Useful data for tourists about Switzerland, cities and resorts of the country. As well as information about the population, currency of Switzerland, cuisine, features of visa and customs restrictions in Switzerland.

Geography of Switzerland

The Swiss Confederation is a state in central Europe bordering Germany, France, Italy, Austria and Liechtenstein.

Almost all of Switzerland lies in the mountains of the Alps and Jura. The highest peak is Dufour Peak (4634 m) in the south of the country.

State

State structure

Federal republic (confederation), consisting of 23 cantons, each of which has its own constitution, parliament and government. The head of state is the president. The legislature is the bicameral Federal Assembly (National Council and Council of Cantons). Executive power is exercised by the Federal Council (Government) of 7 Federal Councilors (Ministers).

Language

Official language: German, French, Italian

In the northeast of the country, they speak Retroman. Most Swiss speak English.

Religion

About 48% are Catholics, 46% are Protestants, and 6% are other religions.

Currency

International name: CHF

The Swiss franc is equal to 100 centimes (rappen in German Switzerland). In circulation there are denominations of 10, 20, 50, 100, 500 and 1000 francs, as well as coins of 5, 2, 1 franc, 50, 20, 10 and 5 centimes.

Many stores accept convertible currency and accept all major credit cards and traveler's checks. You can change money at any bank branch, in the evening - at exchange offices of large department stores, airports and some travel agencies. It is better to change money abroad, since in Switzerland itself the exchange rate of the national currency is too high.

History of Switzerland

The history of Switzerland dates back to the 12th millennium BC. It was then that the territory covered with eternal snows, under the onslaught of global warming, began to free itself from ice. Gradually, the white cover changed into green, and the "revived" earth found its first inhabitants from the human race.

In ancient times, Switzerland was inhabited by the Celtic tribes of the Helvetii, hence its ancient name - Helvetia. Around the 1st century BC, after the campaigns of Julius Caesar, the country was conquered by the Romans and gained worldwide fame. In the 5th century AD, during the era of the Great Migration of Peoples, it was captured by the Alemanni, Burgundians and Ostrogoths; in the VI century - the Franks. In the 11th century, Switzerland became part of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation.

Initially, the Swiss were not a single nation, while Switzerland itself was a union of communities (cantons) that aspired to self-government. At the beginning of August 1291, the peasants of the forested cantons of Schwyz, Uri and Unterwalden, who lived on the shores of Lake Firwaldstet, entered into an alliance and swore an oath to help each other in the struggle against the rule of the Habsburg dynasty; in a stubborn struggle they defended their independence. The Swiss celebrate this joyful event to this day: August 1 - National holiday Switzerland - salutes and fireworks light up the Swiss sky in memory of events more than seven centuries ago.

For two centuries, Swiss troops have been victorious over the feudal armies of dukes, kings and kaisers. Provinces and cities began to join the original union. The united allies sought to expel the Habsburgs, gradually expanding their borders. In 1499, after the victory over Kaiser Maximilian I of Habsburg, Switzerland freed itself from the domination of the empire. In 1513, there were already 13 cantons in the union. Each canton was absolutely sovereign - there was no common army, no common constitution, no capital, no central government.

In the 16th century, a severe crisis began in Switzerland. The reason for this was the split in christian church. Geneva and Zurich became centers of activity for the Protestant reformers Calvin and Zwingli. In 1529 Switzerland began religious war. Only a serious danger emanating from outside prevented the complete disintegration of the state. In 1798, the French invaded Switzerland and transformed it into a unitary Helvetic Republic. For fifteen years the country was under their rule. The situation changed only in 1815, when the Swiss introduced their own constitution with equal rights for 22 sovereign cantons. In the same year, the Peace Congress of Vienna recognized the "permanent neutrality" of Switzerland and determined its borders, which are still inviolable. However, the unity of the union of cantons was not reliably ensured by the organization of a sufficiently strong central authority. Only under the constitution of 1948, the fragile union turned into a single state - federal Switzerland.

The history of Switzerland dates back to the 12th millennium BC. It was then that the territory covered with eternal snows, under the onslaught of global warming, began to free itself from ice. Gradually changed the white cover turned into green, and the "revived" earth found its first inhabitants from the human race....

Popular Attractions

Tourism in Switzerland

Where to stay

Switzerland is a country with a high standard of living, which has not bypassed such an area as the tourism business. All hotels in this country have own classification and are characterized by a high level of service.

The highest category - Swiss Deluxe - includes hotels located in old historical buildings, completely renovated and adapted to the needs of guests. The windows of such a room will offer a beautiful view, the interior will delight the eye with sophistication. The hotels of this category operate not only first-class restaurants, but also golf courses, SPA centers and much more.

The SWISS Quality standard includes five classes of hotels (similar to stars), which are located in large or resort cities. Five stars, or SWISS Quality Excellence, is given to hotels with a high level of service, meticulous interior design, upscale restaurants, etc.

Four stars, or SWISS Quality Superior, are hotels in which, in addition to special comfort, guests will be offered to use a restaurant, a modern conference room, a gym or spa services. Hotels that are awarded three stars also please with good service and are suitable for both tourist groups and businessmen.

The campsites in Switzerland, which are located in the picturesque corners of the country, also have a gradation from 1 to 5 stars. Please note that unauthorized placement outside the campsite is fraught with a police visit and a fine.

In small towns, you can rent a room in private hotels or live in a real peasant house. For those who prefer some extreme sports, there is an opportunity to spend the night in a real hayloft.

In winter, mountain chalets are very popular. However, keep in mind that they must be ordered in advance.

Office Hours

Banks are open from 8 a.m. to 4 p.m. (some until 6 p.m.) on weekdays, with a break from 12 a.m. to 2 p.m. Once a week, banks are open longer than usual. Currency exchange points at airports and railway stations open daily from 8 am to 10 pm, often around the clock.

Shops are open on weekdays from 8.30 to 18.30, some are open until 22. On Saturday, all shops are open from 8 to 12 and from 14 to 16. In large cities, some shops are open without a lunch break, but are closed on Monday morning .

Purchases

Value Added Tax (VAT) in Switzerland is 7.5%. In hotels and restaurants, all taxes are included in the bill. When buying in one store for more than 500 francs, you can get a VAT refund. To do this, you need to get a "Tax-free Shopping Check" check in the store (a passport is required), according to which, when leaving the country, you must pay VAT at the bank at the airport or stamp it. In this case, upon returning home, the stamped form must be mailed in order to receive a receipt with a VAT refund. In large stores, VAT is refunded on the spot upon presentation of a passport.

Safety

The crime rate in Switzerland is very low. However, beware of pickpockets and bag snatchers.

Emergency Phones

Police - 117
Fire services - 118
Ambulance - 14

Questions and opinions about Switzerland

Question answer

SWITZERLAND
Swiss Confederation, state in Central Europe. According to the state structure - a federal republic. The area of ​​the country is 41.3 thousand square meters. km. It borders Germany in the north, France in the west, Italy in the south, and Austria and Liechtenstein in the east. The northern border runs partly along Lake Constance and the Rhine, which starts in the center of the Swiss Alps and forms part of the eastern border. The western border runs along the Jura mountains, the southern - along the Italian Alps and Lake Geneva. The capital of Switzerland is Bern.

Switzerland. The capital is Bern. Population - 7100 thousand people (1997). Population density: 172 people per 1 sq. km. Urban population - 61%, rural - 39% (1996). Area - 41.3 thousand square meters. km. The most high point- Peak Dufour (4634 m above sea level). The most low point- 192 m above sea level National languages ​​- German, French, Italian, Romansh. The main religions are Catholicism, Protestantism. Administrative-territorial division - 20 cantons and 6 semi-cantons. Monetary unit: Swiss franc = 100 rappenam (centimes). National holiday: Founding Day of the Confederation ("Oath of Rütli") - 1 August. National anthem: "Swiss psalm".

NATURE
Surface structure. Three natural regions are distinguishable on the territory of Switzerland: the Jura mountain range in the northwest, the Swiss plateau (plateau) in the center and the Alps in the southeast. The Jura Mountains, separating Switzerland and France, stretch from Geneva to Basel and Schaffhausen. They alternate mountain folds with a predominance of limestone and valleys; folds in places cut through small rivers, forming valleys with steep slopes (clouses). Agriculture is possible only in the valleys; the gentle slopes of the mountains are covered with forests or used as pastures. The Swiss plateau was formed on the site of a trough between the Jura and the Alps, which was filled with loose glacial deposits in the Pleistocene and is currently cut by numerous rivers. The surface of the plateau is hilly, agriculture is developed in wide valleys, and the interfluves are covered with forests. Most of the country's population is concentrated here, big cities and industrial centers. The most fertile agricultural lands and pastures are concentrated in the same region. Almost the entire southern half of Switzerland is occupied by the Alps. These high, uneven, snow-covered mountains are dissected by deep gorges. In the ridge zone there are firn fields and glaciers (10% of the country's territory). The wide bottom of the main valleys is used for fields and arable land. The area is sparsely populated. The Alps serve as the main source of income, since the picturesque nature of the highlands attracts many tourists and climbers. The highest peaks are Dufour peak (4634 m) in the Monte Rosa massif on the border with Italy, Dom (4545 m), Weisshorn (4505 m), Matterhorn (4477 m), Grand Combin (4314 m), Finsterarhorn (4274 m ) and Jungfrau (4158 m).

Rivers and lakes. Most of Switzerland is irrigated by the Rhine and its tributary Aare (the most important of its tributaries are the Reuss and the Limmat). Southwestern regions belong to the drainage basin of the Rhone, the southern - to the Ticino basin and the southeast - to the Inn river basin (a tributary of the Danube). The rivers of Switzerland have no navigable value. On the Rhine, navigation is supported only as far as Basel. Switzerland is famous for its lakes, the most picturesque of them are located along the edges of the Swiss plateau - Geneva, Thun in the south, Firwaldstet, Zurich in the east, Neuchâtel and Biel in the north. Most of these lakes are of glacial origin: they were formed during an era when large glaciers descended from the mountains to the Swiss plateau. South of the axis of the Alps in the canton of Ticino are the lakes of Lugano and Lago Maggiore.

Climate. In Switzerland, there are pronounced climatic differences due to altitude and exposure to the sun and winds. The climate is humid, on the plateau - moderately warm, in the mountains - cold. Daily temperatures in the lowlands fluctuate on average during the year from 10 to 16°C, in summer they rise to 27°C or more. The hottest month is July, the coldest month is January. The highest peaks of the Alps are covered with eternal snows. The snow line rises to 2700 m on the western slopes and up to 3200 m on the eastern slopes. In winter, the temperature drops below 0 ° C throughout the country, with the exception of the northern shore of Lake Geneva and the shores of lakes Lugano and Lago Maggiore, part of which belongs to Italy. The climate there is as mild as in northern Italy, because the mountains protect against the intrusion of cold northern winds (bizet). In January-February, under conditions of high pressure over the Alps, clear cold weather sets in, favorable for winter sports. The southern slopes at this time receive a lot of solar heat. In Switzerland, sharp strong winds accompanied by rain and snow. Foehns prevail in spring, summer and autumn - warm dry winds blowing from the east and southeast. Since the currents of moist air from the side mediterranean sea rise up the slopes of the Alps, and then descend to the Swiss plateau, on the southern slopes of precipitation almost twice as much as on the northern ones. The average annual precipitation in Basel (277 m above sea level) is 810 mm, in Lausanne (375 m) on the northern shore of Lake Geneva - 1040 mm, and in Davos (1580 m) in the southeast of the country - 970 mm.
Flora and fauna. The Swiss Plateau is located in the zone of European broadleaf forests. The predominant species are oak and beech, in some places pine is mixed with them. On the southern slope of the Alps, the chestnut tree is typical. Higher on the slopes of the mountains, coniferous forests grow, forming a transitional belt between broad-leaved forests and alpine meadows (on high altitudes). There are many bright colors in the mountains. In spring, crocuses and daffodils bloom, in summer - rhododendrons, saxifrage, gentian and edelweiss. The animal world has been strongly influenced economic activity person. While the snow partridge and mountain hare are still quite common, such characteristic animals of the upper tiers as roe deer, marmot and chamois are much less common. Great efforts are being made to protect wildlife. in Swiss national park, located near the border with Austria, roe deer and chamois live, less often - alpine mountain goat and fox; there are also white partridge and several species of birds of prey.
POPULATION
ethnic groups. The Swiss constitute a close-knit national community, although the population consists of ethnic groups speaking different languages ​​(German, French, Italian and Romansh) and often differing in religion. However, mutual tolerance and goodwill allow them to live and work in one country. A typical national image of the Swiss was formed - a short, stocky brown-haired or blond with brown or gray eyes, having a reputation as an enterprising, hardworking person with business acumen. Many Swiss hold key positions in the economy of other countries. There are many foreigners living in Switzerland. In 1997, foreign workers and other foreigners made up 19.4% of the country's population. Most of the unskilled work in Switzerland is done by foreign workers, who come mainly from Italy and other countries in southern and eastern Europe.
Languages. official languages Switzerland - German, French and Italian. Romansh, which is derived from Latin and also has national status, is spoken by approximately 1% of the country's population. The most widely spoken German language is local dialect- Alemannic (schwitzerduch) - used by 73% of Swiss citizens and 64% of the country's population. French is spoken approx. 19% of the population, predominantly in the cantons of Geneva, Vaud, Neuchâtel, Friborg and Valais. Italian is spoken by approx. 4% of Swiss citizens (mainly in the canton of Ticino), and taking into account foreign workers - 8% of the country's population. Romansh is spoken only in the mountainous canton of Graubünden.
Religion. In the late 1990s, 46% of the Swiss population were Catholics, 40% were Protestants. The proportion of Protestants declined after World War II due to the influx of foreign workers, predominantly Catholics. As a result of a national referendum in 1973, two articles of the constitution were repealed, which prohibited the activities of the Jesuit order and the formation of religious orders. Confessional differences in Switzerland do not always coincide with linguistic boundaries. Among the Protestants one can find both French-speaking Calvinists and German-speaking followers of Zwingli. The centers of German-speaking Protestantism are Zurich, Bern and Appenzell. The majority of French-speaking Protestants live in the canton of Geneva and the neighboring cantons of Vaud and Neuchâtel. Catholics predominate in central Switzerland around the city of Lucerne, in most of the French-speaking cantons of Friborg and Valais, and in the Italian-speaking canton of Ticino. There are small Jewish communities in Zurich, Basel and Geneva.
Population. In 1997, the population of Switzerland was 7097 thousand people and was concentrated mainly in the lowland areas. Large industrial centers - Zurich, Basel and Geneva - are characterized by the highest population density. The largest cities in the country (population in thousands in 1997): Zurich (339), Geneva (173), Basel (171), Bern (124), Lausanne (114), Winterthur (87), St. Gallen (71) and Lucerne (58).

STATE AND POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
Federalism and Democracy. The basic principles of the Swiss constitution of 1874 are federalism and democracy. Article 3 of the constitution guarantees to the 20 cantons and 6 half-cantons into which Switzerland is divided all the rights of self-government, with the exception of those that are the prerogative of the federal government. These include the declaration of war and the conclusion of peace, the signing international treaties and entry into unions, training, material support and management of the armed forces, regulation of foreign trade. The federal government and the cantons have the right to impose taxes. In addition, the federal government exercises control over communications, higher education, and labor. The adoption of the principle of federalism played a significant role in uniting the very heterogeneous canton states into the first all-Swiss federal state in 1848. Over time, the federal government began to more actively influence all aspects of the country's life. Nevertheless, the Swiss still feel a strong attachment to their native cantons and their traditions. Until 1971, Switzerland was one of the few countries in the world where women did not have the right to vote at the national level. In February 1971, the male electorate approved a constitutional amendment that gave the country's women the right to vote and be elected in federal elections. At the cantonal level voting rights women were delayed: in the German-speaking semi-canton of Appenzell-Innerrhoden, women finally gained the right to vote only in 1991. In the electoral rights, the Swiss constitution includes mandatory referenda on all constitutional amendments, popular initiatives to put forward such amendments, and legislative referendums on certain laws and contracts. The same rights, often in conjunction with legislative initiative, apply at the cantonal and local levels. In addition, in some cantons, direct democracy has been preserved in the form of a general assembly of residents (Landsgemeinde): this is a system of direct participation of all voters of the canton or locality in the approval of certain laws and the election of officials. Following a referendum held in March 1991, the voting age for federal elections was lowered from 20 to 18.
Political system. The main organs of the Swiss Confederation are the federal council, the federal assembly and the federal court. The executive body is the federal council of seven members elected by parliament for a term of four years. The only formal limitation on the composition of this body is that only one deputy can be elected from each canton. However, in fact, the composition of the council is strictly limited by tradition: for example, it must necessarily represent the main geographical regions of the country and two of the language groups (French and Italian). Since 1959, the composition of the council has reflected as far as possible the influence of the main political parties. Each year, one of the members of the council is elected President of Switzerland, but this position is not vested with special powers. The legislative body of Switzerland - the Federal Assembly - consists of two chambers: the Council of the Cantons, to which two representatives are elected from each canton and one from each half-canton, and the National Council of 200 deputies, elected in proportion to the population of the cantons. The Assembly is elected for a term of four years. It has the usual legislative powers, but some laws must be approved by popular referendum. The Federal Court of Switzerland is located in Lausanne, the other main government bodies are in Bern. The federal court functions as the country's supreme court, although it cannot declare federal laws unconstitutional. There are no lower federal courts, since the courts of the cantons are responsible for the application federal laws at the lower levels. The federal court is composed of 26-28 judges and 11-13 jurors, sitting in separate rooms, depending on the nature of the case. The members of the court are elected by the federal assembly for a term of six years. At the cantonal level, executive power is exercised by the state or government council, which consists of 5 to 11 members, headed by the president (Landmann). Council members are elected by the people of the cantons for a term of 4 years (except Friborg, Appenzell-Ausserrhoden and Appenzell-Innerrhoden) and in some smaller cantons work for voluntary. Most cantons have a single legislature - a grand council, land council, or canton council, also elected for a four-year term. The legal bodies of the canton are represented by courts of two or three levels, depending on the size of the canton. Most of the local features of Swiss justice were eliminated with the introduction of a unified national code of civil, commercial and criminal law in 1942.
Political parties. Switzerland has a multi-party system. On the right wing is the Christian Democratic People's Party (formerly the Conservative Social Christian or Conservative Catholic). She sees her main task in protecting the teachings and institutions Roman Catholic Church and in upholding the rights of the cantons. The left flank is occupied by the Social Democratic (or Socialist) Party, which advocates broad social reforms including greater state involvement in economic life country, but subject to partnership between the state and private enterprise. At the center of the political spectrum is the Radical Democratic Party of Switzerland. She was truly radical by the standards of the 19th century when she set the policy of the country. In modern conditions, this party has become relatively conservative. Each of the three parties holds about a fifth of all seats in the national council. This balance of power is maintained from election to election, which provides Switzerland with political harmony and stability. Since 1959, each of these parties has had two of the seven seats in the Federal Council, and the remaining seat is occupied by a representative of the largest of the other parties, the Swiss People's Party (formerly the Party of Peasants, Craftsmen and Burghers). Other smaller parties include the Greens, the Union of Independents, the Liberal Party and the Freedom Party (formerly the Motorist Party). The latter, formed in 1985, defends the rights of car drivers and advocates for the restriction of immigration. The Swiss Armed Forces are based on the National Militia system. Military service is universal and compulsory for all men between the ages of 20 and 50, with periodic fees. In the mid-1990s, in the event of full mobilization, the Swiss army would have numbered 625 thousand people. The country's air force consists of 250 combat units. There are no soldiers among the professional military personnel: there are 1,600 officers and sergeants who serve as instructors.
Switzerland as an international center. Switzerland adheres to the traditional policy of neutrality and therefore does not join the UN. However, it takes part in the work of all specialized organizations of the UN; Geneva is home to the headquarters of the World Trade Organization, the International Labor Organization, the World Health Organization, the International Telecommunications Union, the World Meteorological Organization, and the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. Other organizations based in Switzerland are the World Council of Churches and the International Red Cross founded by the Swiss Henri Dunant.
ECONOMY
General characteristics. Switzerland is poor in natural resources, except for hydropower. Nevertheless, it is a prosperous country, in many respects the richest in Europe, primarily due to the high development of manufacturing and services (tourism is especially important). During the period 1950-1990, the economy developed steadily, unemployment was kept low, inflation was kept in check by the Swiss National Bank, and the downturns in business activity were short-lived. The economic recession that engulfed most of Europe in the early 1990s also affected Switzerland: unemployment reached its highest level since 1939, and inflation rose. Nevertheless, the standard of living in the country remained still very high. In 1997, the gross domestic product (GDP) of Switzerland was nominally estimated at 365 billion Swiss francs, in reality - at 316 billion. In per capita terms - 51.4 thousand Swiss francs (nominally) and 44.5 thousand (real).
Labor resources. In 1996, about 28% of the working population of Switzerland were employed in industry (in 1996 it was estimated at 3.8 million people), in agriculture and forestry - 5% and 6% - in the service sector. Of these last ca. 23% worked in hotels, restaurants, wholesale and retail trade, approx. 11% - in banking and credit, insurance and entrepreneurship, approx. 6% in the transport and communications system. The unemployment rate in Switzerland in 1997 was 5.2%. In the same year, there were 936 thousand foreign workers who had a temporary residence permit in the country, of which 30% were Italians and 15% were Yugoslavs. In the early 1960s, the share of foreigners in the labor force was as high as 30%, but at the end of the same decade it dropped to 15% as a result of restrictions imposed by the Swiss government. During the 1990s, foreign workers accounted for over 25% of all employed. They perform most of the work that does not require qualifications, many of them are employed in construction, metallurgy and engineering.
Industry. The high standard of living of the Swiss population was achieved thanks to the large-scale development of various industries. The Swiss watch industry has won world fame, concentrated mainly in the western part of the country (La Chaux-de-Fonds, Neuchâtel, Geneva) and Schaffhausen, Thun, Bern and Olten. In the 1970s, due to the competition of countries East Asia this branch of the Swiss economy was going through a severe crisis, but in the 1980s it was overcome by the production of inexpensive electronic clock. The textile industry, the oldest in the country, was for many years the most important industry. However, during World War II there was a shift in favor of metallurgy and chemical industry, and during the 1980s, the production of machinery and equipment developed rapidly. In the 1990s, the production of chemical products and medicines, scientific and measuring instruments, optical instruments, machine tools and foodstuffs, especially cheese and chocolate, played a large role. Footwear, paper, leather and rubber products stood out among other industrial products.
International trade. highly developed international trade Switzerland is based on the export of industrial products such as machinery, watches, medicines, electronic equipment, chemicals and clothing. In 1991, the share of manufacturing products accounted for approx. 90% of the country's export earnings. Export structure in 1997: 20% - machinery and equipment; 9% - electrical machinery and equipment; 9% - products organic chemistry; 9% - pharmaceutical products; 6% - precision instruments and watches, 6% - precious metals, 4% - artificial materials. The Swiss foreign trade balance usually had a deficit, which was traditionally covered by the import of foreign capital, income from the export of capital, income from foreign tourism, insurance and transportation. In the mid-1990s, thanks to an improvement in imports, a small positive balance of foreign trade was achieved for the first time: in 1997, the value of exports amounted to 105.1 billion Swiss francs, and imports - 103.1 billion. Leading foreign trade partners of Switzerland are the Federal Republic of Germany, the USA, Italy, France and UK. Switzerland was one of the founding countries of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) in 1959, in 1972 Swiss voters approved a free trade agreement with the European Economic Community (now the European Union, EU), in 1977 all duties on manufactured goods were abolished. In 1992, Switzerland applied for EU membership, but later that year, Swiss voters voted against the country's entry into the European Economic Area (EEA). This project was aimed at facilitating the free movement of labor, goods, services and capital in 7 EFTA countries and 12 EU countries. After that, Switzerland concluded an agreement with the EU on limited participation in the EEA; as a result, Switzerland has reduced duties on goods transported through its territory by EU member states.
Agriculture. About 12% of the area of ​​Switzerland is used for arable land and another 28% for extensive cattle breeding and dairy production. Approximately one third of the country's territory is occupied by unproductive lands (according to at least unsuitable for agriculture), especially in the cantons of Uri, Valais and Grisons, and a quarter is covered with forests. Not surprisingly, 40% of food products have to be imported. At the same time, Switzerland provides itself with wheat, meat and dairy products are produced in excess. The main centers of agriculture are concentrated in the cantons of Bern, Vaud, Zurich, Friborg and Aargau. The main crops are wheat, potatoes and sugar beets. In 1996, there were 1,772,000 cattle in the country (of which about 40% were dairy cows), 1,580,000 pigs, 442,000 sheep, and 52,000 goats. A large timber processing industry works for the domestic and foreign markets. In recent years, however, Switzerland's forests have been hit hard by air pollution, forcing the government to impose strict controls on car exhaust emissions.
Energy. In 1996, 54% of energy in Switzerland was generated by hydroelectric power plants built on numerous mountain rivers. Five nuclear power plants satisfy most of the country's energy needs. Nevertheless, the use of nuclear energy remains in question: in 1990, Swiss voters approved a ten-year moratorium on the construction of new nuclear power plants. Switzerland has long been a major oil importer, but natural gas imports beginning in 1974 and energy conservation measures have led to a reduction in oil imports. In 1991, crude oil came to Switzerland mainly from Libya and Great Britain, while refined products came from Germany, the Benelux countries and France. The main suppliers of natural gas are Germany and the Netherlands.
Transport and communication. Switzerland has a highly developed transport system. Rhine, the largest shipping line water artery, navigable within Switzerland only on the Basel-Rheinfelden section, 19 km long. A large river port was put into operation in Basel. In the 1990s, its annual cargo turnover was 9 million tons. Great importance for the transport of industrial goods also has a canal Rhine - Rhone. The length of the railway network in Switzerland in 1995 was 5719 km. The railways are almost completely nationalized and electrified and are among the best in Europe. Since they were laid in conditions of highly rugged terrain, the construction of numerous bridges and tunnels was required. In 1995 there were over 71,380 km of first-class highways. The car park in 1996 reached almost 3.3 million, i.e. There was one car for every two people in the country. In 1964, the Grand Saint Bernard tunnel was opened, the first road tunnel in the Alps. Built in 1980, the Gotthard Tunnel is currently the longest road tunnel in the world (16.4 km). Switzerland is the only landlocked country with a significant navy. In 1941, she purchased several ocean-going ships to carry important goods during World War II, and continued to expand her fleet after the war. In 1985, the cargo turnover of its merchant fleet was estimated at 225.4 million registered tons. The fleet includes many modern ships designed to carry from 6 thousand to 10 thousand tons of cargo, as well as several tankers. The federal government owns all telephone and telegraph lines, as well as the radio and television network. In the 1980s, a major modernization program for telecommunications systems was implemented.
Money circulation and banking activity. Switzerland is one of the most important financial centers peace. Its banking system far exceeds the volume required for domestic transactions. There are two interconnected banking systems: the state system, including the Swiss National Bank and cantonal banks, and the private banking system. The Swiss National Bank, which began operations in 1907, is the only financial institution that issues national currency. The main monetary unit - the Swiss franc - is one of the most stable currencies in the world. The National Bank is controlled by the federal authorities and has a great influence on economic policy confederation. The Swiss private banking system in the 1990s consisted of several large commercial banks that were part of the "big four": Schweizerischer Bankverein (SBF), Schweizerische Bankgesellschaft (SBG), Schweizerische Creditanstalt and Schweizerische Volskbank. In 1997, the "big four" became the "big three" after the merger of the SBG with the SBF. There are also 28 cantonal banks, hundreds of regional and savings banks, financial companies and other banks, 20 of which are owned by foreigners. The role of foreign banks is increasing: in the late 1990s, they owned more than 10% of Swiss bank holdings. Depositors have long been attracted to Swiss banks: in accordance with the Swiss banking law of 1934, banks are prohibited from providing information about their customers without their consent. Under pressure from other governments, especially the United States, regulations have been passed to allow disclosure of secrecy of deposits, especially when depositors are under investigation for currency crimes such as counterfeiting and trade in confidential information. After much debate, the Swiss government in the late 1990s also allowed the secrecy of deposits in connection with the search for funds belonging to the victims of the Nazi genocide. The Swiss Stock Exchange is one of the most active international stock and bond markets. The stock exchange in Zurich is the largest in continental Europe. Switzerland also plays important role in the global insurance market, especially in the field of commercial insurance. Some of the leading Swiss insurance companies derive more than half of their income from operations on the foreign market.
Tourism. The tourism industry is one of Switzerland's vital sources of income. In 1996, more than 18 million people stayed in Switzerland for holidays, mainly from Germany, Great Britain, France, the USA, the Benelux countries and Scandinavia.
Public finances. The Swiss budget is usually more or less balanced, but in the early 1990s, due to the recession of the economy, the expenditure part of the budget increased. In 1997, expenditures were estimated at 44.1 billion Swiss francs and revenues at 38.9 billion. The main sources of income were income taxes, sales taxes and import duties.
SOCIETY AND CULTURE
Education. Universal primary and secondary education is administered by the cantonal authorities, so the age limit for compulsory education fluctuates. Most children attend school between the ages of 7 and 15 or 16. Almost all public schools are free. There are practically no illiterates in the country. Switzerland has many private schools that accept students from all over the world. There are 9 universities in the country - in Basel, Zurich, Bern, Geneva, Lausanne, Friborg, Neuchâtel, Lugano and St. Gallen. All of them are under the control of the cantons. There are many foreign students studying at universities. There are several other higher educational institutions. The total number of students in 1997/1998 was 93,000.
The development of culture. Switzerland is a country with a rich cultural heritage. She gave the world many outstanding artists, writers and scientists. These are Nikolaus Manuel (1484-1530), a talented Renaissance artist, and the physician Paracelsus (c. 1493-1541), who is considered the first natural scientist of the Modern Age. The theologian Nikolai Fluessky (1417-1487), who was canonized in 1947, received wide recognition. Switzerland is associated with the activities of the great religious reformers - Huldrych Zwingli (1484-1531) and John Calvin (1509-1564), as well as prominent psychologists Carl Gustav Jung (1895-1961) and Jean Piaget (1896-1980). Renowned Swiss artists include Heinrich Fussli (1742-1825), Ferdinand Hodler (1853-1918) and Paul Klee (1879-1940). Philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), sculptor Alberto Giacometti (1901-1966), architect Le Corbusier (1887-1965), educator Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746-1827) were also natives of Switzerland.
Music and dancing. Swiss musical folklore includes song and instrumental music. A specific song genre of the Alpine highlanders is yodel, characterized by rapid transitions from the chest low voice register to the high head register (falsetto) and vice versa. Famous Swiss composers are Otmar Scheck (1886-1957), Frank Martin (1890-1974) and Willy Burckhard (1900-1955). Arthur Honegger (1892-1955), who belonged to the modern French school, parents were Swiss, and he began to study music in Zurich. In some cities of Switzerland, primarily in Zurich, Basel and Geneva, there are ballet troupes. In 1989 the innovative choreographer Maurice Béjart moved with his dance company from Brussels to Lausanne. Expressive traditional folk dances are shown at national and regional festivals held annually in Switzerland.
Literature. Swiss literature has a rich tradition. Johann Bodmer (1698-1783) and Johann Brettinger (1701-1776) influenced German literature. The famous writer Germaine de Stael (1766-1817) had Swiss parents. The writer and educator Johann Rudolf Wies (1781-1830) is best known as the publisher who published The Swiss Robinson, a book written by his father, Johann David Wies (1743-1818). Johanna Spiri (1827-1901) became famous as the author of the classic children's book Heidi.
Other famous Swiss writers include Jeremiah Gotthelf, Gottfried Keller, Konrad Ferdinand Meyer, Rodolphe Tepffer and Karl Spitteler. Swiss writers of the 20th century Albert Steffen and Charles Ferdinand Ramyu (1878-1947), Max Frisch and Friedrich Dürrenmatt created many wonderful works. Peider Lancel, writing in Romansh, gained a reputation as an outstanding poet. The Swiss historian Jakob Burckhardt is known for his work The Culture of Italy in the Renaissance, and Johann von Müller (1752-1809, he earned the honorific nickname "Swiss Tacitus") for his work Swiss History.
STORY
Creation of the Swiss Confederation. Among the Celtic tribes that inhabited the territory of Switzerland in prehistoric times, the Helvetii stood out, who became allies of the Romans after they were defeated by Julius Caesar at the Battle of Bibract in 58 BC. e. In 15 BC Rets were also conquered by Rome. In the next three centuries, Roman influence contributed to the development of the culture of the population and its Romanization. In the 4th-5th centuries. AD The territory of present-day Switzerland was captured by the Germanic tribes of the Alemanni and Burgundians. In the 6th-7th centuries. it became part of the kingdom of the Franks and in the 8th-9th centuries. was ruled by Charlemagne and his successors. The subsequent fate of these lands is closely connected with the history of the Holy Roman Empire. After the collapse of the Carolingian empire, they were captured by the Swabian dukes in the 10th century, but they could not keep them under their rule, and the region broke up into separate fiefs. In the 12th-13th centuries. attempts were made to unite them under the rule of large feudal lords, such as the Zähringens, the founders of Bern and Friborg, and the Habsburgs. In 1264 the Habsburgs won a dominant position in eastern Switzerland. The Counts of Savoy were entrenched in the west. The Habsburgs encountered strong opposition when they tried to consolidate their holdings by abolishing the privileges of some local communities. At the center of this resistance were the peasants who lived in the mountain valleys of Schwyz (hence the name of the country Switzerland), Uri and Unterwalden. These forested cantons, located along the strategically important road through the St. Gotthard Pass, benefited from the struggle between the Hohenstaufen emperors and the papacy. In 1231 Uri and in 1240 Schwyz received the rights of the imperial territories of the Holy Roman Empire, freeing themselves from dependence on petty feudal lords. After the death of Emperor Frederick II in 1250, a period of decline began in the empire, marked by civil war during the Great Interregnum of 1250-1273. The Habsburgs, who did not recognize the rights of Uri and Schwyz, tried to conquer Schwyz in 1245-1252. Uri and Unterwalden, who entered into a temporary alliance, came to his aid. In August 1291, the Swiss communities entered into a permanent defensive alliance among themselves and signed a treaty known as " Eternal Union", is the first documentary evidence of cooperation between the forest cantons. The official history of the Swiss state begins this year. Part of the traditional legend about these events, associated with the name of William Tell, is not confirmed in historical documents.

Growth and expansion of the confederation. The first proof of the strength of the confederation was given in 1315, when the highlanders of the forest cantons of Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden faced the superior forces of the Habsburgs and their allies. At the Battle of Morgarten they won what is considered one of the most important victories in Swiss history. This victory encouraged other communities to join the confederation as well. In 1332-1353 the cities of Lucerne, Zurich and Bern, rural communities Glarus and Zug made separate agreements with the three united cantons, forming a series of confederations. Although these agreements were not common ground, they were able to ensure the main thing - the independence of each of the participants. Having been defeated in the battles of Sempach in 1386 and Nefels in 1388, the Habsburgs were finally forced to recognize the independence of the cantons, united in a confederation. At the beginning of the 15th century the members of the confederation felt strong enough to go on the offensive. In the course of numerous wars and campaigns against the Austrian Habsburgs and the Holy Roman Empire, the Dukes of Savoy, Burgundy and Milan, and the French King Francis I, the Swiss gained a reputation for magnificent warriors. They were feared by enemies and respected by allies. During the "heroic age" of Swiss history (1415-1513), the territory of the confederation expanded by adding new lands in Aargau, Thurgau, Vaud, and also south of the Alps. 5 new cantons were created. In 1513-1798 Switzerland became a confederation of 13 cantons. In addition to them, the confederation included lands that entered into an alliance with one or more cantons. Constant central authority absent: All-Union Diets were periodically convened, where only full-fledged cantons had the right to vote. There was no all-union administration, army and finance, and this situation remained until the French Revolution.
From the Reformation to the French Revolution. In 1523 Huldrych Zwingli openly challenged the Roman Catholic Church and led a religious reform movement in Zurich. He was supported by the inhabitants of a number of other cities in northern Switzerland, but in rural areas he met resistance. In addition, there were differences with the radical Anabaptist wing of his followers in Zurich itself. The Zwinglian current of Protestantism subsequently merged with the current of John Calvin from Geneva into the Swiss Reformed Church. Since the cantons of central Switzerland remained Catholic, a split along religious lines was inevitable. After short religious clashes, an approximate balance was established between the two religions. In 1648 Switzerland's independence from the Holy Roman Empire was officially recognized by the Treaty of Westphalia. Political life Switzerland in the 18th century was calm. The Bernese naturalist and poet Albrecht von Haller (1708-1777), the historian I. von Müller, and also the philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau, born in Geneva, and the great pedagogue and humanist from Zurich, I. G. Pestalozzi, became famous in the "age of Enlightenment". At this time, a stream of foreign guests rushed to Switzerland, among them - Voltaire, Gibbon and Goethe.
Revolution and restoration of the Confederation. French revolution had a profound influence on Switzerland, both politically and philosophically. In 1798 French troops invaded the country and occupied it. The French granted the conquered cantons a constitution that replaced the loose federation with the "one and indivisible Helvetic Republic". The revolutionary ideas of democracy, civil liberties and centralized power led to the creation of a strong central government for the first time in Swiss history. The constitution of 1798, created on the basis of the constitution of the first French Republic, provided all Swiss equal rights before the law and a code of civil liberties. However, it encroached on traditional federalism, and many Swiss did not want to recognize it. The struggle between the federalists, opponents new system, and the centralists who supported it, temporarily subsided when Napoleon Bonaparte in 1802 granted the republic a constitution known as the "Mediation Act". She restored many of the former privileges of the cantons and expanded the number of cantons from 13 to 19. After the defeat of Napoleon, the cantons dissociated themselves from the regime imposed by the French and tried to revive the old confederation. After lengthy negotiations, a Union Treaty was drawn up, signed in September 1814. It proclaimed the union of 22 sovereign cantons, but did not indicate that they constituted one state. In the declaration Congress of Vienna(March 1815) and the Treaty of Paris (November 1815), the great powers recognized the eternal neutrality of Switzerland.
Civil war and new constitution. Over the next three decades, liberal sentiment grew in Switzerland. In response to the actions of the radicals in the Union Sejm and in some cantons (the closing of the monasteries in Aargau, the expulsion of the Jesuits), seven conservative Catholic cantons formed the defensive alliance of the Sonderbund. In 1847, the Sejm by a small majority announced the dissolution of this association. The federal army under the leadership of General Guillaume Dufour was victorious in civil war before the European powers intervened. As a result of the victory over the Sonderbund, a new constitution was adopted (1848). A balance was struck between the aspirations of the radical centralists and the conservative federalists. From a fragile union of canton states, Switzerland has become a single union state. A permanent body of executive power was created in the form of a federal council of seven members elected by legislature from two chambers - the national council and the council of cantons. The federal government was empowered to issue money, regulate customs regulations and, most importantly, to determine foreign policy. Bern was chosen as the federal capital. The revised constitution of 1874, with subsequent amendments, further strengthened the power of the federal government without jeopardizing the federal foundation of the Swiss state. AT recent decades 19th century Swiss industry developed, construction began railways. Imported raw materials were processed into high-quality products, which then entered the world market.
Switzerland in World Wars. With the outbreak of the First World War, there was a threat to the national unity of Switzerland: the French-speaking Swiss were mainly sympathetic to France, and the German-speaking people to Germany. The four-year mobilization laid a heavy burden on the country's economy, there was a shortage of industrial raw materials, unemployment was growing, and there was not enough food. General discontent culminated in mass strikes in November 1918. In 1919 Geneva was chosen as the headquarters of the League of Nations. Switzerland became a member of this organization only after heated internal debates and after receiving guarantees of respect for its neutrality. The outbreak of World War II found the population of the country more united: few people in Switzerland welcomed Nazism. However, strategically, the position of the confederation was much more vulnerable, since it was surrounded by totalitarian powers.
Foreign policy. With the end of World War II, the League of Nations ceased to exist. Switzerland decided not to join the newly created United Nations (UN) and acquired observer status, which allowed the European headquarters and several UN specialized organizations, including the International Labor Organization and the World Health Organization, to be located in Geneva. Switzerland felt that the refusal to join the UN is the best way to maintain its independent position neutral country with the ever-changing balance of power on the world stage. This decision strengthened the position of Switzerland in international politics. This country is a member of several UN organizations: the International Court of Justice, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. Switzerland provides significant assistance to developing countries. Following a traditional policy of neutrality, Switzerland in the 1950s and early 1960s faced great difficulty on the question of participation in various plans for European integration. In 1948, she joined the Organization for European Economic Cooperation, but refrained from joining the European Economic Community (later the European Union, EU). Obvious political goals this organization were unacceptable to Switzerland. However, it became one of the founding members of the European Free Trade Association in 1959, and in 1963 joined the Council of Europe, again demonstrating its interest in European cooperation. In 1972, a national referendum ratified a free trade agreement with the EU, according to which, by 1977, duties on all industrial products were gradually removed. In 1983, Switzerland became a full member of the Group of Ten, an association of the largest contributors to the International Monetary Fund (IMF).
Political and social changes. In the 1960s, Switzerland faced a severe internal problem. Several French-speaking districts located in the Jura mountains in the canton of Bern demanded the formation of a new canton. This met with resistance from the German-speaking population of the region. To prevent collisions, there were introduced federal troops. In the early 1970s, voters in the canton of Bern approved a referendum in the French-speaking districts on secession. As a result of a series of plebiscites held over a number of years, three of the seven districts and several border communities voted in favor of the creation of a new canton. This new canton was named Jura. The decision was then approved in a national referendum in 1978, and the new canton joined the confederation in 1979. In the 1960s, there was marked tension over the large number of workers from southern European countries who came to work in Switzerland. Despite the traditional international character of the country and the need for the participation of foreigners in its economic life, many Swiss showed a hostile attitude towards migrants from southern Europe and considered them guilty of internal problems countries such as housing shortages. Accordingly, the government introduced restrictions that drastically reduced the proportion of foreigners in the work force. The political movement, which demanded a further reduction in the number of foreign workers, did not achieve much support in the elections, but was able to organize referenda in 1970, 1974 and 1977 on constitutional amendments to limit the proportion of foreigners in the Swiss population. These proposals were not approved, but attempts to limit the presence of foreigners in Switzerland continued into the 1980s and 1990s. In 1982 voters rejected the government's proposal to liberalize the rules governing the stay of foreign workers and their families, and in 1987 immigration was even more restricted. In 1994, referendum participants approved a tightening of the law on the stay of foreigners. Nevertheless, the contingent of foreign workers remains large - 25% of the total number of employees. At the same time, the number of foreign nationals living in Switzerland has risen to around 1.4 million. Many of them are refugees from Bosnia and Herzegovina and developing countries. In the mid-1980s, the Swiss government attempted to end the country's isolation and conclude a series of bilateral and multilateral agreements with EU countries. In a referendum in 1986, Swiss voters overwhelmingly rejected the government's proposal to join the UN, but six years later they voted for Switzerland's participation in the IMF and the World Bank. In December 1992, seven months after the government announced its intention to join the EU, the population rejected the proposal to join the European Economic Area, which since January 1994 included the countries of the European Free Trade Association with the EU in a single free trade area. Switzerland's attitude towards the gradually strengthening EU remained a stumbling block for the country's foreign policy in the late 1990s. The 1995 elections revealed a growing polarization of voters on this issue. The greatest success was achieved, on the one hand, by the Social Democrats, who actively support integration, and on the other, by the right-wing Swiss People's Party, which opposes not only EU accession, but also participation in the European Economic Area and Switzerland's cooperation with other trading and political alliances. The decision in 1996 to allow the Swiss military to participate in the maneuvers and technology programs of the Partnership for Peace organization provoked violent protests in the country. The controversy over the monetary contributions of the victims of the Nazi genocide. In the late 1990s, the Swiss government was involved in an international dispute over the return by private Swiss banks of gold and other valuable property confiscated by Nazi Germany during World War II from victims of the genocide. Also discussed were the deposits and valuables placed by European Jews in Swiss banks before and during the war to keep them from being captured by the Nazis. Immediately after the war, Switzerland agreed to return the stolen deposits to the victims and their heirs. However, in court cases that attracted much public attention in the mid-1990s, private plaintiffs and Jewish lawyer groups claimed that Switzerland had defaulted on its obligations and accused Swiss banks of preventing heirs from accessing "frozen" accounts. deceased contributors. Since 1996, US local and federal politicians and organizations launched a campaign for the return of the so-called. Nazi gold, and many US municipalities, including New York City, threatened to impose economic sanctions on Swiss banks if the latter refused to bail out the plaintiffs. In August 1998, the Schweizerische Creditanstalt banking group and the SBF agreed to pay $1.25 billion in compensation to the victims of the genocide and their heirs. After that, the threats of sanctions were stopped. The controversy damaged the international prestige of Switzerland and caused a wave of indignation in that country. Funds mass media USA and European states Swiss bankers and diplomats were often presented as extremely unsympathetic people who showed indifference to the claims of the victims of the genocide. Public attention was also drawn to the aid that came to Nazi Germany from Switzerland. Despite the neutrality of the country, Swiss industrialists supplied raw materials and industrial products to Nazi Germany. Many Swiss politicians felt they were being portrayed as villains by US officials; the Swiss were of the opinion that the agreement reached was a surrender to outside pressure, humiliating for the nation as a whole.
Fight for women's rights. The women's suffrage movement, which first succeeded in the French-speaking cantons in the late 1950s, reached its main goal it wasn't until 1971 when women gained the right to vote and be elected in federal elections. However, in a number of cantons, women were prevented for a long time from exercising their voting rights in local elections. In 1991, in the German-speaking semi-canton of Appenzell-Innerrhoden, the last territory in Switzerland to oppose the emancipation of women, they received the right to participate in the annual meetings of voters. The next step was the adoption in 1981 of a constitutional amendment guaranteeing equal rights for women. In 1984, Elisabeth Kopp became the first woman to be elected to the federal council. In 1985, women were given equal rights in the family (before that, the husband was considered the head of the family, which allowed him to unilaterally manage family finances and not allow his wife to work). In 1991, the council of the city of Bern decided that its composition should not be more than 60% of the same sex.
Measures to protect the environment. The transit position of Switzerland in the system of meridional European transport carried out by heavy vehicles has complicated ecological situation on the mountain roads countries. In addition, exhaust fumes contributed to the destruction of forests that protect the mountain villages of Switzerland from avalanches and mudflows. To reduce exhaust emissions from motor vehicles, the Swiss government introduced road tolls in 1985, a weight limit for cars was set (28 tons), traffic was limited at night and on weekends. In a referendum in 1994 voters approved the decision that by 2004 foreign commercial goods would have to be transported through Switzerland only by rail.
Economic development. Until the end of the 1980s, Switzerland had a positive budget balance. Its economy was characterized by low inflation, low unemployment and low interest rates. In 1988 and 1989, the budgets were reduced with an excess of revenues of 900 million and 300 million dollars, respectively, unemployment in 1987 reached a record low level at 0.7%. However, rising inflation (6% in 1991) prompted the Swiss National Bank to raise interest rates and limit the issue of money. In the early 1990s, there was a recession in the country's economy. Although in 1991-1993 the gross domestic product declined by less than 1%, the unemployment rate reached 3.6% in 1992 and 4.5% at the end of 1993, mainly due to a reduction in the number of jobs in construction and engineering. In 1994, there were signs of an economic recovery, especially in international financial services, but unemployment in manufacturing and other industries continued to rise. In 1997, the situation improved due to increased exports, demand revived, investment increased, but investment in construction continued to decline.
LITERATURE
Sabelnikov L.V. Switzerland. Economy and foreign trade. M., 1962 Mogutin V.B. Switzerland: big business in a small country. M., 1975 Dragunov G.P. Switzerland: history and modernity. M., 1978 Handbook on Democracy: The Functioning of a Democratic State on the Example of Switzerland. M., 1994 Schaffhauser R. Fundamentals of Swiss community law on the example of the community law of the canton of St. Gallen. St. Petersburg, 1996

Collier Encyclopedia. - Open Society. 2000 .

The area of ​​Switzerland is quite small even by European standards. Nevertheless, this small country plays a rather significant role in world processes. and the foreign policy of this state, which for more than one hundred and fifty years have ensured unprecedented stability, can be considered unique. Let's briefly study the history, find out the area and some other nuances associated with this country.

Geographic location of Switzerland

Before considering the area of ​​​​Switzerland, as well as some other issues, let's find out where this state is located.

Switzerland is located in the heart of Western Europe, on the territory of a mountain range called the Alps. In the east it borders with Austria and Liechtenstein, in the south with Italy, in the west with France, and in the north it touches Germany.

The nature of most of Switzerland is mountainous. In the west of the country there is a rather large Lake Geneva.

The capital of Switzerland is the city of Bern.

History before the formation of an independent state

Now let's take a quick look at the history of Switzerland. Settlements in these places have been known since Paleolithic times. During the Neolithic period, there was a cultural community that built their houses on stilts.

In ancient times, the mountainous part of the country in the east was inhabited by the Retes tribes, who were considered related to the Italian Etruscans. It was from the Romanized representatives of this tribe that one of the modern ethnic groups Switzerland - Romansh.

Also from the XIII century BC. e., Celtic peoples began to penetrate here. Before the Roman conquest, the west of modern Switzerland was inhabited by the Celtic-speaking tribes of the Helvetii and Allobroges, and the east by the Vindeliki.

In 58 BC. e. the Helvetii and Allobroges were conquered by the great Roman commander Julius Caesar, and after his death under Octavian Augustus in 15-13 BC. e. rheta and vindeliki were conquered.

The occupied territories are thus incorporated into the Roman Empire. The territory of modern Switzerland was divided between the provinces - Rezia and Germania Superior, and a small area near Geneva was part of Narbonne Gaul. Later, another province, Vindelicia, was separated from Rezia in the north. The region began to gradually romanize, significant Roman buildings, roads, cities were built here, when the power of the empire was declining, Christianity began to penetrate here.

Already in 264 AD, the Germanic tribe of the Alemans invaded the territory of modern western Switzerland. At the beginning of the 5th century, they finally captured the east of the country. In 470, the west of Switzerland became part of the kingdom of another Germanic tribe - the Burgundians, who, however, were Christians. If the Alemanni on their territory completely destroyed the traces of Romanization, exterminating, expelling and assimilating local population, the Burgundians, on the contrary, treated the locals quite loyally, which contributed to the predominance of the Romanesque population in the lands subject to them. This division was even reflected in modern times: the western French-speaking population of Switzerland is mainly the descendants of the inhabitants of the country of the Roman period, and the eastern German-speaking population is the descendants of the Alemans.

In addition, already after in 478, the south of Switzerland fell successively under the rule of Germanic kingdoms Ostrogoths and Lombards, whose center was in Italy. But the Ostrogoths also did not forcibly Germanize the population, therefore Romansh and Italians currently live in this part of the country.

It should be noted that the prevention of mixing of the above ethnic groups and military incursions was hindered by the natural division of Switzerland by the Alps into relatively isolated areas.

In the 8th century total area Switzerland was again united under the Frankish state. But already in the 9th century it fell apart. Switzerland was again divided between several states: Upper Burgundy, Italy and Germany. But in the eleventh century German king managed to create which included the entire area of ​​Switzerland. However, soon the imperial power weakened, and in reality these lands began to be controlled by local feudal lords from the families of the Tserengens, Cyburgs, Habsburgs and others who exploited the local population. The Habsburgs became especially strong after the possession of the title of Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire passed into their hands at the end of the 13th century.

Fight for independence

It was the struggle against these lords, mainly the Habsburgs, that served as the beginning of the rallying of the disparate Swiss regions into a single independent state. In 1291, a military alliance "for all time" was concluded between representatives of the three cantons (regions) of Switzerland - Schwyz, Uri and Unterwalden. From this date it is customary to keep a record of Swiss statehood. From that moment began an active struggle of the people against the Habsburgs, representatives of the imperial administration and feudal lords. To initial stage This struggle is related to the famous legend of William Tell.

In 1315, the first major clash between the Swiss and the Habsburg army took place. It was called the Battle of Morgarten. Then the Swiss managed to win, numerically exceeding them by several times the enemy army, moreover, consisting of knights. It is with this event that the first mention of the name "Switzerland" is connected. This was due to the erroneous extension of the name of the canton of Schwyz to the territory of the entire union. Immediately after the victory, the alliance treaty was renewed.

In the future, the Union continued to successfully operate against the Habsburgs. This attracted the desire of other regions to join it. By 1353, the Union already consisted of eight cantons, since Zurich, Bern, Zug, Lucerne and Glarus were added to the original three.

In 1386 and 1388, the Swiss inflicted two more significant defeats on the Habsburgs at the battles of Sempach and Nefels. This led to the fact that in 1389 peace was concluded for 5 years. Then it was extended for 20 and 50 years. The Habsburgs actually renounced the rights of the lords regarding the eight allied cantons, although they continued to be part of the Holy Roman Empire. This state of affairs continued until 1481, that is, almost 100 years.

In 1474-1477, Switzerland was drawn into the Burgundian War in alliance with France and Austria. In 1477, in the decisive battle of Nancy, the Swiss defeated the troops of the Duke of Burgundy, and he himself died in this battle. This victory significantly increased the international prestige of Switzerland. Its warriors began to be valued as excellent mercenaries, which had a positive effect on the country's economy. In this capacity, they serve the French king, the Duke of Milan, the Pope and other sovereigns. In the Vatican, the guards of the Holy See are still made up of Swiss. More and more lands are becoming willing to join the Union, but the old cantons are not too eager to expand their borders.

In the end, in 1481, a renewed treaty was concluded. Two more cantons, Solothurn and Friborg, were accepted as members of the Union. The area of ​​Switzerland expanded, and the number of cantons was increased to ten. In 1499, a victory was won in the war with the Swabian League, supported by the emperor. After that, a treaty was concluded, which actually marked the withdrawal of Switzerland from the Holy Roman Empire. But legally the emperor has not yet abandoned his claims. In 1501, Basel and Schaffhausen were admitted as cantons to the Union, and in 1513, Appennzell. The number of lands reached thirteen.

Meanwhile, in the 15th century, the Reformation, a group of Christian religious teachings that denied the primacy of the Pope in spiritual world. In the city of Geneva for a long time lived and died the founder of one of the leading currents of the Reformation - John Calvin. Another prominent reformer, Ulrich Zwingli, was a native of St. Gallen. The reform was accepted by many European sovereigns and princes. But the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire opposed her. For this reason, in 1618, a pan-European broke out. In 1648, the Peace of Westphalia was signed, in which the emperor recognized his defeat and the right of the princes to choose the religion for their land, and the exit of Switzerland from the Holy Roman Empire was also legally fixed. Now it has become an absolutely independent state.

Independent Switzerland

However, Switzerland of that time could only relatively be considered a single state. Each canton had its own legislation, territorial division, the right to conclude international agreements. It was more like a military-political union than a full-fledged state.

In 1795, a revolution began in Switzerland, supported from outside Napoleonic France. The French occupied the country, and in 1798 a unitary state was created here - the Helvetic Republic. After the victory of the allies over Napoleon in 1815, the former structure returned to Switzerland with minor changes, although the number of cantons was increased to 22, and later to 26. But a movement for the centralization of power began to rise in the country. In 1848 a new constitution was adopted. According to her, Switzerland, although it continued to be called the Confederation, actually turned into a full-fledged government. The neutral status of the camp was immediately fixed. This was the key to the fact that since then Switzerland has become one of the most peaceful and tranquil corners of the world. Located in the heart of Europe, destroyed by the First and Second World Wars, this state is almost the only one that did not suffer during the tragic events. Indeed, only Sweden and the territory of Switzerland turned out to be free from war in Europe. The area of ​​the country was not damaged by enemy bombs or invasions of foreign armies.

The industry and the banking sector were actively developing in the country. This made it possible to make Switzerland a world leader in the provision of financial services, and the standard of living of the citizens of the Alpine state became one of the highest on the planet.

switzerland square

Now let's find out what is the area of ​​Switzerland. This indicator is the basic criterion for further analysis. At the moment, the area of ​​Switzerland is 41.3 thousand square meters. km. This is the 133rd indicator among all countries of the world.

For comparison, the area of ​​the Volgograd region alone is 112.9 thousand square meters. km.

Administrative divisions of Switzerland

In administrative-territorial terms, Switzerland is divided into 20 cantons and 6 half-cantons, which, in general, is equal to 26 subjects of the confederation.

The largest in area are the cantons of Graubünden (7.1 thousand sq. km), Bern (6.0 thousand sq. km.) and Valais (5.2 thousand sq. km.).

Population

The total population of the country is about 8 million people. This is the 95th figure in the world.

But what population density does Switzerland have? The area of ​​the country and the population that we have established above make it easy to calculate this indicator. It is equal to 188 people/sq. km.

Ethnic composition

On the territory of the country, 94% of the inhabitants consider themselves ethnic Swiss. This does not prevent them from speaking different languages. Thus, 65% of the population are German-speaking, 18% French-speaking and 10% Italian-speaking.

In addition, about 1% of the population are Romansh.

Religion

During the Middle Ages and the New Age, Switzerland became a real arena of struggle between Protestants and Catholics. Now the passions have subsided and there is no religious confrontation in the country. About 50% of the population are Protestants - Catholics.

In addition, there are small Jewish and Muslim communities in Switzerland.

general characteristics

We learned the area of ​​Switzerland in sq. km, population and history of this country. As we can see, it had a long way to go from a disunited union of cantons to united state. The history of Switzerland can serve as an example of how culturally, religiously, ethnically and linguistically disparate communities can be united into a single nation.

The success of the Swiss development model is confirmed by its economic performance and more than 150 years of peace in the country.

In the 2nd century BC. the Celtic tribe of the Helvetians lived (after their name the country in ancient times was called Helvetia). Then these lands were conquered by the troops of Julius Caesar (58 BC) and were included in the Roman Empire. In 3-5 centuries. AD this territory was constantly invaded by the Germanic tribe of the Alemanni, who gradually occupied the entire eastern part. In the 2nd floor. 5th c. the western regions went to the Burgundians. In the 6th c. these territories became part of the Frankish state. After its collapse (843), the eastern part went to (which later became the core of the Holy Roman Empire), and the western - to Burgundy (such a division basically corresponded to linguistic and ethnic differences).

In 1033 both parts were incorporated into the Holy Roman Empire. Large fiefdoms (counties and duchies) began to appear. In the east, the Habsburgs seized the dominant positions, in the west - the Savoy counts. But some influential cities (Geneva, Zurich and Bern), as well as the "forest cantons" (Schwyz, Uri, Unterwalden) managed to achieve special imperial rights, i.e. gain real independence.

The Swiss confederation arose in 1291 as a result of an allied treaty between the three "forest cantons" for a joint struggle for independence against the rule of the Habsburgs. Another attempt to subdue them again ended in defeat. imperial troops under Margarten (in 1315), after which other cantons (Lucerne, Zurich, Zug, Glarus and Bern) began to join the alliance of victors. Thus, a union of 8 cantons arose, which continued the struggle for independence. In 1388 the Habsburgs were forced to make peace on terms very favorable to the Swiss Union.

In long and almost continuous wars, Swiss military prowess reached high level. In the 14-16 centuries. the confederation even became the main supplier of hired soldiers in the armies of many leading European countries. In con. 15th c. Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire Maximilian I made another attempt to again make the union of the Swiss cantons dependent. However, this Swiss (or Swabian) war ended complete defeat imperial troops. In the concluded treaty (dated 1511), the Swiss Union completely terminated its connection with the empire and was defined as an independent state (this act received international recognition in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648).

In subsequent years, the territorial expansion of the confederation continued (by 1798 it already included 13 cantons). The process of gradual organizational restructuring of the union began. Within the framework of the confederation, there was no permanent central governing body, it was replaced by periodically held sejms, in which only "full cantons" had the right to vote. Along with them, there were "allied lands" (Geneva, St. Galen, etc.) and even "subject territories" (Aargau, Ticino, etc.). The latter were completely powerless. The contradictions between the members of the "union of cantons" led to constant struggle and even armed clashes.

The first attempt to create a central government and proclaim the equality of all cantons was made within the framework of the Helvetic Republic (1798), created with the assistance of. But after the collapse of the Napoleonic empire, the Swiss Diet adopted (in 1814) new version union treaty on the confederation of cantons, which again significantly limited the competence of the central government. The Congress of Vienna (1814 - 15) approved this treaty, the principle of "permanent neutrality" of Switzerland, as well as the accession to the confederation of new cantons (their total number increased to 22).

However, sovereignty, which was again transferred to the Sejm, became less and less effective. In 1832, the seven most economically developed cantons (Zurich, Bern, and others) created the so-called. "Siebenbund" ("Union of Seven"), which came forward with a demand to revise the union treaty (dated 1814). In contrast to it, in 1845, the Sonderbund (Special Union) arose, which also included 7 cantons, but economically less developed with a feudal-clerical society (Schwyz, Uri, etc.). Contradictions grew between the opposing unions, and even a civil war began (November - December 1847), which ended in victory for the bourgeois forces.

In 1848, the country's new Constitution was adopted, on the basis of which the Swiss Confederation was transformed from a fragile union of cantons into a single union state. Instead of the Sejm, the Federal Assembly was established, consisting of the National Council and the Council of State (Council of Cantons). Executive power was transferred to the Federal Council (i.e. the government). In 1874, changes were made to the Constitution that significantly expanded the competence of the central government, incl. allowing the establishment of state supervision over the activities of the church.

The completed centralization contributed to the faster economic development of the country. A single internal market appeared (customs, post offices were merged, the monetary system was unified, etc.). Light industry, watchmaking began to grow at a rapid pace, and in con. 19th century formation began. The main prerequisites for the industrialization of the country were the accumulation of capital as a result of intermediary operations in the international financial sphere, a significant influx of technical intelligentsia and skilled labor from neighboring leading European countries. A significant role was played by the growing income from the resort and tourism sector, which gradually turned into one of the leading sectors of the national economy.

A large-scale change in the general appearance of the country (as a “quiet and cozy alpine paradise”) was facilitated by increased activity in the formation of a new transport infrastructure. Of great importance was the railway construction, the opening of the two largest tunnels: St. Gotthard (1882) and Simplon (1906). The country gradually turned into the most important European transport crossroads (especially between the North and South of the continent). This factor turned out to be one of the most important in the formation of new "production niches" of the country, oriented mainly to world markets. A particularly intensive development of specialized branches of mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, and chemistry (especially pharmaceuticals) began.

During the 1st and 2nd World Wars, Switzerland remained neutral, but its Armed Forces were very active in protecting national borders (for example, during the 2nd World War, over 200 aircraft were shot down (or interned) in the airspace of the country warring countries). Of course, during these wars, the country received huge incomes from the execution of not only large production orders, but also large-scale intermediary financial transactions.

Modern Switzerland is one of the most highly developed countries in the world. Relying on the basic principles of "eternal neutrality" allowed it to create an effective democratic society, characterized by political stability and economic prosperity. Switzerland has made a particularly significant contribution to the formation of the religious and educational image modern Europe and the whole world.

Creation of the Swiss Confederation.

Among the Celtic tribes that inhabited the territory of Switzerland in prehistoric times, the Helvetii stood out, who became allies of the Romans after they were defeated by Julius Caesar at the Battle of Bibract in 58 BC. e. In 15 BC Rets were also conquered by Rome. In the next three centuries, Roman influence contributed to the development of the culture of the population and its Romanization.

In the 4th–5th centuries AD The territory of present-day Switzerland was captured by the Germanic tribes of the Alemanni and Burgundians. In the 6th–7th centuries it became part of the kingdom of the Franks and in the 8th-9th centuries. was ruled by Charlemagne and his successors. The subsequent fate of these lands is closely connected with the history of the Holy Roman Empire. After the collapse of the Carolingian empire, they were captured by the Swabian dukes in the 10th century, but they could not keep them under their rule, and the region broke up into separate fiefs. In the 12th-13th centuries. attempts were made to unite them under the rule of large feudal lords, such as the Zähringens, the founders of Bern and Friborg, and the Habsburgs. In 1264 the Habsburgs won a dominant position in eastern Switzerland. The Counts of Savoy were entrenched in the west.

The Habsburgs encountered strong opposition when they tried to consolidate their holdings by abolishing the privileges of some local communities. At the center of this resistance were the peasants who lived in the mountain valleys of Schwyz (hence the name of the country Switzerland), Uri and Unterwalden. These forested cantons, located along the strategically important road through the St. Gotthard Pass, benefited from the struggle between the Hohenstaufen emperors and the papacy. In 1231 Uri and in 1240 Schwyz received the rights of the imperial territories of the Holy Roman Empire, freeing themselves from dependence on petty feudal lords. After the death of Emperor Frederick II in 1250, the empire entered a period of decline, marked by civil war during the Great Interregnum of 1250–1273. The Habsburgs, who did not recognize the rights of Uri and Schwyz, tried to conquer Schwyz in 1245-1252. Uri and Unterwalden, who entered into a temporary alliance, came to his aid. In August 1291, the Swiss communities entered into a permanent defensive alliance among themselves and signed a treaty known as the "Eternal Alliance", the first documented evidence of cooperation between the forest cantons. This year begins the official history of the Swiss state. Part of the traditional legend about these events, associated with the name of William Tell, is not confirmed in historical documents.

Growth and expansion of the confederation.

The first proof of the strength of the confederation was given in 1315, when the highlanders of the forest cantons of Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden faced the superior forces of the Habsburgs and their allies. At the Battle of Morgarten they won what is considered one of the most important victories in Swiss history. This victory encouraged other communities to join the confederation as well. In 1332-1353 the cities of Lucerne, Zurich and Bern, the rural communities of Glarus and Zug entered into separate agreements with the three united cantons, forming a number of confederations. Although these agreements did not have a common basis, they were able to ensure the main thing - the independence of each of the participants. Having been defeated in the battles of Sempach in 1386 and Nefels in 1388, the Habsburgs were finally forced to recognize the independence of the cantons, united in a confederation.

At the beginning of the 15th century the members of the confederation felt strong enough to go on the offensive. In the course of numerous wars and campaigns against the Austrian Habsburgs and the Holy Roman Empire, the Dukes of Savoy, Burgundy and Milan, and the French King Francis I, the Swiss gained a reputation for magnificent warriors. They were feared by enemies and respected by allies. During the "heroic age" of Swiss history (1415-1513), the territory of the confederation expanded by adding new lands in Aargau, Thurgau, Vaud, and also south of the Alps. 5 new cantons were created. In 1513-1798 Switzerland became a confederation of 13 cantons. In addition to them, the confederation included lands that entered into an alliance with one or more cantons. There was no permanent central body: All-Union Diets were periodically convened, where only full-fledged cantons had the right to vote. There was no all-union administration, army and finance, and this situation remained until the French Revolution.

From the Reformation to the French Revolution.

In 1523 Huldrych Zwingli openly challenged the Roman Catholic Church and led a religious reform movement in Zurich. He was supported by the inhabitants of a number of other cities in northern Switzerland, but in rural areas he met with resistance. In addition, there were differences with the radical Anabaptist wing of his followers in Zurich itself. The Zwinglian current of Protestantism subsequently merged with the current of John Calvin from Geneva into the Swiss Reformed Church. Since the cantons of central Switzerland remained Catholic, a split along religious lines was inevitable. After short religious clashes, an approximate balance was established between the two religions. In 1648 Switzerland's independence from the Holy Roman Empire was officially recognized by the Treaty of Westphalia.

Political life of Switzerland in the 18th century. was calm. The Bernese naturalist and poet Albrecht von Haller (1708–1777), the historian J. von Müller, as well as the Genevan-born philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau and the great educator and humanist from Zurich J.G. Pestalozzi became famous in the “age of Enlightenment”. At this time, a stream of foreign guests rushed to Switzerland, among them Voltaire, Gibbon and Goethe.

Revolution and restoration of the Confederation.

The French Revolution had a profound effect on Switzerland, both politically and philosophically. In 1798 French troops invaded the country and occupied it. The French granted the conquered cantons a constitution that replaced the loose federation with the "one and indivisible Helvetic Republic". The revolutionary ideas of democracy, civil liberties and centralized power led to the creation of a strong central government for the first time in Swiss history. The constitution of 1798, created on the basis of the constitution of the first French Republic, granted all Swiss equal rights before the law and a code of civil liberties. However, it encroached on traditional federalism, and many Swiss did not want to recognize it. The struggle between the federalists, who opposed the new system, and the centralists, who supported it, subsided temporarily when Napoleon Bonaparte in 1802 granted the republic a constitution known as the Mediation Act. It restored many of the former privileges of the cantons and expanded the number of cantons from 13 to 19.

After the defeat of Napoleon, the cantons dissociated themselves from the regime imposed by the French and tried to revive the former confederation. After lengthy negotiations, a Union Treaty was drawn up, signed in September 1814. It proclaimed the union of 22 sovereign cantons, but did not indicate that they constituted one state. In the Declaration of the Congress of Vienna (March 1815) and the Treaty of Paris (November 1815), the Great Powers recognized the perpetual neutrality of Switzerland.

Civil war and new constitution.

Over the next three decades, liberal sentiment grew in Switzerland. In response to the actions of the radicals in the Union Sejm and in some cantons (the closing of the monasteries in Aargau, the expulsion of the Jesuits), seven conservative Catholic cantons formed the defensive alliance of the Sonderbund. In 1847, the Sejm by a small majority announced the dissolution of this association. The federal army under the leadership of General Guillaume Dufour won the civil war before the European powers could intervene in the conflict.

As a result of the victory over the Sonderbund, a new constitution was adopted (1848). A balance was struck between the aspirations of the radical centralists and the conservative federalists. From a fragile union of canton states, Switzerland has become a single union state. A permanent executive body was created in the form of a federal council of seven members, elected by the legislature from two chambers - the national council and the council of cantons. The federal government was empowered to issue money, regulate customs regulations and, most importantly, determine foreign policy. Bern was chosen as the federal capital. The revised constitution of 1874, with subsequent amendments, further strengthened the power of the federal government without jeopardizing the federal foundation of the Swiss state.

In the last decades of the 19th century Swiss industry developed, and the construction of railways began. Imported raw materials were processed into high-quality products, which then entered the world market.

Switzerland in World Wars.

With the outbreak of the First World War, a threat to the national unity of Switzerland arose: the French-speaking Swiss were mainly sympathetic to France, and the German-speaking - to Germany. The four-year mobilization laid a heavy burden on the country's economy, there was a shortage of industrial raw materials, unemployment was growing, and there was not enough food. General discontent resulted in mass strikes in November 1918.

In 1919 Geneva was chosen as the headquarters of the League of Nations. Switzerland became a member of this organization only after heated internal debates and after receiving guarantees of respect for its neutrality. The outbreak of World War II found the population of the country more united: few people in Switzerland welcomed Nazism. However, strategically, the position of the confederation was much more vulnerable, since it was surrounded by totalitarian powers.

Foreign policy.

With the end of World War II, the League of Nations ceased to exist. Switzerland decided not to join the newly created United Nations (UN) and acquired observer status, which allowed the European headquarters and several UN specialized organizations, including the International Labor Organization and the World Health Organization, to be located in Geneva. Switzerland felt that not joining the UN was the best way to maintain its independent position as a neutral country in the ever-changing balance of power on the world stage. This decision strengthened the position of Switzerland in international politics. This country is a member of several UN organizations: the International Court of Justice, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. Switzerland provides significant assistance to developing countries.

Following a traditional policy of neutrality, Switzerland in the 1950s and early 1960s faced great difficulty in participating in various plans for European integration. In 1948, she joined the Organization for European Economic Cooperation, but refrained from joining the European Economic Community (later the European Union, EU). The obvious political aims of this organization were unacceptable to Switzerland. However, it became one of the founding members of the European Free Trade Association in 1959, and in 1963 joined the Council of Europe, again demonstrating its interest in European cooperation. In 1972, a national referendum ratified a free trade agreement with the EU, according to which, by 1977, duties on all industrial products were gradually removed. In 1983, Switzerland became a full member of the Group of Ten, an association of the largest contributors to the International Monetary Fund (IMF).

Political and social changes.

In the 1960s, Switzerland faced a severe internal problem. Several French-speaking districts located in the Jura mountains in the canton of Bern demanded the formation of a new canton. This met with resistance from the German-speaking population of the region. Federal troops were brought in to prevent clashes. In the early 1970s, voters in the canton of Bern approved a referendum in the French-speaking districts on secession. As a result of a series of plebiscites held over a number of years, three of the seven districts and several border communities voted in favor of the creation of a new canton. This new canton was named Jura. The decision was then approved in a national referendum in 1978 and the new canton entered the confederation in 1979.

In the 1960s, there was marked tension over the issue of the large number of workers from southern European countries who came to work in Switzerland. Despite the traditional international character of the country and the need for foreigners to participate in its economic life, many Swiss showed a hostile attitude towards migrants from southern Europe and considered them responsible for the country's internal problems, such as a lack of housing. Accordingly, the government introduced restrictions that drastically reduced the proportion of foreigners in the workforce. The political movement, which demanded a further reduction in the number of foreign workers, did not achieve much support in the elections, but was able to organize referenda in 1970, 1974 and 1977 on constitutional amendments to limit the proportion of foreigners in the Swiss population. These proposals were not approved, but attempts to limit the presence of foreigners in Switzerland did not stop in the 1980s and 1990s. In 1982 voters rejected the government's proposal to liberalize the rules governing the stay of foreign workers and their families, and in 1987 immigration was even more restricted. In 1994, referendum participants approved a tightening of the law on the stay of foreigners. Nevertheless, the contingent of foreign workers remains large - 25% of the total number of employees. At the same time, the number of foreign nationals living in Switzerland has risen to around 1.4 million. Many of them are refugees from Bosnia and Herzegovina and developing countries.

In the mid-1980s, the Swiss government attempted to end the country's isolation and conclude a series of bilateral and multilateral agreements with EU countries. In a referendum in 1986, Swiss voters overwhelmingly rejected the government's proposal to join the UN, but six years later they voted for Switzerland's participation in the IMF and the World Bank. In December 1992, seven months after the government announced its intention to join the EU, the population rejected the proposal to join the European Economic Area, which since January 1994 included the countries of the European Free Trade Association with the EU in a single free trade area.

Switzerland's attitude towards the gradually strengthening EU remained a stumbling block for the country's foreign policy in the late 1990s. The 1995 elections revealed a growing polarization of voters on this issue. The greatest success was achieved, on the one hand, by the Social Democrats, who actively support integration, and on the other, by the right-wing Swiss People's Party, which opposes not only EU accession, but also participation in the European Economic Area and Switzerland's cooperation with other trading and political alliances. The decision in 1996 to allow the Swiss military to participate in the maneuvers and technological programs of the Partnership for Peace organization provoked violent protests in the country.

The controversy over the monetary contributions of the victims of the Nazi genocide.

In the late 1990s, the Swiss government was involved in an international dispute over the return by private Swiss banks of gold and other valuable property confiscated by Nazi Germany during World War II from victims of the genocide. Also discussed were the deposits and valuables placed by European Jews in Swiss banks before and during the war to keep them from being captured by the Nazis.

Immediately after the war, Switzerland agreed to return the stolen deposits to the victims and their heirs. However, in litigation that attracted much public attention in the mid-1990s, private plaintiffs and Jewish lawyer groups claimed that Switzerland had defaulted on its obligations and accused Swiss banks of preventing heirs from accessing "frozen" accounts. deceased contributors.

Since 1996, American local and federal politicians and organizations have launched a campaign for the return of the so-called. Nazi gold, and many US municipalities, including New York City, threatened to impose economic sanctions on Swiss banks if the latter refused to bail out the plaintiffs. In August 1998, the Schweizerische Creditanstalt banking group and the SBF agreed to pay $1.25 billion in compensation to the victims of the genocide and their heirs. After that, the threats of sanctions were stopped.

The controversy damaged the international prestige of Switzerland and caused a wave of indignation in that country. The US and European media often presented Swiss bankers and diplomats as extremely unsympathetic people who showed indifference to the claims of genocide victims. Public attention was also drawn to the aid that came to Nazi Germany from Switzerland. Despite the neutrality of the country, Swiss industrialists supplied raw materials and industrial products to Nazi Germany. Many Swiss politicians felt they were being portrayed as villains by US officials; the Swiss were of the opinion that the agreement reached was a capitulation to outside pressure, humiliating for the nation as a whole.

Fight for women's rights.

The women's suffrage movement, first successful in the French-speaking cantons in the late 1950s, reached its main goal only in 1971, when women won the right to vote and be elected in federal elections. However, in a number of cantons, women were prevented for a long time from exercising their voting rights in local elections. In 1991, in the German-speaking semi-canton of Appenzell-Innerrhoden, the last territory in Switzerland to oppose the emancipation of women, they received the right to participate in the annual meetings of voters.

The next step was the adoption in 1981 of a constitutional amendment guaranteeing equal rights for women. In 1984, Elisabeth Kopp became the first woman to be elected to the federal council. In 1985, women were given equal rights in the family (before that, the husband was considered the head of the family, which allowed him to unilaterally manage family finances and not allow his wife to work). In 1991, the council of the city of Bern decided that its composition should not be more than 60% of the same sex.

Measures to protect the environment.

The transit position of Switzerland in the system of meridional European transport carried out by heavy vehicles has complicated the environmental situation on the country's mountain roads. In addition, exhaust fumes contributed to the destruction of forests that protect the mountain villages of Switzerland from avalanches and mudflows. To reduce exhaust emissions from motor vehicles, the Swiss government introduced road tolls in 1985, a weight limit for cars was set (28 tons), traffic was limited at night and on weekends. In a referendum in 1994 voters approved the decision that by 2004 foreign commercial goods would have to be transported through Switzerland only by rail.

Economic development.

Until the end of the 1980s, Switzerland had a positive budget balance. Its economy was characterized by low inflation, low unemployment and low interest rates. In 1988 and 1989 the budgets were reduced with an excess of the revenue side of 900 million and 300 million dollars, respectively, unemployment in 1987 reached a record low of 0.7%. However, rising inflation (6% in 1991) prompted the Swiss National Bank to raise interest rates and limit the issue of money. In the early 1990s, there was a recession in the country's economy. Although the gross domestic product declined by less than 1% between 1991 and 1993, the unemployment rate reached 3.6% in 1992 and 4.5% at the end of 1993, mainly due to a decline in the number of jobs in construction and engineering. In 1994, there were signs of an economic recovery, especially in international financial services, but unemployment in manufacturing and other industries continued to rise. In 1997, the situation improved due to increased exports, demand revived, investment increased, but investment in construction continued to decline.