Tatiana Prokofieva

A talented student and colleague of S. Freud, Carl Gustav Jung (1875 - 1961), a Swiss scientist, psychiatrist and psychotherapist, had a large psychiatric practice, which he conducted for about sixty years. In the process of work, he systematized his observations and came to the conclusion that there are stable psychological differences between people. These are differences in the perception of reality. Jung noticed that the structure of the psyche described by S. Freud does not manifest itself in the same way in people; its features are associated with the psychological type. Studying these characteristics, Jung described eight psychological types. The developed typology, which was used and refined in the practice of Jung himself and his students for decades, was embodied in the book “Psychological Types,” published in 1921.

From the point of view of C. G. Jung’s typology, each person has not only personality traits, but also traits characteristic of one of the psychological types. This type shows relatively strong and relatively weak points in the functioning of the psyche and the style of activity that is preferable for a particular person. “Two persons see the same object, but they do not see it in such a way that both pictures obtained from it are absolutely identical. In addition to varying acuity of the senses and personal equation, there are often profound differences in the kind and extent of psychic assimilation of the perceived image,” wrote Jung.

Every person can be described in terms of one of Jung's psychological types. At the same time, the typology does not abolish the entire diversity of human characters, does not establish insurmountable barriers, does not prevent people from developing, and does not impose restrictions on a person’s freedom of choice. Psychological type is a structure, a frame of personality. A bunch of different people of the same type, having great similarities in appearance, manners, speech and behavior, will not be alike in absolutely everything. Each person has his own intellectual and cultural level, his own ideas about good and evil, his own life experience, his own thoughts, feelings, habits, taste.

Knowing your personality type helps people find exactly their means to achieve goals, be successful in life, choosing the most appropriate types of activities and achieving them. best results. According to the compiler of the anthology, “Jung’s typology helps us understand how differently people perceive the world, how different criteria they use in actions and judgments.”

To describe observations, C. G. Jung introduced new concepts that formed the basis of the typology and made it possible to apply analytical methods to the study of the psyche. Jung argued that every person is initially focused on the perception of either external aspects of life (attention is primarily directed to objects in the external world) or internal ones (attention is primarily directed to the subject). He called such ways of understanding the world, oneself and one’s connection with the world installations human psyche. Jung defined them as extraversion and introversion:

« Extraversion there is, to a certain extent, a shift of interest outward, from the subject to the object.”

Introversion Jung called the turning of interest inward when “the motivating force belongs primarily to the subject, while the object has at most a secondary significance.”

There are no pure extroverts or pure introverts in the world, but each of us is more inclined to one of these attitudes and acts predominantly within its framework. "Every person has common mechanisms, extraversion and introversion, and only the relative preponderance of one or the other determines the type."

Next, C. G. Jung introduced the concept psychological functions . Experience with patients gave him reason to assert that some people operate better with logical information (reasoning, conclusions, evidence), while others deal better with emotional information (people’s relationships, their feelings). Some have more developed intuition(premonition, perception in general, instinctive grasp of information), others - with more developed sensations (perception of external and internal stimuli). Jung identified four basic functions on this basis: thinking, feeling, intuition, feeling and defined them like this:

Thinking there is that psychological function that brings the data of the content of ideas into a conceptual connection. Thinking is occupied with truth and is based on impersonal, logical, objective criteria.

Feeling is a function that gives the content a certain value in the sense of accepting or rejecting it. Feelings are based on value judgments: good - bad, beautiful - ugly.

Intuition is the psychological function that conveys to the subject perception unconsciously. Intuition is a kind of instinctive grasp; the reliability of intuition rests on certain mental data, the implementation and presence of which remained, however, unconscious.

Feeling - the psychological function that perceives physical irritation. Sensation is based on direct experience of perceiving specific facts.

The presence of all four psychological functions in every person gives him a holistic and balanced perception of the world. However, these functions do not develop in to the same degree. Usually one function dominates, giving the person real means to achieve social success. Other functions inevitably lag behind it, which is in no way a pathology, and their “backwardness” manifests itself only in comparison with the dominant one. “As experience shows, the basic psychological functions are rarely or almost never of equal strength or the same degree of development in the same individual. Usually one or the other function outweighs both in strength and development."

If, for example, a person’s thinking is on the same level with feeling, then, as Jung wrote, we are talking about “relatively undeveloped thinking and feeling. Uniform consciousness and unconsciousness of functions is a sign of a primitive state of mind."

According to the dominant function, which leaves its mark on the entire character of the individual, Jung defined types: thinking, feeling, intuitive, sensing. The dominant function suppresses the manifestations of other functions, but not to the same extent. Jung argued that “the feeling type suppresses his thinking the most, because thinking is most likely to interfere with feeling. And thinking excludes, mainly, feeling, for there is nothing that would be so capable of interfering with and distorting it as precisely the values ​​of feeling.” Here we see that Jung defined feeling and thinking as alternative functions. In the same way, he defined another pair of alternative functions: intuition - sensation.

Jung divided all psychological functions into two class: rational(thinking and feeling) and irrational(intuition and sensation).

« Rational there is the rational, corresponding to reason, corresponding to it.”

Jung defined reason as an orientation toward norms and objective values ​​accumulated in society.

Irrational according to Jung, this is not something counterintuitive, but something lying outside of reason, not based on reason.

“Thinking and feeling are rational functions, since the moment of reflection and reflection has a decisive influence on them. Irrational functions are those whose goal is pure perception, such are intuition and sensation, because they must full perception detach yourself as much as possible from everything rational. … According to their nature, [intuition and sensation] must be directed towards absolute chance and towards every possibility, and therefore they must be completely devoid of rational direction. As a result of this, I designate them as irrational functions, in contrast to thinking and feeling, which are functions that achieve their perfection in full accordance with the laws of reason."

Both rational and irrational approaches can play a role in the decision different situations. Jung wrote: “too much expectation or even confidence that for every conflict there must be a possibility of a rational resolution, may prevent its actual resolution along an irrational path.”

Using the concepts introduced, Jung built a typology. To do this, he examined each of the four psychological functions in two settings: both extroverted and introverted and defined accordingly 8 psychological types. He argued: “both the extroverted and the introverted type can be either thinking, or feeling, or intuitive, or sensing.” Jung gave detailed descriptions of types in his book Psychological Types. To better understand Jung’s typology, let’s summarize all 8 types in a table (Table 1).

Table 1. Psychological types of C. G. Jung

We should not forget that a living person, although belonging to one of the personality types, will not always exhibit typological traits. We are talking only about preferences: it is more convenient and easier for him to act in accordance with his psychological type. Each person is more successful in activities characteristic of his personality type, but if he wishes, he has every right to develop in himself and apply his weak qualities in life and work. At the same time, you need to know that this path is less successful and often leads to neuroticism. Jung wrote that when trying to change the personality type, a person “becomes neurotic, and his cure is possible only through identifying an attitude that is naturally appropriate to the individual.”

Literature:

1. K.G. Jung. Psychological types. – St. Petersburg: “Yuventa” – M.: “Progress – Univers”, 1995.

2. Theories of personality in Western European and American psychology. Reader on personality psychology. Ed. D.Ya. Raigorodsky. – Samara: “Bakhrakh”, 1996.

Jung is a very mysterious person in the scientific world; his ideas still excite the minds of his contemporaries. Jung expanded the boundaries of psychiatry; many of his theories were simply shocking to the ossified scientific circles. In addition to scientific works, Carl Jung read many theological and esoteric treatises. An unusual scientist showed huge interest to folk tales and legends. Psychology owes many discoveries to Jung that formed the basis modern knowledge about the human mind.

Jung. Psychological types

One of Carl Jung's most significant achievements is his work on psychological types. In it, he puts forward the idea that, in addition to acquired qualities, a person has certain innate mental characteristics that cannot be changed. This discovery was largely facilitated by the scientist’s observation of young children who had not yet acquired certain character traits, but there were serious differences in their behavior.

Based on these differences, psychological types were identified. Jung, based on numerous experiences and observations, realized that some people give their energy outward, they are focused only on the world around them, people or objects outside arouse much more interest in them than the psychologist called such people extroverts. The other type, on the contrary, starts from their view of the world, and not from the objective environment; internal experiences interest these subjects more than people and objects from the outside world. Carl Jung called them introverts. Let's take a closer look at these psychological types.

Extroverts

Modern society is simply a paradise for extroverts, because it welcomes arrogance, superficiality, materialism and selfishness. But who are extroverts? According to Jung's concept, a psychological type of person directed purely outward. Such people adore the company of other people, they naturally defend their interests and strive for leadership.

They can be sociable, friendly and kind, but it is also easy to encounter hysterical and angry people.

An extrovert can be the life of the party, the leader of a movement or organization, thanks to excellent communication skills and organizational talents. However, it is extremely difficult for extroverts to immerse themselves in their inner world, so they are very superficial.

Strengths and weaknesses of extroverts

Each psychological type has its own strengths and weaknesses. For example, extroverts adapt well to a change of environment; they easily find themselves in any team. Jung's concept of psychological types describes extroverts as excellent conversationalists who can engage anyone in conversation with them.

Also, such people can be wonderful sellers or managers; they are easy-going and agile. Generally speaking, extroverts are ideally suited to life in today's superficial society of nosy materialists.

But not everything is so rosy in the fast-paced world of extroverts. As Jung's psychological types say, each of them has its own disadvantages. For example, extroverts are too dependent on public opinion; their worldview is based on generally accepted dogmas and concepts. They also often commit rash actions and actions that they later regret. Superficiality creeps into all areas of an extrovert's life; recognition in society and official awards attract them more than real achievements.

Introverts

According to Jung's concept, the psychological type of person directed inward is called an introvert. It’s not easy for introverts to find their place in the modern, fast-paced and hyperactive world. These people find joy within themselves, rather than outside, like extroverts. They perceive the outside world through a layer of their own conclusions and concepts. An introvert can be a deep and harmonious person, but most often such people are typical losers who are unkemptly dressed and have difficulty finding mutual language with others.

It would seem terrible to be an introvert, but, according to the works of Carl Gustav Jung, psychological types cannot be bad or good, they are just different. Introverts not only have their weaknesses, but also their advantages.

Strengths and weaknesses of introverts

Introverts, despite all the difficulties they experience in everyday life, have a number of positive characteristics. For example, introverts are capable of being good specialists in complex areas, brilliant artists, musicians.

It is also difficult for such people to impose their opinion; they do not lend themselves well to propaganda. An introvert is able to penetrate deep into things and calculate the situation many moves ahead.

However, society does not need smart or talented people, it needs arrogant and active traders, so introverts today are given a secondary role. The passivity of introverts often turns them into a jelly-like inert mass, sluggishly flowing along the path of life. Such people are completely unable to stand up for themselves, they simply experience grievances inside, falling into another depression.

Functions of consciousness

Describing psychological types, Jung identified four functions of consciousness, which, combined with a person’s inward or outward orientation, form eight combinations. These functions are significantly different from the rest psychological processes, that’s why they were singled out separately - thinking, feeling, sensation, intuition.

By thinking, Jung understood intellectual and logical Feeling - subjective assessment world based on internal processes. Sensing refers to the perception of the world with the help of And intuition refers to the perception of the world based on unconscious signals. To better understand Jung's psychological types, let's take a closer look at the functions of the psyche.

Thinking

Mental types based on thinking are divided into introverted and extroverted. The extroverted thinking type bases all its judgments on intellectual conclusions about the surrounding reality. His picture of the world is completely subordinated to logical chains and rational arguments.

Such a person believes that the whole world should obey his intellectual scheme. Everything that does not obey this scheme is wrong and irrational. Sometimes such people are useful, but most often they are simply unbearable for others.

As follows from the works of Carl Gustav Jung, the psychological types of the introverted thinking type are almost the complete opposite of their extroverted counterparts. Their picture of the world is also based on intellectual fabrications, but they are based not on a rational picture of the world, but on its subjective model. Therefore, this psychological type has many ideas that are completely natural to him, but have no connection with the real world.

Feeling

The extroverted feeling type, as Carl Jung's psychological types say, bases his life on feeling. That's why thought processes, if they contradict feelings, are rejected by such an individual, he considers them unnecessary. The feelings of the extroverted type are based on generally accepted stereotypes about what is beautiful or right. Such people feel what is accepted in society, although they are completely sincere.

The introverted feeling type comes from subjective feelings, often understandable only to him. The true motives of such a person are usually hidden from outside observers; often people of this type look cold and indifferent. Quiet and friendly in appearance, they can hide completely inadequate sensory experiences.

Feeling

The sensing extroverted type perceives the surrounding reality more acutely than other psychological types. Jung described this type as a person living here and now.

He wants the most intense sensations, even if they are negative. The picture of the world of such a subject is built on observations of objects in the external world, which gives sensing extroverts a touch of objectivity and prudence, although in reality this is not at all the case.

The introverted feeling type is extremely difficult to understand. Main role In the perception of the world for this psychological type, his subjective reaction to the world plays a role. Therefore, the actions of feeling introverts can be incomprehensible, illogical and even frightening.

Intuition

The intuitive type is one of the most incomprehensible and mysterious. Other psychological types of Carl Jung are more rational, with the exception of the sensation. If the intuitive type manifests itself in an extrovert, then a person arises who is constantly looking for opportunities, but as soon as the opportunity is studied and clear, he abandons it for further wanderings. Such people make good businessmen or producers. They are said to have excellent instincts.

However, the intuitive type combined with introversion forms the strangest combination. Describing psychological types, Jung noted that intuitive introverts can be excellent artists and creators, but their creativity is unearthly, whimsical in nature. A lot of difficulties can arise in communicating with such a person, since he often expresses his thoughts only to him alone in a clear way. These kinds of people are fixated on perception and its description. If they do not find a way out for their feelings in creativity, then it becomes difficult for them to take their place in society.

Is it possible to change your psychological type?

Psychological types do not occur in their pure form. Every person has both an extrovert and an introvert, but one of these types is dominant.

The situation is the same with the functions of consciousness, that is, if you have a feeling type in front of you, this does not mean at all that he does not use the intellect, it’s just that feelings play a decisive role in his life. According to Jung's concept, a person's psychological type remains unchanged throughout his life. However, it can be slightly adjusted, depending on external circumstances.

If you are not satisfied with your psychological type, you should not be discouraged or try to fight your nature. It is much wiser to build a competent life strategy, which will take into account your strengths and weaknesses. Although dominant type it cannot be changed, this does not mean that it is impossible to change at least somehow. Most human character traits are not innate and unchangeable. In addition, psychology is not physics; it only assumes, not asserts, so everything is in your hands. Those who want to learn more about this topic can read wonderful book— Jung K.G. "Psychological types."

In 1910, Jung left his post at the Burchholz Clinic (by which time he had become clinical director), accepting more and more numerous patients at his home in Küsnacht, on the shores of Lake Zurich. At this time, Jung became the first president of the International Association of Psychoanalysis and plunged into his in-depth research into myths, legends, and fairy tales in the context of their interaction with the world of psychopathology. Publications appeared that quite clearly outlined the area of ​​Jung’s subsequent life and academic interests. Here, the boundaries of ideological independence from Freud were more clearly outlined in the views of both on the nature of the unconscious psyche. “At the same time, I was collecting material for a book about psychological types. Its purpose was to show the significant difference between my concept and the concepts of Freud and Adler. As a matter of fact, when I began to think about this, the question of types arose before me, because a person’s horizons, his worldview and prejudices are determined and limited by his psychological type. Therefore, the subject of discussion in my book was the relationship of man with the world - with people and with things.”

The book “Psychological Types” contains Jung’s thoughts on many philosophical cognitive problems. “It highlights various aspects of consciousness, possible worldviews, while human consciousness is examined from the so-called clinical point of view. I processed a lot of literary sources, in particular Spitteler’s poems, especially the poem “Prometheus and Epimetheus”. But not only. Huge role the books of Schiller and Nietzsche, the spiritual history of antiquity and the Middle Ages played a role in my work... In my book I argued that every way of thinking is conditioned by a certain psychological type and that every point of view is in some way relative. At the same time, the question arose about the unity necessary to compensate for this diversity. In other words, I came to Taoism... It was then that my thoughts and research began to converge on a certain central concept - the idea of ​​selfhood, self-sufficiency.”

However, Jung was deeply disappointed with the way his theory was understood and developed by his followers. He opposed the understanding and use of his typology as a system of classification most strongly, calling it in his preface to the Argentine edition of Psychological Types (1934) “nothing more than a parlor child’s game, every element of which is as trivial as division of humanity into brachy- and dolichocephals."

Observing his patients in the clinic, Jung noticed one feature: “It is well known that hysteria and schizophrenia ... represent sharp contrast, mainly due to the different attitudes of patients to the outside world." This is how he came to the concepts of extraversion and introversion (those that outlived their author for a long time): “In my practical medical work with nervous patients, I have long noticed that in addition to the many individual differences in human psychology There are also a number of typical differences. First of all, there are two various types, which I called extroverted and introverted."

It was only towards the end of his life that Jung was able to formulate the goal of creating a typology: “From the very beginning I did not strive to classify normal or pathological personalities, but rather to discover conceptual means derived from experience, namely, ways and means by which I could express intelligibly image of the features of the individual psyche and the functional interaction of its elements. Since I was primarily interested in psychotherapy, I always gave special attention to those persons who needed an explanation of themselves and knowledge about their fellow human beings. My entirely empirical concepts were to form a kind of language through which such explanations could be conveyed. In my book on types, I gave a number of examples to illustrate my modus operandi. The classification didn't particularly interest me. This is a side issue that has only indirect significance for the therapist. My book was actually written to demonstrate the structural and functional aspect some typical elements of the psyche."

Jung did not put people into categories and did not try to label people; rather, the work needed classification in order to clearly explain to clients certain aspects of their mental life. “That such means of communication and explanation could also be used as means of classification raised my concerns, since an intellectually detached classifying point of view is something that a therapist should avoid. But it was the application in the form of classification that became - I say this almost with regret - the first and almost exclusive way in which my book was understood, and everyone wondered why I did not place the description of types right at the beginning of the book, instead of postponing it until last chapter. Obviously, the purpose of my book was not understood correctly, which is easily understandable if we take into account that the number of people who would be interested in its practical psychotherapeutic application is relatively small compared to the number academic students» .

What often escapes the attention of researchers is that Jung was far from orthodox about his typology; Moreover, he assumed the possibility of the existence of other criteria: “I do not consider the classification of types according to introversion and extraversion and the four basic functions as the only possible one. Any other psychological criterion can serve no less effectively as a classifier, although in my opinion, others do not have such extensive practical significance."

All the criteria that Jung used as the basis for his typology were subject to a clear pattern - they were binary oppositions that mutually compensated each other. While one half of the opposition was “strong”, clearly conscious, the second, according to Jung, went into the unconscious.

Based on this, Jung received his four main mental functions (thinking, experiencing, feeling, intuition), each of which existed in extroverted or introverted versions.

Further developers of Jung's typology (K. Leonhard; G.Y. Eysenck; I. Myers and K. Briggs; A. Augustinavichiute) only to some extent correlate with the author's interpretation. In the interpretation of I. Myers, the term “extroversion - introversion” is based on such properties of the human psyche as, firstly, sociability or avoidance of excessive contacts (and in this sense is close to Eysenck’s interpretation), and secondly, activity - passivity. Based on the Myers-Briggs typology, the D. Keirsey test was also created, the first version of which coincided with the interpretation of Myers (see the website www.keirsey.com), but the second, revised version was entirely based on the interpretation of Eysenck, i.e. . on the criterion of sociability - unsociability.

General description of types

The author introduces two main psychological types: extrovert and introvert. This is the so-called general attitudes, they differ from each other in the direction of their interest, the movement of libido - towards themselves or towards an object. Jung writes that from a biological point of view, the relationship between subject and object is always a relationship of adaptation, i.e. adaptation. In addition, extrovert and introvert are divided according to the leading conscious function: thinking, feeling, sensation and intuition. Moreover, Jung attributes thinking and feeling to the rational type, and sensations and intuition to the irrational type. This can be visualized in Fig:

Fig.1. Functions

Two functions will be conscious, one leading, the second complementary, and two unconscious. A common feature of both rational types is that they are subject to rational judgment, i.e. they are associated with assessments and judgments: thinking evaluates things through cognition, in terms of truth and falsity, it answers the question, what is a given thing? Feeling through emotions, in terms of attractiveness and unattractiveness, answering the question of the value of a given thing. As attitudes that determine human behavior, these two fundamental functions are mutually exclusive at any given moment; either one of them or the other dominates. As a result, some people base their decisions on their feelings rather than on their reason. Jung calls the other two functions, sensation and intuition, irrational, because they do not use evaluations or judgments, but are based on perceptions that are not evaluated or interpreted. Sensation perceives things as they are, this is a function of the “real.” Sensation tells us that something is there. Intuition also perceives, but not so much through a conscious sensory mechanism as through an unconscious ability to internally understand the nature of things. “Intuition is a function with which you can see what is happening “around the corner”, which is actually not possible; but it’s as if someone is doing it for you.”

For example, a sensing type personality will note all the details of an event, but will not pay attention to its context, and an intuitive type personality will not pay attention to special attention details, but will easily understand the meaning of what is happening and trace the possible development of these events.

That. Eight personality types can be described, Fig:

Fig.2. Psychological types.

Extroverts are much more socially adaptive in society. Jung notes that adaptation to circumstances and adaptation cannot be equated, because simply adaptation is a limitation of the normal extraverted type. The danger for this type is also that he can actually dissolve in the object, losing himself. The most common form neurosis of this type is hysteria. Because His main feature is to constantly make himself interesting and impress others. An unconscious attitude that successfully complements an extrovert will be introverted. The unconscious thoughts, desires, and affects of an extrovert are of a primitive, infantile, egocentric nature. And they become stronger the less they are recognized.

Unconscious, K.G. Jung understood differently than S. Freud. For him, this concept is psychological, and not topo-energetic, it has a compensatory attitude towards consciousness, includes processes that are not currently recorded by consciousness, the so-called. latent, but under certain conditions becoming conscious.

Conscious non-recognition of unconscious components transfers them from compensatory to destructive, i.e. appears internal conflict leading to disease.

So, in short, the corresponding types according to Jung can be characterized by the following examples.

Extroverted rational types

Thinking type

The dominant thinking function of an extrovert will belong to the category of objective data, chained to an object. All life manifestations of this type are dependent on intellectual conclusions, generally accepted ideas and other objective data or facts.

The motto of his life is no exceptions, his ideals are “the purest formula of objective factual reality and therefore they must be a universally valid truth necessary for the good of humanity.” Passions, religion and other irrational forms are generally removed to the point of complete unconsciousness. From my point of view, this type is characterized by inflexibility of thinking and a certain rigid attitude towards the world. In life, such a person will achieve success in the position of prosecutor, reformer, clearer of conscience. Considering the introverted unconscious attitude, the more it is repressed, the more strongly feelings will influence thinking, the point of view of such a person will become dogmatically skeletal. Defending itself from doubt, the conscious attitude becomes fanatical.

Positive thinking of this type will be synthetic, it may well come to new facts or concepts, Jung called it predicative. Negative thinking it becomes, if another function dominates consciousness, then it will be in tow behind the dominant function and will become quite banal.

Extroverted Feeling Type

The extroverted feeling type is guided by what is objectively given. Jung distinguished between positive and negative extraverted feeling. Positive feeling is not deaf to creativity, art, fashion. The negative leads to the fact that the object becomes exaggeratedly significant. This type is most often found in women. Thinking is suppressed, all logical conclusions that are not consistent with the feelings of a given object are rejected. Thus, the unconscious logic of this object is distinguished by its peculiar thinking, it is infantile and archaic. Thinking will have a compensatory attitude until the feelings go off scale, but the stronger the feeling in consciousness, the stronger the unconscious opposition to thinking will become. The main manifestation of this type of neurosis will be hysteria with its characteristic infantile-sexual world of unconscious ideas.

To summarize, rational extroverted types can be said to be object-oriented, recognizing as reasonable what is collectively considered reasonable. However, forgetting that the mind is initially individual and subjective.

The next two types belong to the extroverted irrational types: sensing and intuitive. Their difference from rational ones is that “they base their entire course of action not on the judgment of reason, but on absolute strength perception." They are based exclusively on experience, and the functions of judgment are relegated to the unconscious.

Extroverted Sensing Type

In the extraverted attitude, sensation depends on the object, is determined primarily by the object, its conscious use. Those objects that evoke the strongest sensation are decisive, according to Jung, for the psychology of the individual. “Sensation is a vital function endowed with the strongest life attraction. If an object causes a sensation, then it is significant and enters consciousness as an objective process. The subjective side of sensation is delayed or repressed.

A person belonging to the extroverted feeling type accumulates experience about a real object throughout his life, but, as a rule, does not use it. Sensation underlies his life activity, is a concrete manifestation of his life, his desires are aimed at specific pleasures and means for him “the fullness of real life.” Reality for him consists of concreteness and reality, and everything that stands above this “is allowed only insofar as it enhances the sensation.” He always reduces all thoughts and feelings that come from within to objective principles. Even in love it is based on the sensual delights of the object.

But the more the sensation prevails, the more unpleasant this type becomes: he turns “either into a rude seeker of impressions, or into a shameless, refined aesthete.”

The most fanatical people belong precisely to this type; their religiosity returns them to wild rituals. Jung noted: “The specifically obsessive (compulsive) character of neurotic symptoms represents an unconscious complement to the conscious moral ease characteristic of an exclusively feeling attitude, which, from the point of view of rational judgment, perceives everything that happens without choice.”

Extroverted intuitive type.

Intuition in the extraverted attitude is not merely perception or contemplation, but is an active, creative process that influences the object as much as it influences it.

One of the functions of intuition is “the transmission of images or visual representations of relationships and circumstances that, with the help of other functions, are either completely incomprehensible, or can only be achieved through distant, circuitous paths.”

The intuitive type, when conveying the reality surrounding him, will try not to describe the factuality of the material, in contrast to sensation, but to capture the greatest completeness of events, relying on direct sensory sensation, and not on the sensations themselves.

For the intuitive type, each life situation turns out to be closed, oppressive, and the task of intuition is to find a way out of this vacuum, to try to unlock it.

Another feature of the extroverted intuitive type is that he has a very strong dependence on external situations. But this dependence is peculiar: it is aimed at possibilities, and not at generally accepted values.

This type is focused on the future, he is constantly in search of something new, but as soon as this new thing is achieved and no further progress is visible, he immediately loses all interest, becomes indifferent and cold-blooded. In any situation, he intuitively looks for external opportunities and neither reason nor feeling can hold him back, even if the new situation runs counter to his previous beliefs.

More often, these people become the head of someone else's undertaking, make the most of all opportunities, but, as a rule, do not follow through with the task. They waste their lives on others, and they themselves are left with nothing.

Introverted type

The introverted type differs from the extroverted one in that it focuses primarily not on the object, but on subjective data. Between the perception of an object and its by one's own action a subjective opinion intervenes, “which prevents the action from taking on a character corresponding to what is objectively given.”

But this does not mean that the introverted type does not see external conditions. It’s just that his consciousness chooses the subjective factor as the decisive one.

Jung calls the subjective factor “that psychological act or reaction that merges with the influence of the object and thereby gives rise to a new mental act.” Criticizing the position of Weininger, who characterized this attitude as selfish or egoistic, he says: “the subjective factor is the second world law, and the one who is based on it has the same true, lasting and meaningful basis as the one who refers to object.... The introverted attitude is based on what is present everywhere, in highest degree a real and absolutely inevitable condition of mental adaptation.”

Like the extroverted attitude, the introverted one is based on a hereditary psychological structure that is inherent in every individual from birth.

As we know from previous chapters, the unconscious attitude is, as it were, a counterweight to the conscious one, i.e. if in an introvert the ego has taken over the claims of the subject, then as compensation there arises an unconscious strengthening of the influence of the object, which in consciousness is expressed in attachment to the object. "How more ego tries to ensure for itself all kinds of freedoms, independence, lack of obligations and all kinds of dominance, all the more so it falls into slavish dependence on what is objectively given.” This can be expressed in financial dependence, moral and others.

Unfamiliar, new objects cause fear and mistrust in the introverted type. He is afraid of falling under the power of an object, as a result of which he develops cowardice, which prevents him from defending himself and his opinion.

Introverted rational types

Introverted rational types, as well as extraverted ones, are based on the functions of rational judgment, but this judgment is guided primarily by the subjective factor. Here the subjective factor acts as something more valuable than the objective.

Thinking type

Introverted thinking is focused on the subjective factor, i.e. has such an internal direction that ultimately determines the judgment.

External factors are not the cause or purpose of this thinking. It begins in the subject and leads back to the subject. Real, objective facts are of secondary importance, and the main thing for this type is the development and presentation of a subjective idea. Such a strong lack of objective facts is compensated, according to Jung, by the abundance of unconscious facts, unconscious fantasies, which in turn “are enriched by a variety of archaically formed facts, pandemoniums (hell, the abode of demons) of magical and irrational quantities, taking on special faces, depending on the nature of that a function that, first of all, replaces the function of thinking as the bearer of life.”

Unlike extroverted thinking type who operates with facts, the introverted type refers to subjective factors. He is influenced by ideas that flow not from an objective given, but from a subjective basis. Such a person will follow his ideas, but not focusing on the object, but focusing on the internal basis.

He strives to deepen, not expand. The object for him will never have a high price and in worst case he will be surrounded by unnecessary precautions.

This type of person is silent, and when he speaks, he often runs into people who do not understand him. If he is accidentally understood one day, “then he falls into a gullible overestimation.” In the family, he more often becomes a victim of ambitious women who know how to exploit, or he remains a bachelor “with the heart of a child.”

An introverted person loves solitude and thinks that solitude will protect him from unconscious influences. However, this leads him further into a conflict that exhausts him internally.

Introverted feeling type

Like thinking, introverted feeling is fundamentally determined by a subjective factor. According to Jung, feeling has negative character and its external manifestation is in a negative, negative sense. He's writing:

“Introverted feeling does not try to adapt to the objective, but to place itself above it, for which it unconsciously tries to realize the images lying in it.” People of this type are usually silent and difficult to approach.

IN conflict situation the feeling manifests itself in the form of negative judgments, or complete indifference to the situation.

According to Jung, the introverted feeling type is found mainly among women. He characterizes them as follows: “...they are silent, inaccessible, incomprehensible, often hidden under a childish or banal mask, and often also distinguished by a melancholic character.”

Although outwardly such a person looks completely self-confident, peaceful and calm, he true motives in most cases remain hidden. His coldness and restraint are superficial, but his true feeling develops in depth.

At normal conditions this type acquires a certain mysterious power that can charm an extroverted man, because... it touches his unconscious. But with accentuation, “a type of woman is formed, known in an unfavorable sense for its shameless ambition and insidious cruelty.”

Introverted irrational types

Irrational types are much more difficult to analyze due to their lower ability to be detected. Their main activity directed inward, not outward. As a result, their achievements are of little value, and all their aspirations are chained to the wealth of subjective events. People of this attitude are the engines of their culture and upbringing. They perceive not words as such, but the entire environment as a whole, which shows him the life of the people around him.

Sensing introverted type

The feeling in the introverted attitude is subjective, because Next to the object that is felt, there is a subject who senses and who “introduces a subjective disposition to the objective irritation.” This type is most often found among artists. Sometimes the determinant of the subjective factor becomes so strong that it suppresses the objective influences. In this case, the function of the object is reduced to the role of a simple stimulus and the subject, perceiving the same things, does not stop at the pure impact of the object, but is engaged in subjective perception, which is caused by objective stimulation.

In other words, a person of an introverted feeling type conveys an image that does not reproduce outside object, but processes it in accordance with his subjective experience and reproduces it in accordance with it.

The introverted feeling type is classified as irrational, because he makes a choice from what is happening not on the basis of reasonable judgments, but based on what exactly is happening at that moment.

Outwardly, this type gives the impression of a calm, passive person with reasonable self-control. This occurs due to its lack of correlation with the object. But inside this person is a philosopher, asking himself questions about the meaning of life, the purpose of man, etc. Jung believes that if a person does not have the artistic ability to express, then all impressions go inward and hold the consciousness captive.

He should a lot of work convey an objective understanding to other people, and he treats himself without any understanding. As it develops, it moves further and further away from the object and moves into the world of subjective perceptions, which take it into the world of mythology and speculation. Although this fact remains unconscious to him, it influences his judgments and actions.

Its unconscious side is distinguished by the repression of intuition, which is fundamentally different from the intuition of the extroverted type. For example, a person with an extroverted attitude is distinguished by resourcefulness and good instincts, while an introverted person is distinguished by the ability to “sniff out everything ambiguous, dark, dirty and dangerous in the background of activity.”

Introverted intuitive type

Intuition in the introverted attitude is aimed at internal objects, which are represented in the form of subjective images. These images are not found in external experience, but are the content of the unconscious. According to Jung, they are the content of the collective unconscious, and therefore are not accessible to ontogenetic experience. A person of an introverted intuitive type, having received irritation from an external object, does not dwell on what was perceived, but tries to determine what was caused by the external inside the object. Intuition goes further than sensation; it seems to try to look beyond the sensation and perceive the internal image caused by the sensation.

The difference between the extroverted intuitive type and the introverted one is that the former expresses indifference towards external objects, and the latter towards internal ones; the first senses new possibilities and moves from object to object, the second moves from image to image, looking for new conclusions and possibilities.

Another feature of the introverted intuitive type is that it captures those images “that arise from the foundations of the unconscious spirit.” Here Jung means the collective unconscious, i.e. what constitutes “... archetypes, the innermost essence of which is inaccessible to experience, is a sediment of mental functioning in a number of ancestors, i.e. these are the essence of experiences of organic being, in general, accumulated by million-fold repetitions and condensed into types.”

According to Jung, the person who is an introverted intuitive type is a mystic dreamer and seer on the one hand, a dreamer and artist on the other. The deepening of intuition causes the individual to withdraw from tangible reality, so that he becomes completely incomprehensible even to those closest to him. If this type begins to think about the meaning of life, what it represents and its value in the world, then he faces moral problems, which is not limited to contemplation alone.

The introverted intuitive most of all represses the sensations of the object, because “in his unconscious there is a compensating extraverted function of sensation, characterized by an archaic character.” But with the actualization of the conscious attitude, complete submission occurs inner perception. Then obsessive feelings of attachment to the object arise that resist conscious installation.

Literature

1. Carl Jung. Memories, dreams, reflections. The origin of my writings.
2. Jung K.G. Psychological types. St. Petersburg, "Azbuka", 2001, 736 p. See also: Four works on psychological typology).
3. A.M.Elyashevich, D.A.Lytov April 2004 – August 2005, St. Petersburg. Published: “Socionics, mentology and personality psychology”, 2005, No. 3;
4. Myers I.B., Myers P. Gifts Differing. Consulting Psychologists Press, no year (1956).
5. Keirsey D. Please Understand Me II. Character – Temperament – ​​Intelligence. Gnosology Books Ltd., 2000.

On July 26, 1875, the founder of analytical psychology, Carl Gustav Jung, was born. AiF.ru spoke about the discoveries that made the psychiatrist famous throughout the world psychologist Anna Khnykina.

Complexes, archetypes and the collective unconscious

Carl Gustav Jung known as a follower of Freud who continued the development psychoanalytic theory. True, he did not follow Freudian traditions, but went his own way. Therefore, their cooperation was not so long. The concept of the collective unconscious was the main reason for the differences in views between them.

According to Jung, the personality structure (he called it the soul) consists of the Ego, the Personal Unconscious and the Collective Unconscious. The ego is what we used to call consciousness, or everything we mean when we say “I”. The personal unconscious is personal experience, for some reason forgotten or repressed, as well as everything that we don’t seem to notice around us. The personal unconscious consists of complexes - these are emotionally charged groups of thoughts, feelings and memories. Each of us has maternal and paternal complexes - emotional impressions, thoughts and feelings associated with these figures and the scenarios of their life and interaction with us. A common power complex in our time is when a person devotes a lot of his mental energy to thoughts and feelings about control, dominance, duty, and submission. The inferiority complex, etc., is also well known.

The collective unconscious contains thoughts and feelings that are common to all people, the result of our common emotional past. As Jung himself said: “The collective unconscious contains all spiritual heritage human evolution, reborn in the brain structure of each individual.” Thus, the collective unconscious is passed down from generation to generation and is common to all people. Examples include mythology, folk epic, as well as the understanding of good and evil, light and shadow, etc.

By analogy, just as complexes make up the content of the personal unconscious, the collective unconscious consists of archetypes - primary images that all people imagine in the same way. For example, we all react in approximately the same way to parents or strangers, death or a snake (danger). Jung described many archetypes, among which are the mother, the child, the hero, the sage, the rogue, God, death, etc. Much of his work is devoted to the fact that archetypal images and ideas are often found in culture in the form of symbols used in painting, literature and religion. Jung emphasized that symbols characteristic of different cultures often show striking similarities precisely because they go back to archetypes common to all humanity.

How is this applied today?

Today, this knowledge is widely used in the work of psychologists and psychotherapists of all directions. It’s quite difficult to underestimate the word “complex” or “archetype” in the work of a psychologist, would you agree? At the same time, the analyst does not label you, but knowledge about the nature and scenario of archetypes and your complexes helps to better understand your personal “psychic kaleidoscope.”

Analytical psychology

After receiving a medical degree in psychiatry from the University of Basel, young Jung became an assistant in a clinic for the mentally ill under the direction of Eugene Bleuler, the author of the term “schizophrenia.” Interest in this mental illness led him to the works of Freud. Soon they met in person. Jung's education and depth of views made a tremendous impression on Freud. The latter considered him his successor, and in 1910 Jung was elected the first president of the International Psychoanalytic Association. However, already in 1913 they broke off relations due to differences in views on the unconscious, as I said above - Jung identified the collective unconscious, with which Freud did not agree, and also expanded and supplemented the concept of “complex” to the form in which it has survived to this day. And then Jung went on his own inner path. His autobiography, Memories, Dreams, Reflections, begins with the statement: “My life is the story of the self-realization of the unconscious.”

As a result of this “self-realization of the unconscious”, Jung had a whole complex of ideas from such different areas knowledge such as philosophy, astrology, archeology, mythology, theology and literature and, of course, psychology, superimposed on his psychiatric training and Freud's ideas about the unconscious. The result was what is today called analytical psychology.

Plus, Jungians (that’s what psychologists who adhere to Dr. Jung’s theory call themselves - analytical psychologists) actively use a range of other psychological methods: art therapy, psychodrama, active imagination, all types of projective techniques (such as analysis of drawings), etc. Jung especially loved art therapy - creativity therapy. He believed that through continuous creative activity You can literally extend your life. With the help of creativity (art therapy), any spontaneous types of drawing, especially mandalas (a schematic image or design used in Buddhist and Hindu religious practices), deep layers of the psyche are released.

How is this applied today?

Psychoanalysts around the world are divided into Freudians and Jungians. An orthodox Freudian psychoanalyst will place you on the couch, sit behind the head of the head and listen to you with a minimal manifestation of his presence 2-3 times a week for 50 minutes. All visits, including missed ones, are paid. Time does not change or move, even if you work every other day and are unable to comply with agreements on your work schedule. But when you express a desire to find out why the analyst is so unfair to you and does not want to get into your position, you will be asked a couple of questions about why everything in your life is so inconvenient? And also who usually real life tend to fit into your circumstances and adapt to you?

The Jungians approach things differently. As a rule, this is once a week, and the conditions can be negotiated and be more flexible. For example, sessions missed for valid reasons can be worked out at another time. It is not at all necessary to lie down on the couch; you can sit on armchairs and talk, as you are used to in ordinary life. Also, in addition to the dialogue, you may be asked to comment on the image, fantasize out loud, and then draw your fantasy or feeling, imagine someone opposite you and talk to him, moving first to his place, then back to yours, they may be asked to make something something made of clay or sand...

The boundaries and rules of communication between the analyst and the patient still remain quite strict, which determines the quality of the contact and, accordingly, the work.

Today we can safely say that all areas of psychotherapy and practical psychology are rooted in analytical and projective practice. Thus, analytical psychology- this is what combines basic knowledge of psychoanalytic practice, collective centuries-old experience the work of people with their inner world and its self-expression and modern achievements in the science of the soul - psychology.

Concept of psychological types

Jung introduced the concepts of extraversion and introversion as the main types of personality orientation (ego orientation). According to his theory, which has been richly supported by practice around the world for about 100 years, both orientations exist in a person simultaneously, but one of them usually leads. Everyone knows that an extrovert is more open and sociable, while an introvert is all about himself. This is the popular version of these concepts. In fact, everything is not quite like that; extroverts can also be closed. An extrovert's psychic energy is directed outward - towards the situation and the people around him, his partners. He influences all this himself, as if bringing the situation and surroundings into the “right form”. An introvert acts in exactly the opposite way, as if the situation and surroundings are influencing him, and he is forced to retreat, make excuses or defend himself all the time. In his book Psychological Types, Jung provides a possible biological explanation. He says that there are two ways of adaptation to the environment in animals: unlimited reproduction with a suppressed defense mechanism (as in fleas, rabbits, lice) and a few offspring with excellent defense mechanisms (as in elephants, hedgehogs and most large mammals). Thus, in nature there are two possibilities for interaction with environment: you can protect yourself from it by building your life as independently as possible (introversion), or you can rush into external world, overcoming difficulties and winning it (extraversion).

Later, Jung supplements his theory of psychotypes with four main mental functions. These are thinking and feeling (rational), sensation and intuition (irrational). Each of us has each of these functions, in addition, each function can be oriented outward or inward and can be extroverted or introverted. In total there are 8 different mental functions. One of them is the most convenient for adaptation, therefore it is considered the leading one and determines the personality type of the same name according to Jung: thinking, feeling, sensing or intuitive (extroverted or introverted).

How is this applied today?

The leading personality type for a practicing psychologist is not difficult to determine, and this gives a lot of information about a person, in particular about his way of perceiving and delivering information and adapting to reality.

For example, if a person’s leading function is thinking, it will be difficult for him to talk about his feelings and sensations, he will reduce everything to facts and logic. A person with leading extroverted thinking lives under the yoke of a sense of justice. Most often these are military personnel, directors, teachers (mathematics, physics). All of them, as a rule, are tyrants, since they have strong cause-and-effect relationships, it is difficult for them to imagine that for some reason they can be violated, they always focus on objective facts of the surrounding world that have practical significance.

But for example, a person with leading introverted intuition will be focused on inner world and own ideas about external reality, he calmly treats the people and objects around him, preferring to live his life inside rather than making an impression on the outside.

Based on Jung’s typology, a lot of simplified similarities have been created, the most famous of which is socionics.

Associative method

It all started with a method free associations Freud. According to Freud, you must give an association to an association that has just arisen. For example, you are bothered by a black raven outside the window (A), you should tell the psychoanalyst what pops up in your memory in connection with this image (B). Then the analyst will ask you to find an association (C) for the association that has arisen (B) and so on down the chain. As a result, you are supposed to tap into your Oedipus complex.

Jung once drew attention to the fact that people think about some words in an associative series longer than others. He thought that strong emotions cause confusion or confusion in the head, and for this reason it is more difficult to give a strong reaction. Thus was born Jung’s associative experiment, which is beautifully depicted in the film “ Dangerous method" IN this experiment Jung proves that key value is precisely the time spent on building the association. Later, thought-provoking words are analyzed (usually for more than 4 seconds) and the meanings of the associations are interpreted.

How is this applied today?

Subsequently, on the basis of his associative experiment and Freudian free association, Jung created a method of amplification, when around one image (a raven in our example) many associations, images from cultural heritage, mythology, art are collected, leading the patient to an awareness of the complex behind it.

Dream theory

From the point of view of Jung's theory, the influence of dreams constantly compensates and complements the person's vision of reality in consciousness. Therefore, awareness and interpretation of dreams in the analytical process with a psychologist allows us to pay explicit attention to the unconscious in the psyche. For example, a person may become angry with his friend, but his anger quickly passes. In the dream, he may feel intense anger towards this friend. A dream preserved in memory returns a person’s consciousness to an already experienced situation in order to draw his attention to a strong feeling of anger that was suppressed for some reason.

One way or another, a dream is seen as a breakthrough of unconscious content into consciousness.

When a patient tells a psychoanalyst his dream, the latter can use not only the patient's associative series, but also knowledge about archetypes, hierarchy and structure of symbols. Fairy-tale and mythological scenarios also allow us to interpret dreams.

How is this applied today?

Psychoanalysts and analytical psychologists interpret dreams and this is part of their work in the same way as the initial interview, active imagination or association test. You may be asked at your first psychoanalysis session about your most important dreams or what you may have dreamed in the run-up to your first visit. For an analyst this will be very important information, not only diagnostic, but also prognostic in nature - often the first dream in the analysis describes future work.

We invite the reader to familiarize himself with the main provisions of the work of the Swiss psychologist Carl Gustav Jung “Psychological Types” and the possibilities of its use in modern practical psychology. The first part of the article conducts brief analysis chapters of this book by C. G. Jung. The second part provides some examples of how psychological type theory can be applied today.

The quintessence of the theory of psychological types by C. G. Jung

During his medical practice, Carl Jung noticed that patients differed not only in many individual psychological characteristics, but also in typical traits. As a result of the study, scientists identified two main types: extroverted and introverted. This division is due to the fact that in the process of life of some people their attention, interest in to a greater extent were aimed at an external object, outside, while for others - at their inner life, that is, the subject was the priority.

However, Jung warned that it is almost impossible to find one or the second type in its pure form, since for social adaptation this can be a big hindrance. From this comes the idea of ​​the existence mixed types, arising as a result of compensation for the one-sidedness of one personality type, but with a predominance of extraversion or introversion. As a result of this compensation, secondary characters and types appear, which complicate the definition of a person as extroverted or introverted. Even more confusion is caused by individual psychological reaction. Therefore, in order to more accurately determine the predominant extraversion or introversion, extreme care and consistency must be observed.

Jung emphasizes that the division of people into two main psychological types was made long ago “by experts on human nature and reflected by deep thinkers, in particular Goethe,” and has become a generally accepted fact. But different outstanding personalities described this division in different ways, based on their own feelings. Regardless of the individual interpretation, one thing remained common: there were those whose attention was directed and dependent on the object, turning away from the subject, that is, themselves, and those whose attention was rejected from the object and directed to the subject, its mental processes, that is, he turned to his inner world.

K. G. Jung notes that each person is characterized by both of these mechanisms, with one or the other being more pronounced. Their integration is a natural rhythm of life, similar to the function of breathing. And yet, the difficult circumstances in which most people find themselves, both the external social environment and internal discord, rarely allow these two types to coexist harmoniously within a person. Therefore, there is an advantage either in one direction or the other. And when one or the other mechanism begins to dominate, the formation of an extroverted or introverted type occurs.

After a general introduction, Jung conducts research into the history of the identification of mental types, from ancient times to his own detailed description extroverted and introverted types. In the first chapter, Jung analyzes the problem of mental types in ancient and medieval thought. In the first section of this chapter he makes a comparison between the ancient Gnostics and the carriers opposite point vision - by the early Christians Tertullian and Origen, in order to show by their example that one was an introverted type of person, and the second was an extroverted type of person. Jung notes that the Gnostics proposed a division of people into three types of character, where in the first case thinking (pneumatic) predominated, in the second - feeling (psychic), in the third - sensation (gilik).

Revealing Tertullian's personality type, Jung points out that in his commitment to Christianity he sacrificed what was his most valuable asset - his highly developed intellect, his desire for knowledge; in order to concentrate completely on the inner religious feeling, on his soul, he rejected his mind. Origen, on the contrary, having introduced Gnosticism into Christianity in a mild form, strove to external knowledge, to science, and in order to free the intellect on this path, he committed self-castration, thereby removing the obstacle in the form of sensuality. Jung sums it up by arguing that Tertullian was a clear example of an introvert, and a conscious one, because in order to focus on the spiritual life, he abandoned his brilliant mind. Origen, in order to devote himself to science and the development of his intellect, sacrificed what was most expressed in him - his sensuality, that is, he was an extrovert, his attention was directed outward, to knowledge.

In the second section of the first chapter, Jung examines theological controversies in the early Christian church to show, through the example of the confrontation between the Ebionites, who argued that the Son of Man had a human nature, and the Docetes, who defended the point of view that the Son of God only had the appearance of flesh, the one belonging to extroverts, the second - to introverts, in the context of their worldview. The intensity of these disputes led to the fact that the former began to put human sensory perception directed outward at the forefront, while the latter began to consider the abstract, extraterrestrial as the main value.

In the third section of the first chapter, Jung examines psychotypes in the light of the problem of transubstantiation, relevant for the mid-9th century AD. Again he takes two opposing sides for analysis: one - in the person of Paschasius Radbert, the abbot of the monastery, who argued that during the rite of communion, wine and bread turn into the flesh and blood of the Son of Man, the second - in the person of the great thinker - Scotus Erigena, who did not want to accept the general opinion, defending its point of view, “fabrications” of its cold mind. Without diminishing the significance of this sacred Christian ritual, he argued that the sacrament is a memory of the last supper. Radbert's statement received universal recognition and brought him popularity, since he, without having a deep mind, was able to sense the trends of his surroundings and give the great Christian symbol a rough sensual coloring, so Jung points us to clearly defined features of extraversion in his behavior. Scotus Erigena, possessing an extraordinary mind, which he was able to show by defending a point of view based only on personal conviction, on the contrary, met a storm of indignation; unable to empathize with the trends of his environment, he was killed by the monks of the monastery in which he lived. C. G. Jung classifies him as an introverted type.

In the fourth section of the first chapter, Jung, continuing the study of extroverted and introverted types, compares two opposing camps: nominalism (prominent representatives are Atysthenes and Diogenes) and realism (leader - Plato). The beliefs of the former were based on the attribution of universals (generic concepts), such as goodness, man, beauty, etc. To ordinary words, behind which there is nothing, that is, they were nominalized. And the latter, on the contrary, gave each word spirituality, a separate existence, affirming the abstractness and reality of the idea.

In the fifth section of the first chapter, developing his thought, Jung examines the religious dispute between Luther and Zwingli about the sacrament, noting the contrast of their judgments: for Luther, the sensory perception of the ritual was important, for Zwingli, the spirituality and symbolism of the sacrament had priority.

In the second chapter of “Schiller's Ideas on the Problem of Types,” C. G. Jung relies on the work of F. Schiller, whom he considers one of the first to analyze these two types, connecting them with the concepts of “sensation” and “thinking.” Noting, however, that this analysis bears the imprint of Schiller’s own introverted type. Jung contrasts Schiller's introversion with Goethe's extroversion. At the same time, Jung reflects on the possibility of an introverted and extroverted interpretation of the meaning of the universal “culture”. The scientist analyzes Schiller’s article “On the Aesthetic Education of Man,” polemicizing with the author, discovering the origins of his intellectual constructions in his feelings, describing the struggle of the poet and thinker in him. Jung is attracted to Schiller's work primarily as a philosophical and psychological reflection that poses questions and problems of a psychological nature, albeit in Schiller's terminology. Of great importance for understanding Jung's theory are his discussions of Schiller's symbol as a middle state, a compromise between opposing conscious and unconscious motives.

Next, Jung examines Schiller's division of poets into naive and sentimental and comes to the conclusion that we have before us a classification based on the creative characteristics of poets and the characteristics of their works, which cannot be projected onto the doctrine of personality types. Jung dwells on naive and sentimental poetry as examples of the operation of typical mechanisms and the specificity of the relationship to an object. Since Schiller moves from typical mechanisms directly to mental types, similar to Jung’s types, the scientist states that Schiller identified two types that have all the signs of an extrovert and an introvert.

Continuing his research, in the third chapter, C. G. Jung examines the work of the German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche in the light of the latter’s vision of the division into psychotypes. And if Schiller called his pair of typical opposites idealistic-realistic, then Nietzsche calls it Apollonian-Dionysian. The term - Dionysian - owes its origin to Dionysus - a character in ancient Greek mythology, half god, half goat. Nietzsche's description of this Dionysian type coincides with the characterological features of this character.

Thus, the name “Dionysian” symbolizes the freedom of unlimited animal drive, the collective comes to the fore, the individual comes to the background, the creative power of the libido, expressed in the form of drive, captures the individual as an object and uses it as an instrument or expression. The term “Apollonian” comes from the name of the ancient Greek god of light Apollo and conveys, in Nietzsche’s interpretation, a sense of internal silhouettes of beauty, measure and feelings, subject to the laws of proportions. Identification with a dream clearly focuses on the property of the Apollonian state: this is a state of introspection, a state of observation directed inward, a state of introversion.

Nietzsche's consideration of types is on an aesthetic plane, and Jung calls this a “partial consideration” of the problem. However, according to Jung, Nietzsche, like no one before him, came closer to understanding the unconscious mechanisms of the psyche, the motives underlying the opposing principles.

Next, in the fourth chapter, “The Problem of Types in Human Science,” Jung studies Furneaux Jordan’s work “Character from the Point of View of the Body and Human Genealogy,” in which the author examines in detail the psychotypes of introverts and extroverts, using his own terminology. Jung criticizes Jordan's position in using activity as the main criterion for distinguishing types.

The fifth chapter is devoted to the problem of types in poetry. Based on the images of Prometheus and Epimetheus in the poetry of Karl Spitteler, the scientist notes that the conflict of these two heroes expresses, first of all, the opposition between introverted and extroverted development options in the same personality; however, the poetic creation embodies these two directions in two separate figures and their typical destinies. Jung compares the images of Prometheus in Goethe and Spitteler. Reflecting in this chapter on the meaning of the unifying symbol, Jung notes that poets are able to “read into the collective unconscious.” In addition to his contemporary cultural interpretation of the symbol and spirit of opposites, Jung dwells on both the ancient Chinese and Brahmanistic understanding of opposites and the unifying symbol.

Next, Jung examines psychotypes from the perspective of psychopathology (sixth chapter). For research, he chooses the work of psychiatrist Otto Gross, “Secondary Cerebral Function.” K. G. Jung notes that in the presence of mental disorders, it is much easier to identify a psychotype, because they are a magnifying glass in this process.

The scientist then turns to aesthetics (chapter seven). Here he relies on the works of Worringer, who introduces the terms “empathy” and “abstraction”, which perfectly characterize the extroverted and introverted type. Empathy feels the object to a certain extent empty and for this reason can fill it with its life. On the contrary, abstraction sees the object as alive and functioning to a certain extent, and because of this it tries to avoid its influence.

In the eighth chapter of his work, Jung moves on to consider psychotypes from the point of view of modern philosophy. For the study, he chooses the position of the representative of pragmatic philosophy, William James. He divides all philosophers into two types: rationalists and empiricists. In his opinion, a rationalist is a sensitive person, an empiricist is a ossified person. If free will is important to the first, then the second is subject to fatalism. By asserting something, a rationalist unconsciously plunges into dogmatism; an empiricist, on the contrary, adheres to skeptical views.

In the ninth chapter, Jung turns to the science of biography, in particular the work of the German scientist Wilhelm Ostwald. Compiling biographies of scientists, Ostwald discovers the contrast between types, and gives them the name classical type and romantic type. The first type indicated tries to improve his work as much as possible, so he works slowly, he does not have a significant impact on the environment, because he is afraid of making a mistake in front of the public. The second type - classical - exhibits absolutely opposite properties. It is characteristic of him that his activities are varied and numerous, the result of which is a large number of successive works, and he has a significant and strong influence on his fellow tribesmen. Ostwald notes that it is precisely the high speed of mental reaction that is a sign of a romantic and distinguishes him from a slow classic.

And finally, in the tenth chapter of this work, C. G. Jung gives his “general description of types.” Jung describes each type in a certain strict sequence. First, in the context of the general attitude of consciousness, then, in the context of the attitude of the unconscious, then - taking into account the characteristics of basic psychological functions, such as thinking, feelings, sensations, intuition. And on this basis, he also identifies eight subtypes. Four for each main type. Thinking and feeling subtypes, according to Jung, belong to the rational, sensing and intuitive - to the irrational, regardless of whether the extrovert is we're talking about or about an introvert.

Practical application of the concept of psychotypes by C. Jung today

Today, it will not be difficult for a psychologist to determine the basic personality type. The main use of this work by Jung is career guidance. After all, if a person is withdrawn and does everything slowly, for example, as a salesperson in a sales area with a lot of traffic, then it is better not to work as a salesperson in general. Since this profession involves a large number of contacts during the day, and not always comfortable ones, which can greatly undermine the psychological health of an introvert. And the effectiveness of such activities will be low. If, on the contrary, a person belongs to the basic extroverted type, he can safely choose activities associated with a large number of personal contacts, including as a leader - manager or director.

This theory is also used in family psychology. Moreover, at the stage of family planning. Since, if a couple, say, consists of a typical extrovert or a typical introvert, the life of such a marriage will be short-lived. After all, if the wife has a desire to focus on her husband, limiting his non-work communication, being the most introverted person, and the husband, on the contrary, being a typical extrovert, has a need for a large number of guests in their home or a desire to often be in the company of friends, this can serve the cause of discord, and possibly divorce. But, since psychotypes with the most prevalent one typical attitude are quite rare, it is possible to choose a partner who, even being an extrovert, will be able to pay enough attention to his life partner and have a not particularly pronounced need for frequent friendly contacts.

Literature:

1. Jung K. G. Psychological types. M., 1998.
2. Babosov E.M. Carl Gustav Jung. Minsk, 2009.
3. Leibin V. Analytical psychology and psychotherapy. St. Petersburg, 2001.
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