In practice psychological work the main goal is the true, independent of the opinion of the psychologist, the identification of the magnitude of the studied signs, the psychologist seeks to objectively assess the mental situation, the characteristics of the personality of the subjects. This can be achieved by repeated application of various methods, long-term observation of the manifestations of signs by various subjects, as well as by identifying the high-frequency probability of their assessment in various or typical situations.

In this way, objectivity in psychological research - this is the adequacy and independence of the results of assessing the qualities or properties of the object or phenomenon under study from the subjectivity of the researcher. It can be achieved by abstracting the psychologist from the individual interpretation of the results of the study, when a situation arises in which the sign is definitely and unambiguously revealed in the majority of subjects by different researchers. However, the experience of a psychologist allows one to intuitively or on the basis of accumulated facts and a formulated algorithm cut off insignificant, biased information, thereby objectifying one's subjective conclusion.

Thus, the objectivity of psychological research in general and empirical indicators in particular is achieved by acquiring experience in obtaining, using and interpreting data, as well as by steadfast adherence to the criteria for the reliability of psychological measurement.

The experience of a psychologist as an indicator of the objectivity of psychological research is manifested, according to at least, in three aspects. First, over time, the researcher compares the results of the subjective assessment with the objective results of the subjects' vital activity. Moreover, the accumulated empirical result in this comparison acquires its objectivity, since the experimental estimate is "edited" and corrected, becoming real and objective. Secondly, the researcher adjusts the research tool itself. Insignificant indicators and scales are "cut off", their interpretation changes, new norms and evaluation criteria are developed. Third, in the process psychological practice the researcher learns the experience of others through publications and in the course of a direct exchange of information. These facts illustrate the transition of the psychologist's subjective psychological assessment into the mainstream of an objective conclusion.

Reliability should be understood as "sufficient fidelity" of measurements, i.e. sufficient for given level psychological representations of the correctness (truth) of the results. Permissible error should not exceed the degree of assumption about the actual value of the feature. Thus, reliability can be made up of the accuracy of measurements and the adequacy of the assessment of the actually studied trait.

In practice, the reliability of a psychological measurement is determined, first of all, by validity (correspondence of test data to the measured property), reliability (accuracy of psychodiagnostic measurements), predictability (assuming the development of the measured property) and normativity of the applied psychological methods.

Validity psychological methods. Quite a lot of research is devoted to the problem of validity in psychology. Moreover, the classification of types and types of validity and their names are given quite diversely (Fig. 4.10).

Rice. 4.10.

Validity as an element of the reliability of the psychological measurement of properties psychological phenomenon called the measure of correspondence of empirical estimates to ideas about the essence of properties or their role in a particular phenomenon under study. In the theory of psychometrics, two main types and several types of method validity are defined. The types of validity include: external and internal validity.

External validity is a measure of the possibility of transferring the results of a measurement to the population under study. It is determined by forming a representative study sample and cross-validation.

Sample representativeness is the representativeness of the experimental sample, reflecting the main properties of the studied population (general population). It is determined by comparing the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the experimental sample with the characteristics of the population in order to establish their homogeneity. Qualitative characteristics may include socio-demographic, species, intellectual (educational), professional and other characteristics of the population (group) that are the subject of research or significantly affect it. Quantitative characteristic experimental group- this is its minimum number, which preserves the properties of the general population. AT psychological literature There are several theoretical approaches to calculating the size of a minimum representative sample, tables of experimentally obtained data are often given.

Cross Validation is carried out by testing the methodology on a sample other than the experimental one in order to determine the boundaries of its applicability according to the criterion "characteristic of the population" (to determine the level of development of the property in children, adolescents, men or women, certain group specialists, etc.). During cross-validation, correlation coefficients between indicators obtained as a result of testing are calculated different groups test subjects. The conclusion about the possibility of applying the technique to a particular population is made using certain statistical criteria.

Internal validity - a measure of the compliance of test scores with the level of development of the measured property. She is consists, at least, of five kinds of elements : a) conceptual (theoretical) validity (theoretical substantiation of the possibility of measuring the property under study by data psychological means); b) content validity (the degree of representativeness of the content of the posterior methodology of the measured area of ​​mental properties; c) construct validity (the degree of representation of the studied psychological construct in the results of the measuring tool ("to what extent the test results are considered as a measure of the studied psychological construct - factor, property" )); G) operational validity (degree of representation in experimental operations of real operational conditions of mental reality); e) empirical validity (a set of characteristics of the validity of the methodology obtained by comparative in a statistical way evaluation. These characteristics include the so-called auto-validity, obvious, criterion, and other types of validity. Empirical validity is measured using validity coefficients).

predictive validity is an element of the content of the reliability of the method and is defined as the degree of accuracy and validity of the judgment about the researched mental property according to its result, after certain time after measurement.

The indicator of predictiveness is the degree of regression of test data to objective criteria. Regression is a function f(x1, x2 x3,... xn), which describes the dependence of the average indicator of a technique that measures a certain psychological phenomenon on the given fixed values ​​of the real manifestation of this phenomenon (external criterion - y). This function can be linear or non-linear.

AT practical psychology to predict the development or manifestation of a measured property, linear or multiple linear regression is more often used (y = b + a1x1 + a2x2 + ..., + anxn). physical meaning it consists in equating the dependent and independent variables. A change in the independent variable determines the corresponding fluctuation in the dependent variable. The coefficients of the equation reflect the degree of predictability of the function, i.e. the level of explained variance "x" due to the change in "y". When using a test battery, the forecast of the measured property is carried out by means of several dependent variables (x1, x2, x3, ..., xn) interconnected, which form a multiple linear regression. When using multiple linear function to predict the development of the phenomenon or property under study, the level of predictiveness of the measurement and its reliability increases due to the overlap by different methods of various aspects of the phenomenon or property under study.

Reliability - this is a characteristic of a psychological technique that reflects the accuracy of measurements, as well as the stability (stability) of the results to the action of extraneous random factors. Reliability and validity are the most important characteristics of the methodology as a tool for psychological research.

The greatest stability of the results is observed when using graphic and graphological tests, the indicators of which change extremely slowly. The handwriting is slowly changing, and the quality of the lines of the drawings and their composition remain practically unchanged. The greatest dynamism of indicators is observed in intelligence tests, which directly depend on the ability of a person to accumulate and process information.

The stability (stability) of the method indicators is affected by: the state and mood of the subjects, the motivation of the subjects for testing, ergonomic factors (light, room temperature, vibration, noise, etc.), activity characteristics (monotonicity - dynamism, interference, etc.) , the degree of learning (or training) of the subjects, the variability of the instrument of psychological measurement, the stability of the measurement procedure itself, etc. Reliability, therefore, is the degree of consistency of test results obtained during the first and subsequent measurements.

In practice, the most widely used six types of reliability: retest reliability (test-retest reliability); reliability of parallel forms; reliability of parts of the test (reliability as homogeneity of tests); reliability according to Kuder-Richardson; reliability of the interpreter ("estimator") and standard error measurements.

The definition of the reliability coefficient of the first two types is calculated by the formulas for calculating the correlation coefficients (depending on the scale in which the data are measured) between the first and subsequent measurements or between parallel forms methods.

The calculation of the reliability coefficient in the study of homogeneity is carried out by dividing the methodology into equal subtests and calculating the correlation between these parts. To determine the overall reliability of the method, the obtained correlation coefficients are entered into the Spearman-Brown formula:

where R is the correlation of the "halves" of the test.

If parts of the methodology are separate dichotomous tasks, for example, questions that can be answered two times (yes or no), or tasks with an assessment of the result as correct or incorrect, the formula is used

where is the share of the first answer to question i; – share of the second option to question i.

The reliability of the methodology parts can also be calculated using the Kuder-Richardson formula:

where K is the number equal parts test; is the variance of part of the test i; is the variance of the whole test.

When working with clinical questionnaires, tests of creativity and projective technologies, the reliability of the methods is determined by comparing the interpretation of the results by two or more expert psychologists. Significant odds correlations between them show the reliability of expertise.

The reliability coefficients of psychological measurements are the magnitude of the variance of indicators, which is calculated by squaring the correlation coefficient. It is interpreted as follows. For example, the correlation coefficient between parallel forms of the methodology is 0.75. The reliability factor is calculated as 0.752 = 0.56. This means that 56% of the variance of the studied empirical data depends on the true variance of the features (parallel test data), and 44% depends on errors or random variables.

Reliability can be expressed by calculating the standard error of measurements (SEM) (standard error of the indicator), which is calculated by the formula

where is the standard deviation of test indicators, and is the value of the reliability coefficient.

The physical meaning of SEM is to determine the variance of the indicators of the methodology around the "true indicator", which is characterized by the density of the normal distribution of data. If, for example, 68% of all cases of normal distribution of psychological data fall within the interval , then there are about two chances to one (68 / 32) that the measurement error will "fluctuate" within ± 1SEM. With an increase in the density of data distribution, for example, , the probability of prediction also increases (99.7 / 0.3) with a corresponding increase in the error interval in both directions .

Thus, the reliability, validity and predictability of empirical data make it possible to measure psychological variables on appropriate level reliability, which is dictated by the practice of social research.

• See for example: Anastasi A. Psychological testing: in 2 volumes. Moscow: Pedagogy, 1982; Anastasi A., Urbina S. Psychological testing. St. Petersburg: Peter, 2001; BurlachukL. F., Morozov S. M. Dictionary-reference book on psychodiagnostics. St. Petersburg: Peter Kom, 1999; Bodalev A. A., Stolin V. V. General psychodiagnostics. St. Petersburg: RECH, 2002: Gilbukh Yu. Z. Topical issues of validation of psychological tests // Questions of psychology. No. 5. M.: Pedagogy, 1978. S. 108–118; Gaida V. K., Zakharov V. P. Psychological testing: textbook, manual. L.: Publishing House of Leningrad State University, 1982. S. 13–18 and others.
• The formation of a representative sample on a quantitative basis is carried out using P. A. Chebyshev’s theorem on the probability of representativeness error, which says: “With a probability arbitrarily close to one, it can be argued that with a sufficiently large number of independent observations, the sample mean will differ arbitrarily little from the general average. According to the first corollary from the theorem of P. L. Chebyshev "...With probability arbitrarily close to unity (“practically certain”), the sample fraction will differ arbitrarily little from general share if the sample size is large enough" (See: Karasev A. I. Basics mathematical statistics. M.: Rosvuzizdat, 1962. S. 172).
• See for example: Moskvin S. Sampling in sociological research // Military Sociological Research, 1993, pp. 27–30; Introduction to the profession. M.: Military Publishing House, 1992; Karasev A. I. Fundamentals of mathematical statistics. Moscow: Rosvuzizdat. 1962, pp. 212–213: Burlachuk L. F., Morozov S. M. Dictionary- reference book on psychodiagnostics. St. Petersburg: Peter Kom, 1999. S. 64–65 and others.
• S. Moskvin notes that with a general population of 400, 500, 1000, 2000, 5000, 10,000 or more people, the minimum sample is 200, 222, 286, 333, 370, 398 and 400 subjects, respectively. G. Loza points to the following ratio of the general population and the size of the experimental sample when conducting sociological research: 100/16–17 people, 300/50 people, 1000/100 people. and 5000/200 subjects. A. Goncharov has a minimum representative sample relative to the general population, respectively, is: 500/222, 1000/286, 2000/333, 3000/350, 4000/360, 5000/370, 10,000/385, 100,000/398 and more than 100,000 - 400 respondents.
• Anastasi A., Urbina S. Psychological testing. St. Petersburg: Piter, 2001, p. 140.
• Cm . Anastasi A., Urbina S. Psychological testing. pp. 103–132.
• Мх – mathematical expectation (average value).

From the foregoing, it follows that the explanation in psychology includes 1) the correlation of the subjective image with that objective reality, which is the reflection object; 2) establishment of the nervous mechanisms of the process of reflection; 3) elucidation of the dependence of the phenomena of consciousness on those social conditions by which they are determined, and on that objective activity in which the being of man is expressed.

The objective method in psychology is a method of indirect knowledge of the psyche, consciousness. For an objective method, someone else's mental life is no less accessible scientific study than your own. The subjective is the subject scientific psychology not in itself, but only in unity with the objective.

mental activity always receives its objective expression in certain actions, speech reactions, in changes in the functioning of internal organs, etc. This is an essential property of the psyche.

The objectivity of the method of psychology depends on what are the concepts

The problem of the objectivity of psychological data has a different meaning in the literature. In many ways, the criteria of objectivity repeat those that were not formulated specifically for psychological area knowledge. The problem of data reproducibility is discussed, i.e. the possibility of repeated studies with obtaining the same phenomena and patterns. Reproducibility is thus considered as the possibility of comparing experimental data obtained for different subjects or different populations.

It can also be about the reproducibility of data in relation to the individual experience or subjective reality of the same person. Distinguish data stability when they are unambiguously associated with the demonstration of a certain pattern (for example, the illusion of apparent movement) or express only some shifts in fixed indicators, but these shifts always have the same direction.

For example, in social and educational psychology, such a pattern is discussed as the best agreement between the subjective assessments of teachers when the subject of assessment is the properties of students, and the worst when teachers evaluate their colleagues. In one of the examples of demonstrating the features of a correlation study, other installed dependencies– improving the forecast in assessing the properties of teachers high school both by the teachers themselves and by the students.

For similar cases of designing a study, it is important to point out that psychological regularity is revealed when comparing series of sample indicators, i.e. dependencies are probabilistic in nature, i.e. statistically evaluated.

In the context of statistical evaluation of the reliability of empirical results, the concept of data reliability is introduced. Reliable data are those that, when obtained again under the same procedural conditions, give insignificant deviations from the original values. In this case, reliability is associated not only with the stability of certain effects, but also with the requirement of their probabilistic assessment based on statistical decisions. The unreliability of psychological research data can be due to many reasons: fluctuations in the measured variables themselves, measurement errors, the influence of side factors that provide non-systematic shifts in recorded indicators, etc.

The problem of data reproducibility is also related to the problem of their intersubjectivity, i.e. opportunities to be obtained by different researchers. The fact that subjective reality cannot be seen by another person does not mean that the criterion of the intersubjective nature of knowledge should be abandoned. In psychology, methodological means in varying degrees depend on the researcher's interpretation of the data of the subjective experience of another person - the subject.

The term "validity" is of European origin. It literally means: "full", "suitable", "corresponding".

The characteristic of a psychodiagnostic technique as valid indicates its compliance and suitability for evaluating precisely that psychological quality for which it is intended.

The characterization of the validity of a methodology includes not only information about what the method actually measures, but also information about the conditions, about the scope of its application.

There are several varieties of validity, each of which should be considered and evaluated separately when it comes to determining the validity of a psychodiagnostic technique. Validity can be theoretical and practical (empirical), internal and external.

Theoretical validity is determined by the correspondence of the indicators of the quality under study, obtained using this method, to the indicators obtained by other methods - those with the indicators of which there should be a theoretically justified dependence. Theoretical validity is checked by correlations of indicators of the same property, obtained using different methods based on or proceeding from the same theory.

Empirical validity is checked by the correspondence of diagnostic indicators to real behavior, observed actions and reactions of the subject. If, for example, with the help of some methodology, we evaluate the character traits of a given subject, then the applied methodology will be considered practically or empirically valid when we establish that this person leads the village in life exactly as the methodology predicts, i.e. in according to his character trait.

According to the criterion of empirical validity, the methodology is checked by comparing its indicators with real life behavior or results. practical activities of people.

Internal validity means that the tasks, subtests, judgments, etc., contained in the methodology, correspond to the general goal and design of the methodology as a whole. It is considered internally invalid or insufficiently internally valid when all or part of the questions, tasks or subtests included in it do not measure what is required from this methodology.

External validity is approximately the same as empirical validity, with the only difference that in this case we are talking about the relationship between the indicators of the methodology and the most important, key outward signs related to the behavior of the subject.

When creating a methodology, it is difficult to immediately assess its validity. Usually, the validity of a methodology is checked and refined in the course of its fairly long use, especially since we are talking about verification from at least the four sides described above.

In addition to the types of validity, it is important to know the criteria for validity. These are the main signs by which one can practically judge whether this technique is or is not valid. These criteria could be the following:

1. Behavioral indicators - reactions, actions and deeds of the subject in various life situations.

2. Achievements of the subject in various types activities: educational, labor, creative and others.

3. Data indicating the performance of various control samples and tasks.

4. Data obtained using other methods, the validity or connection of which with the tested method is considered to be reliably established.

Reliability- one of the three main psychometric properties of any measuring psychodiagnostic technique (test).

Reliability is the noise immunity of the test, the independence of its result from the action of various random factors:

a) the variety of external material conditions of testing, changing from one test subject to another;

b) dynamic internal factors, acting differently on different subjects during testing;

c) information and social circumstances.

Bench press for presenting information to the subject, depending on the results of his work and changes in his functional state. In the second, the computer works according to a rigid, predetermined and constant program in the process of research.

3. Imitation (modeling) of human activity, when
A computer, according to a certain program, imitates human activity
century. Simulation can be deterministic or statistic
chesky character.

4. Creation of an information and reference system for psychologists
ical data when accumulated reference material con
centered in computer memory.

Measurement equipment physiological characteristics usually includes the following devices:

Sensors or electrodes (serve to divert potentials
from the surface of the human body)

Converter (used to convert the original signal
nala to the kind with which it is easy to lead him further strengthening);

Amplifier of bioelectrical signals;

Recorder (used to issue the measurement result in
graphic or digital form).

2.5. OBJECTIVITY OF PSYCHOLOGICAL

RESEARCH AND FEATURES

PSYCHOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION

INFORMATION RECEIVED

Along with the considered methods intended for collecting primary information, various methods and techniques for processing data obtained as a result are widely used in psychology. psychological research, their logical and mathematical analysis to obtain secondary results, i.e. factors and conclusions arising from the interpretation of the processed primary information. For this purpose, in particular, various methods of mathematical statistics are used, without which it is often impossible to obtain reliable information about the phenomena under study, as well as methods for qualitative analysis of the data obtained.

In the study of mental phenomena, psychology cannot confine itself to the study of single factors, no matter how interesting they may be in themselves. Mental processes - mass phenomena, and therefore the regularities inherent in them can be revealed only by studying mass factors. Only use-

Chapter 2 Methods scientific study of the psyche

following a sufficient number of persons allows us to draw conclusions that characterize the real, and not random, features and patterns of the phenomenon under study. The need to study mass phenomena forces psychology to resort to statistical research methods.

Statistical research methods are used in the analysis of the materials obtained in the study. However correct application methods of statistics puts forward serious requirements for the method of collecting material in the research process.

As is known, the statistical method relies on the laws of large numbers, and in some cases this requires a large number of observations. Received at statistical processing material findings may vary varying degrees the probability of an objective possibility of recurrence or detection under given conditions. The probability of the conclusion made depends on the number of observations made and ranges from 0 (the impossibility this fact) to 1 (full certainty, mandatory offensive under certain conditions).

With statistical methods, various methods of processing the material are used. It can be as simple as a distribution curve, arithmetic mean, average standard deviation and others, as well as more complex processing methods, such as multiple regression, factor analysis etc., requiring the use of a computer.

Outlining the various methods of studying the psyche, we deliberately will not consider in detail the methods of mathematical and statistical data processing. This is done because, firstly, there is an extensive educational literature, reference books and monographs, where these issues are presented professionally and in detail. Secondly, psychology students study a separate course "Mathematical Methods in Psychology". Therefore, the content of this material is presented from the moment when these studies have already been processed and presented in one form or another.

Let us first dwell on the problem of the objectivity of psychological research, as well as qualitative analysis and psychological interpretation of the obtained results. These questions are of particular interest.

Research always proceeds from some kind of understanding and is an interpretation of what is being studied. Starting from a certain understanding, it usually sooner or later reveals facts that destroy or modify the old, original understanding, which

_______________

led to their disclosure and leads to something new, and a new understanding orients research towards new facts, and so on. As S.L. Rubinshtein, only by taking into account these general methodological considerations, for example, those relating to the method of observation, can one solve the basic fundamental difficulty with which objective observation is connected especially in psychology. As possible through the objective, external observations to study mental, internal processes? What exactly is the subject objective psychological observations?

Proponents of behavioral psychology answer that only external reactions, various movements, gestures and nothing else can be the subject of objective psychological observation, because only they are objective facts. However, an observation that would be limited to external reactions could be objective but it wouldn't be psychological. Description of behavior that may be of some interest in psychologically must always contain a psychological interpretation. It is not for nothing that even purely objective descriptions of such an extreme representative of behaviorism as J.B. Watson, are speckled with expressions that contain psychological content, such as: “a child sought get a toy" or "he avoided touch", etc.

In fact, objective observation in psychology is directed not at reactions, not at external actions in themselves, but at their psychological content. At the same time, one has to take into account the fact that the external act is not directly identical with the internal operation and therefore determines it ambiguously.

Therefore, the point of view of those psychologists who believe that the psychological content is intuitive, i.e. directly given in external objective observation of a purely descriptive type, is ultimately just as untenable as the point of view of those who consider the psychological content generally inaccessible to objective observation.

Thus, the description of phenomena on the basis of observation is correct if the psychological understanding contained in it of the internal psychological aspect of an external act gives a natural explanation of its external course in various conditions.

Let us dwell separately on the problem of the accuracy of measuring the information received, as well as its quantitative and qualitative characteristics. This problem has existed in psychology for a long time.

Chapter 2

One side, this problem closely related to the problem of the objectivity of the study. Psychologists have long asked themselves the question: “How can one prove that an observed phenomenon is not accidental or that it objectively exists?” In the process of formation and development of psychology, the methodology for confirming the objectivity of the results of the experiment was determined. For example, such confirmation may be the repetition of results in studies with other subjects in similar conditions.

On the other hand, this problem is related to the problem of comparability of the obtained results, for example, how to compare the severity of a certain psychological characteristic in different people.

Attempts to quantify psychological phenomena began to be made from the second half of the 19th century, when the need arose to make psychology a more accurate and useful science. But even earlier, in 1835, the book of the creator of modern statistics A. Quetelet "Social Physics" was published. In this book, A. Quetelet, relying on the theory of probability, showed that its formulas make it possible to detect the subordination of people's behavior to certain patterns. Thanks to this, it becomes possible to predict various phenomena (including psychological ones) on the basis of statistical laws. For the knowledge of these laws, it is hopeless to study each person individually. The object of studying behavior should be large masses of people, and the main method should be variational statistics.

Already the first serious attempts to solve the problem of quantitative measurements in psychology made it possible to discover and formulate several laws that connect the strength of human sensations with those expressed in physical units stimuli that act on the body. These include the laws of Bouguer-Weber, Weber-Fechner and Stevens, which are mathematical formulas that determine the relationship between physical stimuli and human sensations, as well as the relative and absolute thresholds of sensations.

Subsequently, mathematics was widely included in psychological research, which to a certain extent increased their objectivity and contributed to the transformation of psychology into one of the most expedient sciences from a practical point of view. The widespread introduction of mathematics into psychology has determined the need to develop methods that allow you to repeatedly conduct the same type of research, i.e. required to solve the problem of standard

_______________ 2.5. The objectivity of psychological research...

tization of procedures and techniques. The main point of standardization
is that in order to ensure the lowest probability
1 error when comparing the results of psychological

0 . examinations of two people or several groups are necessary before

just ensure the use of the same methods, stably, i.e. regardless external conditions measuring the same psychological characteristic.

Questions and tasks for self-control

1. Give the concept of the method and the main features of psychology
cal method.

2. Describe the main principles of psi
chological methods.

3. What are the basic requirements that psi methods must meet?
chological research? f .,.. .;

4. Give a classification of psychological methods. ;.■.,■,v

5. Describe the observation method. ...,< ;

6. Describe the method of experiment.

7. Describe individual stages organizing and holding ex
periods.

8. Give a description helper methods psychology.

9. Describe additional methods of psychology.

10. Give the basic concepts of the objectivity of the psychological
research.

11. Describe the features psychological interpretation by
received information.

Chapter 3 SENSOR PROCESSES

3.1. SENSORY AND PERCEPTIVE
PROCESSES IN THE STRUCTURE OF RECEPTION L

)(AND PROCESSING OF INFORMATION

Reflection by a person of the influences of the surrounding world occurs through cognitive mental processes, namely: sensory (feeling) perceptual (perception), mnemonic (memory processes) and intellectual (thinking).

Cognitive human activity necessarily involves the direct impact of surrounding objects and phenomena on the human senses. The human brain continuously receives signals about what is happening in the environment and inside the body itself. These signals reflect the properties, qualities of objects and phenomena, the state of its internal organs. Thanks to this, a person learns the world around him.

These cognitive mental processes form the structure of information reception, which includes the following separate stages:

An irritant (R, auditory, visual, etc.) affects the sense organs (04). As a result, nerve impulses (NI) arise, which enter the human brain (GM) through the nerve pathways, are processed there and formed in individual sensations(OSCH). On the basis of this, a holistic image of the perception of the object (COT) is formed, which is compared with the standard of memory (ES), resulting in the identification of the object (OP). Then, through mental activity (M), with a mental comparison of current information and previous experience, there is a comprehension and understanding of information (OS).

The information on the basis of which a holistic image is formed comes to us through various channels: auditory (auditory

3.1. Sensory and perceptual processes...

images), visual ( visual images), kinesthetic (sensual images), etc.

The process of primary processing of information occurs at the level of individual properties of objects and phenomena and is determined by sensations. This level of information processing is called touch. However, sensation is only primary material; it lacks a holistic view of the phenomenon that caused the sensation. Formation mental image takes place at the level of perception. perception, or perception,- it is the process of processing sensory information.

Thus, in the process of any cognitive activity Starting point is sensation, and the leading process is perception.

The allocation of two stages of information processing - sensory and perceptual - is largely abstract. Sensory and perceptual processes are difficult to separate from each other, just as the successive actions of one theatrical performance are inseparable. Another example can be given: walking down a street at night, we perceive buildings, pavement, lamps and cars, and not just feel rustles, glare, noises and vibrations.

The analysis of sensory and perceptual processes involved in the reception of information, the disclosure of their nature and patterns are necessary for a person to solve the problem of optimal construction information model real environment.

Studies conducted in psychology show that the formation of a perceptual image is a phase process and includes several stages: detection, discrimination and identification (B.F. Lomov).

Detection- the stage of perception, at which the observer distinguishes the object from the background, but cannot yet judge its shape and features.

distinction- the stage of perception at which a person is able to perceive separately two objects located nearby (or two states of one object), as well as highlight the details of objects.

Identification- the stage of perception, at which the identification of two simultaneously perceived images occurs, or the assignment of the perceived object to the standard stored in memory.

Identification- the stage of perception in which a person perceives essential features object and assigns it to a particular class.

Chapter 3 Sensory processes

The emergence of sensations

However, they are not the original properties of percepts.
tive image, but are formed in the process of its formation. Length
the effectiveness of individual stages depends on the complexity of perception
my signal. Knowledge of the sequence of distinguishing features
signal and the dynamics of the formation of its image is important for solving
numerous practical tasks. For example, such as choice
optimal character style, determining the number of lines in the body
visual image, signal transmission rate and frame change
moat in projection display systems, etc. In this connection
there is also the problem of "noise immunity" of perception, i.e.
human ability to restore signals, partially destroy
interfered with. This fact is also of great importance for
correct construction, for example, various information
systems and means of displaying information. .,_;

to whom the world. The first condition for the transformation of sensations is a physical impression - when nothing affects a person, he does not feel anything. For a sensation to arise, first of all, an impression from an object is necessary. Impressions that can cause sensations in the external and internal organs include: mechanical pressure and impact, electric movements, vibrations of heat and cold, light, sounds, blood circulation, nutrition, taste, smell, touch, hunger, etc.

When sensations arise, physical, physiological and mental process s. The founder of the study of the physical and mental was the German scientist G.T. Fekhner. He considered the main tasks to be the study of the relationship between physical and mental worlds and quantitative description this ratio. The participation of physical, physiological and mental processes in the occurrence of sensation is shown in fig. 3.1.

3.2. THE CONCEPT OF SENSATIONS"

The human body receives a variety of information about the state of the external and internal environment with the help of the sense organs through sensory processes (in modern terminology) or in the form of sensations (in classical terminology).

Feeling- this is the simplest mental process, consisting in the reflection of individual properties of external objects and phenomena of the surrounding world and the internal states of the body that directly affect the senses.

The ability to sense is present in all living beings with a nervous system. Conscious sensations are available only to humans. Feelings can be both objective and subjective. The objective character of sensations is determined by what is always reflected in them. external stimulus, and subjective - their dependence on the state of the body and the individual characteristics of a person.

: 3.3. THE APPEARANCE OF SENSATIONS

Feeling occurs as a reaction nervous system to one or another stimulus and, like any mental phenomenon, has a reflex character.

A person inexperienced in psychology rarely thinks about the fact that the sensation of, for example, sound and the sound itself are not the same thing. Flashes of light and the sensation caused by them belong, although related, but to different realities: the physical and the psychic.

Rice. 3-1- The emergence of sensations

All kinds of sensations arise as a result of the impact of appropriate stimulus stimuli on the human senses.

Irritants name objects and phenomena of reality that affect our senses.

Physiological mechanism sensation is the activity of special nervous apparatuses called analyzers. Analyzers take the impact of certain stimuli and transform them into sensations.

Analyzers consist of the following parts:

Receptors, or sense organs that convert the energy of external
its effects in nerve signals;

The nerve pathways through which these signals are transmitted
are given to the brain and back to the receptors;

Cortical projection zones of the brain.

Each receptor is adapted to receive only a certain type of exposure (light, sound, etc.) and has a specific

Chapter 3 Sensory Processes

Koi excitability in relation to physical and chemical agents (Table 3.1). For the sensation to arise, the work of the analyzer as a whole is necessary.

3.4. Classification and types of sensations

Historically, it is customary to single out the following three methods as the main structures for organizing research.

Methods: introspection exterospection understanding.

according to Teplov, the term objective - as opposed to the term subjective - means those that exist outside of human consciousness, independent of human consciousness and will, i.e.

This refers to the content of our knowledge that correctly reflects reality and does not depend on the subject, i.e. from the consciousness and will of man. An objective method is to be understood as a method that leads to the knowledge of objective truth.

The objective method in y is, first of all, a method based on the principle of determinism and aimed at discovering the objective laws governing human behavior and the phenomena of his subjective world.

1. Introspection is considered to be a subjective method in y. The essence of the sub method that the psychologist interprets mental life other people in terms of the information he received from the person himself. Those. the psychologist ascribes to other people those feelings and thoughts that he considers, based on his own experience, the most reasonable to attribute to them in this case. This is not an objective method.

2. method of exterospection is the observation of another person and a group of people (or external observation). The criteria for the objectivity of observation (as well as for any other method in y) imply an assessment of the truth not so much of the results themselves as of the hypothesis. To evaluate the results themselves, criteria such as reliability, validity, reproducibility are used.

In observation, reliability is associated with the degree of agreement of observers reporting on the same "object" of observation.

Reproducibility criteria relates to assessing the possibility of obtaining similar data by other studies in similar situations.

Observations as a research method can be carried out in terms of external validity. An increase in the degree of validity of an observation must be associated with an increase in its purposefulness, mediation by theory, and the activity of the observer in building structures of cognitive goals.

3. method of understanding (empathy) - a common name for a number of forms of cognition that involve direct perception someone else's soul. Understanding techniques are based on the professionalism of the experimenter's thinking and are associated with attempts to reflect both in the case of results in y interpretations and ways to obtain them.

There is another classification of methods (modern):

Observation

Measurement

Experiment

diagnostic tools.

The criteria for the objective of these methods remain common. reliability validity reproducibility.

Reliability is the stability of the results when the experiment is repeated several times. If it is high, then with repeated repetition of the experiment, approximately the same knowledge of the dependent variable will be reproduced.

Validity - the reliability of the conclusion, the cat provide results real experiment compared to the results of a flawless experiment.

Reproducibility - the ability to repeat the experiment, guided by the description of the applied methodological procedures.

Experiment is one of the most objective research methods.

Criteria for the correspondence of the selected indicators of the hypothesis and the purpose of the study.

More on the topic Criteria for the objectivity of research methods.:

1. TOPIC 5. NON-PARAMETRIC METHODS FOR ASSESSING THE RELIABILITY OF THE RESULTS OF A STATISTICAL RESEARCH. MATCH CRITERION (chi-square)

Psychology, like any other science, has its own methods. Scientific research methods are the methods and means by which they obtain the information necessary for making practical advice and construction of scientific theories. The development of any science depends on how perfect its methods are, how reliable and correct they are. All this is true in relation to psychology.

The phenomena studied by psychology are so complex and diverse, so difficult to scientific knowledge that throughout the development psychological science its success directly depended on the degree of perfection of the research methods used. Psychology stood out as an independent science only in the middle of the 19th century, therefore it very often relies on the methods of other, older sciences - philosophy, mathematics, physics, physiology, medicine, biology and history. In addition, psychology uses the methods of modern sciences, such as computer science and cybernetics.

It should be emphasized that any independent science has only its inherent methods. There are such methods in psychology. All of them can be divided into two main groups: subjective and objective.

Subjective methods are based on self-assessments or self-reports of the subjects, as well as on the opinion of researchers about a particular observed phenomenon or information received. With the separation of psychology into an independent science subjective methods received priority development and continue to improve at the present time. The very first methods of studying psychological phenomena were observation, self-observation and questioning.

Observation method in psychology is one of the oldest and, at first glance, the simplest. It is based on the systematic observation of people's activities, which is carried out in ordinary life conditions without any deliberate interference on the part of the observer. Observation in psychology involves a complete and accurate description of the observed phenomena, as well as their psychological interpretation. This is precisely what the main objective psychological observation: it must, proceeding from the facts, reveal their psychological content.

Observation is a method that all people use. However scientific observation and observation, which most people use in everyday life, have a number of significant differences. Scientific observation is systematic and carried out on the basis of a certain plan in order to obtain an objective picture. Therefore, scientific observation requires special training, during which special knowledge is acquired and contributes to the objectivity of the psychological interpretation of quality.

Observation can be carried out in various ways. For example, the method of included observation is widely used. This method is used in cases where the psychologist himself is a direct participant in the events. However, if, under the influence of the researcher's personal participation, his perception and understanding of the event may be distorted, then it is better to turn to third-party observation, which makes it possible to more objectively judge the events taking place. In its content, participant observation is very close to another method - self-observation.

Introspection, i.e. observing one’s experiences, is one of specific methods used only in psychology. It should be noted that this method in addition to the advantages, it has a number of disadvantages. First, it is very difficult to observe your experiences. They either change under the influence of observation, or completely stop. Secondly, in self-observation it is very difficult to avoid subjectivity, since our perception of what is happening has a subjective coloring. Thirdly, in self-observation it is difficult to express some shades of our experiences.

However, the method of self-observation is very important for a psychologist. Faced in practice with the behavior of other people, the psychologist seeks to understand its psychological content, refers to his experience, including the analysis of his experiences. Therefore, in order to work successfully, a psychologist must learn to objectively assess his condition and his experiences.

Self-observation is often used in experimental conditions. In this case, it acquires the most precise character and it is customary to call it experimental self-observation. characteristic feature its is that the questioning of a person is carried out under precisely taken into account the conditions of experience, at those moments that are most interesting to the researcher. In this case, the self-observation method is very often used in conjunction with the survey method.

Interview is a method based on getting necessary information from the subjects themselves through questions and answers. There are several options for conducting a survey. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages. There are three main types of survey: oral, written and free.

oral questioning, as a rule, is used in cases where it is necessary to monitor the reactions and behavior of the subject. This type of survey allows you to penetrate deeper into human psychology than a written one, since the questions asked by the researcher can be adjusted during the research process depending on the characteristics of the behavior and reactions of the subject. However, this version of the survey requires more time to conduct, as well as the availability of special training for the researcher, since the degree of objectivity of the answers very often depends on the behavior and personal characteristics of the researcher himself.

Written survey allows you to reach a large number of people in a relatively short time. The most common form of this survey is a questionnaire. But its disadvantage is that it is impossible to foresee the reaction of the subjects to its questions and change its content in the course of the study.

Free Poll- a kind of written or oral survey, in which the list of questions asked is not determined in advance. With a survey of this type, you can quite flexibly change the tactics and content of the study, which allows you to get a variety of information about the subject. At the same time, a standard survey requires less time and, most importantly, the information received about a particular subject can be compared with information about another person, since in this case the list of questions does not change.

Attempts to quantify psychological phenomena began to be made from the second half of the nineteenth century, when it became necessary to make psychology more accurate and useful science. But even earlier, in 1835, the book of the creator of modern statistics A. Quetelet (1796-1874) "Social Physics" was published. In this book, Quetelet, relying on the theory of probability, showed that its formulas make it possible to detect the subordination of people's behavior to certain patterns. Analyzing the statistical material, he obtained constant values ​​giving quantitative characteristic such human acts as marriage, suicide, etc. These acts were previously considered arbitrary. And although the concept formulated by Quetelet was inextricably linked with the metaphysical approach to social phenomena, she introduced a number of new points. For example, Quetelet expressed the idea that if the average number is constant, then behind it there should be a reality comparable to the physical one, which makes it possible to predict various phenomena (including psychological ones) based on statistical laws. for the knowledge of these laws it is hopeless to study each person separately. The object of studying behavior should be large masses of people, and the main method should be variational statistics.

Already the first serious attempts to solve the problem of quantitative measurements in psychology made it possible to discover and formulate several laws that connect the strength of human sensations with stimuli expressed in physical units that affect the body. These include the laws of Bouguer-Weber, Weber-Fechner, Stevens, which are mathematical formulas that determine the relationship between physical stimuli and human sensations, as well as the relative and absolute thresholds of sensations. Subsequently, mathematics was widely included in psychological research, which to a certain extent increased the objectivity of research and contributed to the transformation of psychology into one of the most practical sciences. The widespread introduction of mathematics into psychology determined the need to develop methods that would make it possible to repeatedly conduct the same type of research, that is, it required solving the problem of standardizing procedures and methods.

The main point of standardization is that in order to ensure the least probability of error when comparing the results of psychological examinations of two people or several groups, it is necessary, first of all, to ensure the use of the same methods, stably, i.e., regardless of external conditions that measure the same psychological characteristic.

Tests are among such psychological methods. Its popularity is due to the possibility of obtaining an accurate and qualitative description of a psychological phenomenon, as well as the ability to compare the results of the study, which is primarily necessary for solving practical problems. Tests differ from other methods in that they have a clear procedure for collecting and processing data, as well as a psychological interpretation of the results.

It is customary to distinguish several variants of tests: questionnaire tests, task tests, projective tests.

Test questionnaire as a method based on the analysis of the answers of the subjects to questions that allow obtaining reliable and reliable information about the presence or severity of a certain psychological characteristic. Judgment about the development of this characteristic is carried out on the basis of the number of answers that coincided in their content with the idea of ​​it. Test task involves obtaining information about the psychological characteristics of a person based on an analysis of the success of certain tasks. In tests of this type, the subject is asked to perform a certain list of tasks. The number of completed tasks is the basis for judging the presence or absence, as well as the degree of development of a certain psychological quality. Most IQ tests fall into this category.

One of the earliest attempts to develop tests was made by F. Galton (1822-1911). On the International Exhibition in London in 1884, Galton organized an anthropometric laboratory (later transferred to the South Kensington Museum in London). More than nine thousand subjects passed through it, in which, along with height, weight, etc., various types of sensitivity, reaction time, and other sensorimotor qualities were measured. The tests and statistical methods proposed by Galton were later widely used to solve practical issues life. This was the beginning of the creation of applied psychology, called "psychotechnics".

In 1905, the French psychologist A. Wiene created one of the first psychological tests - a test for assessing intelligence. At the beginning of the twentieth century. The French government instructed Binet to draw up a scale of intellectual abilities for schoolchildren in order to use it for the correct distribution of schoolchildren according to the levels of education. Subsequently, various scientists create a whole series of tests. Their focus on the prompt solution of practical problems led to the rapid and widespread use of psychological tests. For example, G. Münsterberg (1863-1916) proposed tests for professional selection, which were created as follows: initially they were tested on a group of workers who achieved the best results, and then newly hired ones were subjected to them. Obviously, the premise of this procedure was the idea of ​​interdependence between mental structures necessary for successful implementation activities, and those structures, thanks to which the subject copes with the tests.

During the First World War, the use of psychological tests became widespread. At this time, the United States was actively preparing to enter the war. However, they did not have such a military potential as other belligerents. Therefore, even before entering the war (1917), the military authorities turned to the country's leading psychologists E. Thorndike (1874-1949), R. Yerkes (1876-1956) and G. Whipple (1878-1976) with a proposal to lead the solution to the problem of applying psychology in military affairs. The American Psychological Association and universities quickly began work in this direction. Under the leadership of Yerkes, the first group tests for the mass assessment of the suitability (mainly by intelligence) of conscripts for service in various branches of the armed forces: the army test "alpha" for literate and the army test "beta" for the illiterate. The first test was similar to A. Binet's verbal tests for children. The second test consisted of non-verbal tasks. 1,700,000 soldiers and about 40,000 officers were examined. The distribution of indicators was divided into seven parts. In accordance with this, according to the degree of suitability, the subjects were divided into seven groups. The first two groups included individuals with the most high abilities to the performance of the duties of officers and to be sent to the appropriate military educational establishments. Three subsequent groups had average statistical indicators of the abilities of the studied population of persons.

At the same time, the development of tests as a psychological method was also carried out in Russia. Development this direction in the domestic psychology of that time is associated with the names of A. F. Lazursky (1874-1917), G. I. Rossolimo (1860-1928), V. M. Bekhterev (1857-1927) and P. F. Lesgaft (1837-1909 ).

Tests are the most widely used method of psychological research today. Nevertheless, it should be noted that the tests occupy an intermediate position between subjective and objective methods. This is due to the wide variety of test methods. There are tests based on the self-report of the subjects, such as questionnaire tests. When performing these tests, the subject can consciously or unconsciously influence the test result, especially if he knows how his answers will be interpreted. But there are more objective tests. Among them, first of all, it is necessary to include projective tests. This category tests does not use self-reports of subjects. They imply free interpretation by the researcher of the tasks performed by the subject. For example, according to the most preferred choice of color cards for the subject, the psychologist determines his emotional state. In other cases, the subject is presented with pictures depicting an uncertain situation, after which the psychologist offers to describe the events reflected in the picture, and based on the analysis of the interpretation of the depicted situation by the subject, a conclusion is made about the features of his psyche. However, projective tests impose increased requirements on the level of professional training and experience. practical work psychologist, and also require a sufficiently high level intellectual development at the test subject.

Objective data can be obtained using experiment - a method based on the creation artificial situation, in which the studied property is distinguished, manifested and evaluated best of all. The main advantage of the experiment is that it allows more reliable than other psychological methods to draw conclusions about the cause-and-effect relationships of the studied phenomenon with other phenomena, to scientifically explain the origin of the phenomenon and its development. There are two main types of experiment: laboratory and natural. They differ from each other by the conditions of the experiment.

A laboratory experiment involves creating an artificial situation in which the property under study can be best evaluated. A natural experiment is organized and carried out in ordinary life conditions, where the experimenter does not interfere in the course of events, fixing them as they are. One of the first to use the method of natural experiment was the Russian scientist A.F. Lazursky. The data obtained in a natural experiment correspond best to the typical life behavior of people. However, it should be borne in mind that the results of a natural experiment are not always accurate due to the lack of strict control over the influence of the experimenter. various factors to the property under study. From this point of view laboratory experiment wins in accuracy, but at the same time concedes in the degree of correspondence to the life situation.

Another group of psychological science methods is formed by modeling methods. They should be attributed to independent class methods. They are used when other methods are difficult to use. Their peculiarity is that, on the one hand, they are based on certain information about a particular mental phenomenon, and, on the other hand, when using them, as a rule, the participation of the subjects or taking into account the real situation is not required. Therefore, it can be very difficult to attribute various modeling techniques to the category of objective or subjective methods.

Models can be technical, logical, mathematical, cybernetic, etc. In mathematical modeling, they use mathematical expression or a formula that reflects the relationship of variables and the relationship between them, reproducing elements and relationships in the studied phenomena. Technical Modeling involves the creation of a device or device, in its action reminiscent of what is being studied. Cybernetic modeling is based on the use of concepts from the field of computer science and cybernetics to solve psychological problems. Logic modeling is based on the ideas and symbolism used in mathematical logic.

The development of computers and software for them gave impetus to the modeling of mental phenomena based on the laws of computer operation, since it turned out that mental operations used by people, the logic of their reasoning in solving problems is close to the operations and logic on the basis of which they work computer programs. This led to attempts to represent and describe human behavior by analogy with the operation of a computer. In connection with these studies, the names of the American scientists Dr. Miller, Yu. Galanter, K. Pribram, as well as the Russian psychologist L. M. Wekker, became widely known.

In addition to these methods, there are other methods of studying mental phenomena. For example, a conversation is a variant of a survey. The method of conversation differs from the survey greater freedom carrying out the procedure. As a rule, the conversation is conducted in a relaxed atmosphere, and the content of the questions varies depending on the situation and the characteristics of the subject. another method is the method of studying documents, or the analysis of human activity. It should be borne in mind that the most effective study of mental phenomena is carried out with the complex application of various methods.

We will not consider in detail the history of Russian psychology, but will focus on the most milestones its development, since the psychological schools of Russia have long earned well-deserved fame throughout the world.

A special place in development psychological thought in Russia, the works of M. V. Lomonosov are occupied. In his works on rhetoric and physics, Lomonosov develops a materialistic understanding of sensations and ideas, speaks of the primacy of matter. This idea was reflected especially brightly in his theory of light, which was later supplemented and developed by G. Helmholtz. According to Lomonosov, it is necessary to distinguish between cognitive (mental) processes and the mental qualities of a person. The latter arise from the correlation of mental faculties and passions. In turn, he considers the actions and sufferings of a person to be the source of passions. Thus, already in the middle of the eighteenth century. materialistic foundations were laid domestic psychology.

The formation of Russian psychology took place under the influence of the French enlighteners and materialists of the 18th century. This influence is clearly visible in the works of Ya. P. Kozelsky and the psychological concept of A. N. Radishchev. Speaking about the scientific works of Radishchev, it must be emphasized that in his works he establishes the leading role of speech for the entire mental development of a person.

In our country, psychology as an independent science began to develop in the 19th century. Big role in its development on this stage played the works of A. I. Herzen, who spoke of "action" as an essential factor spiritual development person. It should be noted that the psychological views of domestic scientists in the second half of the nineteenth century. largely contradicted the religious point of view on mental phenomena.

One of the most striking works of that time was the work of I. M. Sechenov "Reflexes of the brain." This work made a significant contribution to the development of psychophysiology, neuropsychology, and the physiology of higher nervous activity. It should be noted that Sechenov was not only a physiologist, whose works created the natural scientific basis for modern psychology. Sechenov was fond of psychology from an early age and, according to S. L. Rubinshtein, was the largest Russian psychologist of that time. Sechenov, a psychologist, not only put forward a psychological concept, in which he defined the subject of scientific knowledge of psychology - mental processes, but also had a serious influence on the development of experimental psychology in Russia. But perhaps highest value his scientific activity lies in the fact that it influenced the research of V. M. Bekhterev and I. P. Pavlov.

Pavlov's works had great value for world psychological science. Thanks to the discovery of the mechanism for the formation of a conditioned reflex, many psychological concepts and even directions were formed, including behaviorism.

Later, at the turn of the century, experimental studies were continued by such scientists as A.F. Lazursky, N.N. Lange, G.I. Chelpanov. A.F. Lazursky dealt a lot with personality issues, especially the study of a person’s character. In addition, he is known for his experimental work, including his proposed method of natural experiment.

Starting a conversation about the experiment, we cannot fail to mention the name of N. N. Lange, one of the founders of experimental psychology in Russia. He is known not only for his studies of sensation, perception, attention. Lange created one of the first experimental psychology laboratories in Russia at Odessa University.

At the same time with experimental psychology in Russia in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. other scientific psychological directions are also developing, including general psychology, zoopsychology, and child psychology. Psychological knowledge began to be actively used in the clinic by S. S. Korsakov, I. R. Tarkhanov, V. M. Bekhterev. Psychology began to penetrate into the pedagogical process. In particular, the works of P. F. Lesgaft, devoted to the typology of children, were widely known.

G. I. Chelpanov, who was the founder of the first and oldest Psychological Institute in our country, played a particularly prominent role in the history of domestic pre-revolutionary psychology. Preaching positions of idealism in psychology, Chelpanov could not engage in scientific research after the October Revolution. However, the founders of Russian psychological science were replaced by new talented scientists. These are S. L. Rubinshtein, L. S. Vygotsky, A. R. Luria, who not only continued the research of their predecessors, but also raised an equally famous generation of scientists. Among them are B. G. Ananiev, A. N. Leontiev, P. Ya. Galperin, A. V. Zaporozhets, D. B. Elkonin. The main works of this group of scientists date back to the 30-60s of the XX century.