow there. Now, because of anarchy, everything has come to extreme ruin. 20 .

Sipahis and Janissaries stagger from village to village, as if this is their main occupation (this was especially evident in Poland), they eat, drink, extort taxes from arable land, demand to be allowed to stay. The last money is taken from the women and [often] they are killed, so that the whole Ottoman land can be called a robber's den.

To this was added an epidemic, which, by the special grace of God, harmed the Turks more than the Christians, and almost devastated the Turkish villages. On the Black Sea coast, all this manifested itself to such an extent that Cossack raids were not needed either: those who survived fled in fear [of the pestilence]. Here is the exact, unmistakable news: up to 300 thousand people came with Osman, and how many he [of them] killed! And then [the deserters] fled so that the Kapudan Pasha himself, standing at the crossing, said that the executioners did not have enough hands to hang the fugitives.

If with such a sovereign, young and energetic, they did not go [on a campaign] either of their own free will or under duress, then even less can be expected at the present time. They don't have horses in all their land, especially in Europe. Most of all, thanks to our “good” orders, Greeks, Armenians and Moldavians deliver horses from Poland.

Ottoman naval forces. For several years now, more than 56 galleys have not been equipped on the White Sea. This year there will be even fewer, they hope to equip a little more than 40. I will not be mistaken if I say that on the Black Sea - with the greatest exaggeration - there will be no more than 20 of them. [Turkish] galleys are bad, very badly equipped. On none of them, except for the galley of Kapudan Pasha, there are even 100 soldiers, mostly 70 - 60, and even those were either forcibly recruited, or they are serving their duties 21 . In service [galleys] no more than 50 - 60 guns. Such is [the situation] on the White Sea, on the Black Sea it is even worse. Military affairs have not been taught for about 100 years. On the coast, the warriors are so “courageous” that they almost die [of fear] when they have to go against the Cossacks, who are full on the Black Sea 22 . Those on the White Sea showed such "bravery" that their 50 galleys did not dare to fight the Florentine ones and barely escaped from them by flight.

All this happens because the fleet is full of all sorts of scum. Departing from old customs, they allowed [the rulers] to accept among the soldiers of the Gypsies, Greeks and others who serve for money and good deeds. They also fail to recruit workers. The fact is that the Greeks and other peoples living on the coast, whose obligations are to supply [rowers], are trying to pay off, and their number has decreased from the epidemic. Everything was kept and is kept on the Polish slaves, of which many died last year, because our people cannot endure [hard labor]. It is impossible to get money for such burdensome expenses [as the construction of galleys], because of the general ruin. What is the state of affairs, it is easy to see from the fact that now they were barely able to equip one galley 23 .

All coastal fortresses are poorly fortified. Either old warriors or cowards, whose heart is too fearful for battle in the field, but it remains so in the fortress, seek to get a job in them. Because of the devastation, which I have already spoken about, the land is hardly cultivated, little is sown in the vicinity of Constantinople. All food for him is delivered along the Black Sea and very little (only rice and vegetables from Egypt) - along the White, but this is not enough for everyone.

This manifested itself under Osman, when the Black Sea and the Danube were closed [for trade] because of the war. Florentine and Spanish galleys ruled the [Mediterranean] sea. Bread was so expensive that people died of starvation, there was no supply of food by sea.

Present Peace 1623

The treaty now concluded has all the data to be valid for a long time, since there is no doubt that [the Ottomans] did not know a more difficult war than with Poland. Food there (near Khotyn. - Per.) had to be delivered on horseback, because due to the desolation [of the region], it was difficult to get it [on the spot]. It was necessary to feed not only people, but also horses, since the Turkish horse cannot stand without grain.

In their land (in the Balkan provinces. - Per.) there is no way to make transportation, except along the Danube. Moving away from it, it is difficult to ensure the delivery [of food] over long distances. What can be taken from this land if it is devastated?! Beyond the Danube (in the Ottoman provinces. - Per.) no private land holdings. The land of the state, the Sultan's, [is rented out] in large plots for big money.

Our air itself and the difficulties to which they were not accustomed were good science to them. Now we will be bypassed. The incalculable costs of this so distant [war], when there were no conveniences, especially when the treasury is exhausted, will lead to the fact that the rulers of those lands (Ottoman Empire. - Per.) do not want [war]. Among the pashas there are no valiant people who want to fight. They now prefer to secure the favor of the palace for greater prosperity and security. The warriors themselves (sipahis. - Per.) they were extremely impoverished because of the Khotyn war, because countless horses and camels fell there. They got money to indulge in idleness, luxury and immeasurable drunkenness. Those in Constantinople are allowed to act outrageously, not to fight. The same warriors who are stationed on the outskirts of the state will not want to die on the border because of these revelers. Therefore, it has already become so that the Turks [living] on the border, with great courtesy, receive the ambassadors of the Commonwealth and strive for peace.

Circumstances impeding the preservation of this peace treaty. The first is the Cossacks. Only the Lord God can keep them without an army and with such a small salary, but prudent people [do not undertake this]. If they (Cossacks. - Per.) will go to the sea, make such attacks, then this will force the Turks to prefer death in open battle to an obscure death with their families. They (Turks. - Per.) show great patience towards us in order to avoid the need to start war against us again.

Surely, however, there will be something that was already being prepared with me (during the embassy of 1622 - 1623 - Per.): the Tatars, who have already (there are witnesses) offered their services to them, will be set against us. (The Turks] did not advise them, thereby giving reason to hope that they would allow [to raid]. And those (Tatars. - Per.), seeing our disturbances, they hope to quickly fulfill their desires.

The second obstacle [to the establishment of a lasting peace] is that among the highest [Ottoman] dignitaries there are no such reasonable people who would be able to take the positions of viziers, and even more so [those who] would become friends of the Commonwealth. The current sovereign is so imprudent that he can be called simply a madman. With such conductors [of state policy], it is easy to harm us if our [defense] is unprepared.

The third obstacle, which cannot be removed by any arguments, is the most serious - the Tatars. They are divided into two [hordes]. One is the Belgorod [Tatars], they are within easy reach of the Commonwealth. The other - under the rule of the Khan of Perekop - the Crimean Tatars. Belgorod is commanded by Kantemir, whom the Turks certainly will not want to remove, since he supports them well against the Cossacks in the current peaceful conditions. In an atmosphere of such unrest [in the capital], even if they wanted to remove him for state reasons, they could not, as long as he is strong. This Kantemir settled many empty lands with the Nogai Tatars, to which he himself belongs, has greatly strengthened and continues to strengthen. If at first there were 5-6 thousand of them, now there will be up to 20 [thousand]. He began to penetrate into Moldavia, and if the Cossack raids continue, he will probably be allowed to resettle them as far as the Dniester. This Kantemir has already united with the [Crimean] Khan, they have the same camps, the same plans, together they will repay us for the Cossack raids. But, assuming that the Cossacks will not give a reason, they will not allow such a gift as our lands (the possibility of robbery. - Per.), slipped out of their hands. Maybe Kantemir, Khan and Kalga will not go by themselves, but leaders under other names will invade at the head of large detachments.

The effect of the decrees of the current Turkish Sultan is negligible. In Constantinople itself, it was impossible to prevent tobacco smoking in the streets. and did not drink, the decrees turned into a laughingstock. In the future, they will be even more neglected. And people living far away [from the capital] not only do not adhere to them, but have generally forgotten. Necessity itself, even if there were strict prohibitions, forces the Tatars to this (to raids. - Per.). They [give] food, clothes, otherwise they would die. The very accessibility of these places (the possessions of the Commonwealth. - Per.), our lack of caution, the ease of selling [plundered] goods to the Turks, would spoil even the best people, not only greedy robbers. Not very much because of this, the Turks will worry and restore justice, moreover, they will be happy. Hardly without it (without raids. - Per.) will be able to live and hold on, although they promise. Almost all work on land and at sea, the entire economy rests on the subjects of the Commonwealth. Even the wives and beautiful servants come from there. If the Tatars do not [come] all the new slaves (whose number is decreasing for various reasons), where will the wealth come from? It is provided by the hands of captives (they have no peasants), their empty lands are filled with herds from Poland. They are already talking publicly about what is difficult for them without this (without raids. - Per.) hold out.

To remind of justice only in words and rather to beg for it, like beggarly alms, is increasingly becoming common for the [politics] of the Commonwealth. If I, being the great ambassador of my sovereign, could not achieve it, then how can translators and messengers, who will be less reckoned with there, be able to get it? After all, it is worthless to them (to the Turks. - Per.) to punish and harm [people] of their own blood and those from whom they receive riches and all kinds of pleasures. And the fact that the Tatars [in the Polish lands], as in their own possessions, repair abominations, even without taking out their scabbards, inspires the Turks (which is why Osman decided to go to war), so that they will insult us and will not give satisfaction [to our claims ], just getting off with words, they will not do anything, because [this state of affairs] is beneficial for them.

Everyone should know that the Turks, although they swear by the name of God, the creator of life, to whom everyone praises, they have two more gods that are most revered - violence and money. In other words, do not keep given word, to this they must be forced or [loyalty to the word] buy.

I conclude by saying that if any Christian country is attacked by Turkish war, one should be afraid not of the main Turkish army, but of the Tatars. This is exactly what I predict. On the other hand, if it comes to the point that it has already been decided that Cantemir with 30 thousand Moldavians and Wallachians, 2 thousand people from Buda and Kanizha under the leadership of Ibrahim Pasha, 6 thousand soldiers of Pasha Pech and Herzegovina would go to the aid of the army against the emperor, then one should especially fear that the Tatars would not plan to move through Polish territory. Even if they go the other way, they will certainly want to wage war in Silesia.

Whoever calls for help from such a powerful enemy cannot command or direct him at will. Poland is somehow open to him (Kantemira. - Per.). You should firmly stand your ground (in relation to the Tatars. - Per.): now all doubts have been eliminated that they keep their word only as long as they are afraid of the troops of the Commonwealth, acting in this way out of fear, and not as honest neighbors.

So, the Commonwealth needs a [regular] army, and not a militia, which cannot even be called an army. With God's help, it would rebuff the Budzhak people, who had become insolent from impunity. Then, in case of success, if the Lord God provides for him, and also because of fear - now they neglect all caution - they would stop. And for other [Tatars], who do not put us in anything, do not take into account the authority of the Commonwealth, this would cause fear; [the cessation of the Tatar raids] could give [us] the opportunity to keep the Cossacks in subjection, which would strengthen our authority in the eyes of the Turks. They would certainly seek justice (compensation. - Per.) the Turks were not afraid of neighborly intrigues. [The Turks], seeing their weakness and turmoil, would know that the Commonwealth, having changed its character, is ready to crush their power. Otherwise, I say and bring [to the attention] of both my sovereign and the Commonwealth, misfortunes and defeats will come.

I would also like the Cossacks to be stopped, but not driven [from the Dnieper], so as not to irritate the Turkish Sultan, because there is no benefit from this, but only this established peace - desired by all - is violated. However, let [the Cossacks] prepare [and wait] for the decision of the Commonwealth, when to strike them with all their mighty strength. [And it should have been done] when the time of new troubles among the Turks comes and when the rooted self-will prevails among them, because of which they will surely go against other peoples. [The Cossacks should] act not as usual (they only excite the Turks against us), but, taking the help of the Lord God, destroy that weak armada on the Black Sea (which is a possible thing, as I showed above), and then take Constantinople - the nest of Turkish power. From afar [Istanbul] seems mighty, up close but he is weak and would easily hit them (Cossacks. - Per.) hands, and if the Lord God had given, and would have passed to us 24 .

This is not the time and it is not in my competence to talk about it. I will only say: I clearly understand and see that I have not given to any people; God great opportunities to master the vital forces of this state, except for (the peoples] of the Commonwealth. And there is hope for their final (Turks. - Per.) death, if we ask the Most High God and if we do not ascend with pride, not with arrogance, but humbly, but with a courageous heart, we want to use suitable opportunities. The Lord God promised those lands to the Commonwealth, and I would justify this in more detail, but now I will end with this wish.

Copy of someone else's materials

Any Hollywood scenario pales in comparison with the life path of Roksolana, who has become the most powerful woman in the history of the great empire. Her powers, contrary to Turkish laws and Islamic canons, could only be compared with the capabilities of the Sultan himself. Roksolana became not just a wife, she was a co-ruler; they did not listen to her opinion - it was the only one that was correct, legal.
Anastasia Gavrilovna Lisovskaya (born c. 1506 - d. c. 1562) was the daughter of priest Gavrila Lisovsky of Rohatyn, a small town in western Ukraine, located southwest of Ternopil. In the 16th century, this territory belonged to the Commonwealth and was constantly subjected to devastating raids by the Crimean Tatars. During one of them in the summer of 1522, the young daughter of a clergyman was caught by a detachment of cannibals. The legend says that the misfortune happened just on the eve of Anastasia's wedding.
First, the captive ended up in the Crimea - this the usual way all slaves. The Tatars did not drive the valuable “living commodity” on foot across the steppe, but under vigilant guards they carried it on horseback, without even tying their hands, so as not to spoil the tender girl’s skin with ropes. Most sources say that the Krymchaks, amazed by the beauty of the Polonyanka, decided to send the girl to Istanbul, hoping to profitably sell her in one of the largest slave markets in the Muslim East.

“Giovane, ma non bella” (“young, but ugly”), the Venetian nobles told about her in 1526, but “graceful and short in stature.” None of his contemporaries, contrary to legend, called Roksolana a beauty.
The captive was sent to the capital of the sultans on a large felucca, and the owner himself took her to sell - history has not preserved his name. - Pasha. Again, the legend says that the Turk was struck by the dazzling beauty of the girl, and he decided to buy her to make a gift to the Sultan.
As can be seen from the portraits and confirmations of contemporaries, beauty clearly has nothing to do with it - I can call this combination of circumstances with only one word - Fate.
During this era, the sultan was Suleiman I the Magnificent (Magnificent), who ruled from 1520 to 1566, considered the greatest sultan of the Ottoman dynasty. During the years of his reign, the empire reached the apogee of its development, including all of Serbia with Belgrade, most of Hungary, the island of Rhodes, significant territories in North Africa to the borders of Morocco and the Middle East. The nickname the Magnificent was given to the Sultan by Europe, while in the Muslim world he is more often called Kanuni, which in Turkish means Lawgiver. “Such greatness and nobility,” wrote about Suleiman in the report of the Venetian ambassador of the 16th century, Marini Sanuto, “they were also adorned by the fact that, unlike his father and many other sultans, he did not have a penchant for pederasty.” An honest ruler and an uncompromising fighter against bribery, he encouraged the development of arts and philosophy, and was also considered a skilled poet and blacksmith - few European monarchs could compete with Suleiman I.
According to the laws of faith, the padishah could have four legal wives. The children of the first of them became heirs to the throne. Rather, one firstborn inherited the throne, and the rest often met with a sad fate: all possible contenders for supreme power were to be destroyed.
In addition to wives, the ruler of the faithful had any number of concubines that his soul desired and the flesh required. At different times, under different sultans, from several hundred to a thousand or more women lived in the harem, each of which was certainly an amazing beauty. In addition to women, the harem consisted of a whole staff of eunuchs-castrates, maids of different ages, chiropractors, midwives, masseuses, doctors and the like. But no one, except the padishah himself, could encroach on the beauties belonging to him. The head of the girls, the eunuch of Kyzlyaragassi, led all this complex and restless household.
However, one amazing beauty was not enough: the girls intended for the harem of the padishah were taught music, dance, Muslim poetry and, of course, the art of love without fail. Naturally, the course of the love sciences was theoretical, and the practice was taught by experienced old women and women, experienced in all the intricacies of sex.
Now back to Roksolana, so Rustem Pasha decided to buy a Slavic beauty. But her Krymchak owner refused to sell Anastasia and presented her as a gift to the all-powerful courtier, rightly expecting to receive for this not only an expensive return gift, as is customary in the East, but also considerable benefits.
Rustem Pasha ordered to comprehensively prepare it as a gift to the Sultan, in turn, hoping to achieve this even greater favor with him. The padishah was young, he ascended the throne only in 1520 and greatly appreciated feminine beauty, and not just as a contemplative.
In the harem, Anastasia receives the name Hurrem (laughing). And for the Sultan, she always remained only Hurrem. Roksolana, the name under which she went down in history, is just the name of the Sarmatian tribes in the II-IV centuries of our era, who roamed the steppes between the Dnieper and the Don, translated from Latin means "Russian". Roksolana often, both during her lifetime and after death, will be called nothing more than a “Rusynka” - a native of Russia or Roxolanii, as Ukraine used to be called.

The secret of the birth of love between the Sultan and the fifteen-year-old unknown captive will remain unsolved. Indeed, in the harem there was a strict hierarchy, violating which was expected cruel punishment. Often death. Recruit girls - ajami, step by step, first jariye, then shagird, gedikli and mouth became step by step. No one, except for the mouth, had the right to be in the Sultan's chambers. Only the mother of the ruling sultan, the Valide Sultan, had absolute power within the harem, and decided who and when to share a bed with the sultan from her mouth. How Roksolana managed to occupy the Sultan's monastery almost immediately will forever remain a mystery.
There is a legend about how Hurrem came into the eyes of the Sultan. When the Sultan was introduced to new slaves (more beautiful and expensive than she), a small figure suddenly flew into the circle of dancing odalisques and, pushing the “soloist” away, laughed. And then she sang her song. The harem lived according to cruel laws. And the eunuchs were waiting for only one sign - what to prepare for the girl - clothes for the Sultan's bedroom or a string with which they strangled the slaves. The Sultan was intrigued and surprised. And on the same evening, Hurrem received the Sultan's handkerchief - a sign that in the evening he was waiting for her in his bedroom. Having interested the Sultan with her silence, she asked for only one thing - the right to visit the Sultan's library. The Sultan was shocked, but allowed. When after some time he returned from a military campaign, Hurrem already knew several languages. She dedicated poems to her Sultan and even wrote books. It was unprecedented in those days, and instead of respect, it aroused fear. Her learning, plus the fact that the Sultan spent all his nights with her, made Hurrem enduringly famous as a witch. They said about Roksolana that she bewitched the Sultan with the help of evil spirits. And indeed he was bewitched.
“Finally unite in soul, thoughts, imagination, will, heart, everything that I threw mine in you and took yours with me, oh my the only love!” the Sultan wrote in a letter to Roksolana. “My lord, your absence has kindled a fire in me that does not go out. Have pity on this suffering soul and hasten your letter so that I can find at least a little consolation in it, ”answered Hurrem.
Roksolana greedily absorbed everything that she was taught in the palace, took everything that life gave her. Historians testify that after some time she really mastered the Turkish, Arabic and Persian languages, learned to dance perfectly, recite contemporaries, and also play according to the rules of a foreign, cruel country in which she lived. Following the rules of her new homeland, Roksolana converted to Islam.
Her trump card was that Rustem Pasha, thanks to whom she got to the palace of the padishah, received her as a gift, and did not buy it. In turn, he did not sell it to the kyzlyaragassi, who replenished the harem, but presented it to Suleiman. This means that Roxalana remained a free woman and could claim the role of the padishah's wife. According to the laws of the Ottoman Empire, a slave could never, under any circumstances, become the wife of the ruler of the faithful.
A few years later, Suleiman enters into an official marriage with her according to the Muslim rite, elevates her to the rank of bash-kadyna - the main (and in fact - the only) wife and addresses her "Haseki", which means "dear heart".
The incredible position of Roksolana at the Sultan's court amazed both Asia and Europe. Her education made scientists bow down, she received foreign ambassadors, responded to messages from foreign sovereigns, influential nobles and artists. She not only resigned herself to the new faith, but also gained fame as a zealous orthodox Muslim woman, which earned her considerable respect at court.
One day, the Florentines placed a ceremonial portrait of Alexandra Anastasia Lisowska, for which she posed for a Venetian artist, in an art gallery. It was the only female portrait among the images of hook-nosed bearded sultans in huge turbans. “There was no other woman in the Ottoman palace who would have such power” - Venetian ambassador Navagero, 1533.
Lisovskaya gives birth to four sons to the sultan (Mohammed, Bayazet, Selim, Jehangir) and daughter Khamerie. But Mustafa, the eldest son of the first wife of the padishah, Circassian Gulbekhar, was still officially considered the heir to the throne. She and her children became mortal enemies of the power-hungry and treacherous Roxalana.

Lisovskaya was well aware that until her son became the heir to the throne or sat on the throne of the padishahs, her own position was constantly under threat. At any moment, Suleiman could be carried away by a new beautiful concubine and make her his lawful wife, and order some of the old wives to be executed: in the harem, an objectionable wife or concubine was put alive in a leather bag, they threw an angry cat and a poisonous snake there, tied the bag and a special stone gutter lowered it with a tied stone into the waters of the Bosphorus. The guilty were considered lucky if they were simply quickly strangled with a silk cord.
Therefore, Roxalana prepared for a very long time and began to act actively and cruelly only after almost fifteen years!
Her daughter was twelve years old, and she decided to marry her to ... Rustem Pasha, who was already over fifty. But he was in great favor at court, close to the throne of the padishah and, most importantly, was someone like a mentor and " godfather"The heir to the throne, Mustafa - the son of the Circassian Gulbekhar, the first wife of Suleiman.
Roxalana's daughter grew up with a similar face and chiseled figure to her beautiful mother, and Rustem Pasha became related to the Sultan with great pleasure - this is a very high honor for the courtier. Women were not forbidden to see each other, and the sultana deftly found out from her daughter about everything that was going on in the house of Rustem Pasha, literally bit by bit collecting the information she needed. Finally, Lisovskaya decided it was time to strike the death blow!
During a meeting with her husband, Roxalana secretly told the ruler of the faithful about the "terrible conspiracy." Merciful Allah vouchsafed her time to learn about the secret plans of the conspirators and allowed her to warn her adored husband about the danger that threatened him: Rustem Pasha and the sons of Gulbekhar planned to take the life of the padishah and seize the throne by placing Mustafa on him!
The intriguer knew well where and how to strike - the mythical "conspiracy" was quite plausible: in the East during the time of the sultans, bloody palace coups were the most common. In addition, Roxalana cited as an irrefutable argument the true words of Rustem Pasha, Mustafa and other "conspirators" that the daughter of Anastasia and the Sultan heard. Therefore, the grains of evil fell on fertile soil!
Rustem Pasha was immediately taken into custody, and an investigation began: Pasha was terribly tortured. He may have slandered himself and others under torture. But even if he was silent, this only confirmed the padishah in the actual existence of the "conspiracy." After being tortured, Rustem Pasha was beheaded.
Only Mustafa and his brothers left - they were an obstacle on the way to the throne of Roxalana's firstborn, red-haired Selim, and therefore they simply had to die! Constantly urged on by his wife, Suleiman agreed and gave the order to kill his children! The Prophet forbade shedding the blood of the padishahs and their heirs, so Mustafa and his brothers were strangled with a green twisted silk cord. Gulbehar went mad with grief and soon died.
The cruelty and injustice of the son struck the valide Hamse, the mother of the padishah Suleiman, who came from the family of the Crimean khans Girey. At the meeting, she told her son everything that she thinks about the "conspiracy", the execution and her son's beloved wife Roxalana. There is nothing surprising that after this Valide Hamse, the mother of the Sultan, lived less than a month: the East knows a lot about poisons!
The sultana went even further: she ordered to find in the harem and throughout the country the other sons of Suleiman, who were born by wives and concubines, and take all of their lives! As it turned out, the sons of the Sultan found about forty people - all of them, some secretly, some openly, were killed on the orders of Lisovskaya.
Thus, for forty years of marriage, Roksolana managed the almost impossible. She was proclaimed the first wife, and her son Selim became the heir. But the victims didn't stop there. Two younger sons of Roksolana were strangled. Some sources accuse her of involvement in these murders - allegedly this was done in order to strengthen the position of her beloved son Selim. However, reliable data on this tragedy has not been found.
She no longer managed to see how her son ascended the throne, becoming Sultan Selim II. He reigned after the death of his father for only eight years - from 1566 to 1574 - and, although the Koran forbids drinking wine, he was a terrible alcoholic! One day, his heart simply could not stand the constant excessive libations, and he remained in the memory of the people as Sultan Selim the drunkard!
No one will ever know what the true feelings of the famous Roksolana were. What is it like to be a young girl in slavery, in a foreign country, with an imposed foreign faith. Not only not to break, but also to grow into the mistress of the empire, gain fame throughout Asia and Europe. Trying to erase the shame and humiliation from her memory, Roksolana ordered the slave market to be hidden and a mosque, a madrasah and an almshouse to be put in its place. That mosque and the hospital in the building of the almshouse still bear the name of Haseki, as well as the adjacent district of the city.
Her name, shrouded in myths and legends, sung by contemporaries and denounced by black glory, has forever remained in history. Nastasia Lisovskaya, whose fate could be similar to hundreds of thousands of the same Nastya, Khristin, Oles, Mariy. But life decreed otherwise. No one knows how much grief, tears and misfortunes Nastasya endured on the way to Roksolana. However, for the Muslim world, she will remain Alexandra Anastasia Lisowska - LAUGHING.
Roksolana died either in 1558 or in 1561. Suleiman I - in 1566. He managed to complete the construction of the majestic Suleymaniye mosque - one of the largest architectural monuments Ottoman Empire, near which the ashes of Roksolana rest in an octagonal stone tomb, next to the also octahedral tomb of the Sultan. This tomb has been standing for more than four hundred years. Inside, under a high dome, Suleiman ordered to carve alabaster rosettes and decorate each of them with a priceless emerald, Roksolana's favorite gem.
When Suleiman died, his tomb was also decorated with emeralds, forgetting that ruby ​​was his favorite stone.

Ottoman Empire

(XVII – XVIIIcc)

The predecessors of the Ottomans are the empire of the Seljuk Turks.

The population is 8 million people.

1683 - Vienna catastrophe.

The Ottoman Empire arose as a result of conquests, rested on military force. It was not a state with an army, but an army with a state. There was no religious unity. Sunni Islam is the state religion. Shiites were persecuted, Christians, Jews were not loved. There was no cultural or economic unity. Even by the 20th century, a national market had not developed.

The head of state is the sultan (khan, khakan, hünkar, padishah, etc.). The sultan conferred the title of caliph after the capture of the Arabian Peninsula, Mecca and Medina.

The ideal of the Ottoman Empire is the war with the countries of the golden apple (Europe).

The country was divided into Eyalets:

Rumeli (European);

Anadolu (Asian).

Beylerbey is the head of the eyalet. He had his own court, a sofa, his own army, he was considered a local sultan. He could distribute small timars.

Eyalets were divided into sanjaks, headed by a sanjakbey.

Ayan is a local elected deputy from the feudal lords, who defended their interests.

Public administration

All subjects of the Emperor are Ottomans;

All are equal before the Sultan;

The Turks are humiliated, they are usually kept out of power;

At court, the Serbo-Croatian language is used.

The sofa consisted of:

4 controls:

Grand Vizier (the highest military and administrative authority, the second person after the Sultan, everyone hates him, wears white clothes, disappears day and night at the front);

Kadiasker - the supreme judge for military and religious affairs, "Court is the privilege of the clergy";

Bash-defterdar - chief treasurer;

Nishanji is the Sultan's secret secretary.

Foreign Secretary;

Sheikh-ul-Islam.

"All officials are slaves of the Sultan." The concept of nobility was absent, a simple person could become a grand vizier. Each official has ?elnae?- form of appeal. The clergy enjoyed special autonomy, they could stand in opposition to the Sultan.

The Ottoman Empire is the most religiously tolerant state in Europe.

3 confessions:

Greek Orthodox;

Armenian-Gregorian;

Jewish.

There was freedom of worship, freedom to perform rituals, and church institutions did not pay taxes.

The Sultan's court was divided into external (serving the Sultan) and internal (house of happiness). The yards were led by 2 super-influential eunuchs: the outer one - Kapu-Agasy, the inner one - Kyzlar-Agasy (the head of the girls).

The political system was sharply terroristic in nature. Without a powerful army, this was impossible.

Kapikulu is a professional army.

Eyalet Askeri - provincial feudal militia.

Once every 3/5 years, a devshirme was held - recruitment into the Janissary corps. They recruited from peasant boys 6 years old and slaves. The Janissary corps was divided into orts (companies) of 40 people, later up to 700 people.

1649 - the last devshirme, after that the Janissary corps began to reproduce itself thanks to the permission of marriages.

Janissaries could not wear beards, as a death penalty - only strangulation. If they did not fight, then they went to construction work. Each orta has its own symbol, which was tattooed. By the 17th century, they lost their fighting qualities, began to engage in trade. By 1726 there were 45,000 of them.

Ulufe - the salary of the Janissaries, paid 4 times a year. Esame - paybook. Janissaries got into debt. If the Janissaries owe too much, then they simply overthrew the emperor. The sultans could not fight it.

?Pishkesh?- a gift from the emperor to the Janissaries when he ascended the throne.

Agricultural system

Timar - official land grant (less than 20 thousand avche). Timars were divided into hassa-chiftlik (“special field”) and hisse (“share”). A feudal lord who owns a hisse is obliged to put up soldiers, and a hassa-chiftlik was given for bravery, and soldiers were not required from this land.

Zeamet - land grant more than timar (20 - 100 thousand avche)

Hass is the largest land award. (Income over 100 thousand avche gold)

Barat is a letter of commendation.

Due to high corruption, there were 10 berats for ten different people per timar, so the Turks left the land, the peasants fled to Serbia, Croatia, India. In reality, income norms were not respected. By the 19th century, Turkey was in a stagnant state.

Yurt (yurtluk) - land ownership of the leaders of nomadic tribes. Usually they were on the border and were not sown.

Waqf - church land ownership. Occurs as a result of donation. The person who donated the land retains the right to manage the waqf, plus receives part of the income. Waqf cannot be sold, but can be exchanged for an equivalent one.

Mulk is a private property. Mulk lands accounted for 3% of all lands. You can do whatever you want with them, although they were not absolute private property: the emperor could take away the land, because. he himself gave it.

1. Civil - servicemen;

   Spiritual.

Life was worst in the mulk and waqf lands.

Peasant position:

Multezim is a farmer. Iltizam is a paying system.

The peasants have no real money, only subsistence farming. Multezim buys the right to pay off the tax (mukataa), contributes money to the treasury, takes away food from the peasant, and sells goods on the market. The difference is net income.

The peasants are obliged to support the feudal lords, for the fact that they provide them with a chief (land from 6 to 16 hectares). For the first receipt of the chift, the peasant must pay tapu. If the peasant did not process the allotment within one year, he lost it. The term was later extended to three years. The peasant is attached to the land. The term of detecting fugitive peasants is from 15 to 20 years. The term of investigation in Istanbul is 1 year and 1 day. If a person built a house in one night, no matter on what land, then the house cannot be demolished.

Rhea is a taxable population.

Beraaya - non-taxable population.

Forms of rent:

Development (corvee);

natural;

Monetary.

Ashar - a tenth of the harvest, which is charged from Muslims (Really paid 1/3-1/2).

Kharaj was paid by non-Muslims.

Agnam - a tax on livestock (1 head from 50 - to the feudal lord, 1 akche from 3 heads - to the state).

Marriage tax - 10-20 akçe from the very poor, 30-40 akçe from middle-class peasants, 50 akçe from wealthy peasants.

Resmi-chift - land tax.

Jizya - all able-bodied non-Muslims pay for not serving in the army (except for women, children and slaves).

Spaniards are paid by all non-Muslim men and women.

Since the Empire was constantly at war, the peasants were attracted to work. Avariz - participation in hostilities. Bedel - cash payment instead of avariz.

Corvee 7 days a year:

Build / repair the house of the feudal lord;

Transportation of goods;

Give daughters to the house of the feudal lord.

Chiftlikchi - landowners.

The specifics of Turkish slavery:

Slaves were used for domestic work;

Slaves do not have land, they were just householders.

Ortakchi (share sharecropper, small rural entrepreneur) invests funds in the land together with the feudal lord, the harvest is divided in half.

Nomads are the most Turkish Turks:

Complete freedom of movement;

Their pastures are forbidden to be plowed;

They were only under the authority of their leaders;

They had the right to bear arms;

In case of war, one man out of five must be sent to the army, horseback, crowded and armed.

Used in military construction work, because. they were not very good at fighting.

By the end of the 17th century, the military fief, vassal fief, timar system had decomposed.

City life

In the 17th century, the situation of cities improved, because. The empire is expanding, military conflicts have gone to the periphery, the Ottoman Empire is waging war on foreign territories. The sultans themselves need crafts, because. need a weapon. At first, the sultans set moderate taxes, built caravanserais, tried to stop strife, tried to build roads, but all efforts were broken by the corruption of local authorities. Bazaar tax: 1 akce from 40 proceeds (for cloth, leather, honey ...). Counterfeiting has disappeared in the country. There are two main markets in Istanbul: Bezistan ("country of fabrics"), Etmaydan (meat square). Two city centers - a bazaar and a mosque, where courts were held.

Craftsmen were structured into guild organizations - Esnafs. There are no national or regional markets in the country. There is no division of labor, each master makes his own cycle. There is little use of hired labor. Tools of labor are manual and primitive. Little by little, merchants-buyers appeared, but the Esnafs fought with them. Esnaf-bashi is at the head of the shop. In especially important workshops, the esnafbashi was appointed by the state, there was basically a democracy. At the esnaf-bashi big power over the masters, because only he could buy raw materials. Esnafs set prices, norms and standards of production, market days. It was forbidden to lure buyers. Esnaf Hayeti - workshop council. Esnaf-bashi had his own coercion committee - yigit-bashi. Mandatory monopoly on production and marketing. The main problem is power. In the event of war, the state seized goods at fixed prices, which it set itself. Avani - illegal extortion of local authorities.

Reasons for the decline of the Ottoman Empire

In the XVIII century. The Eastern question is the question of the fate of the territories that previously constituted the Ottoman Empire. The Isman Empire is ready to disintegrate already in the 19th century, but it was supported by countries;

Conflict between France and Spain. 1535 - the first contacts between France and the Ottoman Empire, because France was surrounded by the Habsburgs and had no one to cooperate with;

The issue of influence in the Baltic Sea (Russia vs Sweden). Sweden is an "ally" of Turkey (the common enemy is Russia).

Reasons for the collapse of the country:

The collapse of the military fief system;

Not legal protection private property, therefore, capital is exported abroad (to France);

Surrender regime - a system of unequal trade agreements with Western countries. In 1535, Francis I achieves the first capitulation - unilateral benefits;

The Portuguese open a sea route around Africa;

Christopher Columbus discovers America, after which a flood of gold and silver rushed to Western Europe. All this was followed by a price revolution, and the value of the acce fell;

Formation centralized states in Europe, the end of the turmoil in Russia => 2 powerful enemies of the Ottoman Empire.