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Diagnostic sign (parameter): a sign (parameter) of the object of diagnosis, used in the prescribed manner to determine the technical condition, structural parameter - gap.

A diagnostic sign must meet a number of conditions. In practice, attempts are made to use diagnostic parameters that meet the requirements [156] of unambiguity, accessibility, ease of measurement, information content, and manufacturability.

A diagnostic sign must meet a number of conditions. In practice, they tend to use diagnostic parameters that meet the requirements of unambiguity, accessibility, ease of measurement, information content and manufacturability.

A diagnostic sign, pathognomonic for neonatal dacryocystitis, is the release of mucopurulent or mucous fluid from the lacrimal puncta with pressure on the area of ​​the lacrimal sac. Dacryocystitis is accompanied by conjunctival hyperemia, lacrimation, lacrimation, and mucous and purulent discharge in the conjunctival sac. These symptoms appear and increase towards the end of the first and second weeks of a child's life. Sometimes the disease is noticed by the end of the first month. In this way, the cause is not eliminated, but the effect is treated, and this is fraught with complications.

Purely diagnostic signs are not considered here. However, technological classification maintains connection and continuity with the systems of mineralogy.

Diagnostic features malfunctions of individual units of machine tools are often determined by analyzing those parameters that were not previously regulated during control operations and were considered secondary.

These and other diagnostic signs of channel formations will give the most reliable results when they are used in a complex way.

The diagnostic signs of these facies are the presence of remains of terrestrial and freshwater organisms, poor sorting and angular shape of clastic grains, signs of ancient weathering with chemogenic deposits in the weathering crust.

A common diagnostic sign of all complications is a change in pressure. On the other hand, the distribution of pressure along the route is the most accurate and quite often recorded parameter in the technological cycle of pumping by telemechanics and automated control systems. Therefore, the hydraulic loss fitness function component Ah is adopted in the diagnostic algorithm as a central link.

Diagnostic signs of the cortex are mechanical elements - bast fibers (stereids) and stony cells (sclereids), their number, location and structure. Mechanical elements are located singly or in groups, scattered or in belts. The walls of bast fibers or stony cells are usually strongly thickened and lignified.

The most important diagnostic features in bark powders are: mechanical elements (bast fibers, stony cells), their location (singly or in groups), inclusions of calcium oxalate, lactifers, receptacles.

Indirect diagnostic signs can be acoustic signals, changes in the temperature of the product, pressure in the system, the presence of wear products in the lubricant (see Chap.

An important diagnostic feature for determining the types of spore-bearing bacteria is the structure of the edge of the colonies. Some species form colonies with rhizoid, fringed and branched edges, others with smooth rounded or bumpy, roughly wavy edges. In a number of cases, similar features can be seen with the naked eye, but they are especially visible under microscopy with a slight increase.

Psychodiagnostics as a science.

Psychodiagnostics is the area psychological science developing theory, principles and tools, assessments, measurements, individually psychological features personality.
The subject of psychodiagnostics is often limited to the use of various kinds of
diagnostic methods to a person in order to reveal his mental originality and
its subsequent measurement using various kinds of statistical methods. At
This overlooks the fact that both the nature of the information received and its
interpretation is highly dependent on the underlying psychodiagnostics
personality theory.

The main functions of psychodiagnostics are:
1. exercise control over the formation necessary knowledge and professionally important qualities
2. assessment of mental and personal development students during training
3. assessment of the quality of education itself.
4. the use of psychodiagnostic methods for the selection of applicants for certain educational establishments.
Psychodiagnostics at the university allows:
1. more effectively select applicants
2. further development abilities and skills of students,
3. spend necessary correction educational process, taking into account the individual psychological characteristics of students.

The history of the formation of psychodiagnostics abroad and in Russia.

The history of modern psychodiagnostics begins in the first quarter of the 19th century, that is, from the beginning of the so-called clinical period in the development psychological knowledge. This period is characterized by key role in obtaining and analyzing empirical psychological knowledge about a person, doctors begin to play (before them, philosophers and writers were engaged in this). Doctors are interested in the causes of the origin of intractable and spread in those years in developed countries world of mental illness and neuroses. Psychiatrists begin to conduct systematic observations of patients in clinics in Europe, recording and analyzing the results of their observations. At this time, methods of psychodiagnostics such as observation, questioning, analysis of documents. However, in general, psychodiagnostics in these years is not yet strict, arbitrary, which is manifested in various conclusions and conclusions that doctors come to by observing the same patients and studying them using the same methods. This, in particular, is due to the fact that the methods of psychodiagnostics at that time were still of a qualitative nature.

Start of creation quantitative methods psychodiagnostics should be considered the second half of XIX and. - at a time when under the guidance German psychologist W. Wundt created the world's first experimental psychological laboratory, where various technical devices and devices began to be used for the purposes of psychodiagnostics. The discovery of a psychophysical law belongs to the same time, which, having shown quantitative relationship between physical and psychological phenomena, accelerated the creation of quantitative psychodiagnostics tools. The basic psychophysical law opened the possibility of measuring psychological phenomena, and this discovery led to the creation of so-called subjective scales for measuring sensations. In accordance with this law, human sensations became the main object of measurement, and for a long time, up to late XIX century, practical psychodiagnostics was limited to the measurement of sensations.

Diagnostic signs and diagnostic categories.

signs are variables that can be directly observed and
register.
Categories are variables hidden from direct observation.
commonly referred to as "latent variables".
Diagnostic output is the transition from the observed signs to the level
hidden categories. For quantitative categories, the name is also often used.
"diagnostic factors".
Difficulty psychological diagnostics is that between
features and categories there are no strict one-to-one relationships. One and
the same outward act of a child - for example, tore a leaf out of a diary, maybe
due to completely different psychological reasons, such as,
elevated level latent factor “propensity to deceive” or an increased level
another hidden factor is “fear of punishment”. For an unambiguous conclusion of one symptom
or action is not enough. It is necessary to analyze the complex of symptoms, that is,
a series of actions in different situations.

physical properties. These include: color, gloss, transparency; hardness, density, cleavage, fracture, and other properties.

The color of a mineral is determined by its ability to absorb certain part light spectrum. Fersman singled out 3 kinds of colors of minerals by origin:

idiochromatic (one's own)

allochromatic (allo - alien),

Pseudochromatic (pseudo-false).

Idiochromatic - the composition of the mineral includes an element that gives color - a chromophore. For example, iron gives a black or brown color, lead - gray, copper - green, etc.

Allochromatic - color due to impurity elements that change the color of the mineral. For example, quartz is a colorless mineral, and its varieties amethyst, morion are colored purple or black due to impurities of Fe atoms.

Pseudochromatic - due to inclusions of foreign minerals. For example, the mineral labradorite has a dark color of its own, but when viewed under different angles a blue color is observed. It is caused by thin inclusions of the mineral ilmenite, which changes light refraction.

Sometimes an iridescent color appears on the surface of the mineral, called tarnish - it occurs due to the formation of a thin film of oxides on its surface.

DASH COLOR - the color of the mineral in the powder. Often the color of the line repeats the color of the mineral, but there are also deviations. For example, the minerals magnetite and chromite are black, and their color in powder or the color of the line is different: magnetite has a black line, and chromite is dark brown.

TRANSPARENCY - the ability of a mineral to transmit light. On this basis, minerals are divided into transparent, translucent and opaque.

SHINE - the ability to reflect incident light. According to the reflectivity of minerals, luster is divided into metallic and non-metallic. Minerals with high reflectivity have a metallic luster. Non-metallic luster is divided into: glassy, ​​greasy, mother-of-pearl, etc.

cleavage - the ability of minerals to crack under impact to form flat surfaces parallel to faces, edges, and other crystallographic directions. Allocate cleavage:

Very perfect (mica, talc),

Perfect (calcite, halite),

Medium (feldspars, hornblende),

imperfect (olivine, apatite),

Very imperfect (gold, corundum).

BREAK - a type of surface when a mineral is split. It happens - even, stepped, conchoidal, splintery, earthy, etc.

DENSITY - depends on the chemical composition and structure of the mineral. All minerals are divided by density into: light (1-3 g / cm 3), heavy (3.5-9 g / cm 3), very heavy (9-23 g / cm3).

HARDNESS - the ability of a mineral to resist mechanical impact. Allocate absolute and relative hardness.

Absolute hardness is determined by an instrument called sclerometer in kg / mm 3.

Relative hardness is determined in a comparative way. To do this, take a mineral with a known hardness and act on it or on it with another mineral. There is a reference scale for determining the relative hardness of minerals. It was developed by the Austrian mineralogist Moos in 1824, therefore it is named after him. 10 minerals are selected in it, which are arranged in order of increasing hardness and the number of the reference sample in it means the relative hardness of this mineral.

When there is no reference scale at hand, they use glass, a nail, a steel knife or a file, i.e. substitutes for reference minerals.

Except listed properties that appear in all minerals, there are properties inherent in individual minerals or a group of minerals. They are called special properties and these include:

· Magnetism - is determined by the deviation of the compass needle by the mineral;

Luminescence - any emission of light by a mineral without incandescence. Allocate: fluorescence - the glow of the mineral occurs when irradiated with ultraviolet or X-rays, phosphorescence - the continuation of the glow of the mineral after the cessation of irradiation; luminescence is observed in minerals containing impurities of ions in the crystal lattice. So the mineral scheelite glows in a pale blue color due to inclusions of MOLYBDENUM.

· Piezo- and pyroelectric. Piezoelectricity is a phenomenon when, under the action of pressure along the polar axis of the crystal, positive and negative charges. Pyroelectricity is also a phenomenon (appearance electric charges) only under the action of temperature during heating.

Reaction with hydrochloric acid - release occurs carbon dioxide, the reaction is well observed visually.

Taste and smell - some minerals emit a smell when they are exposed to something (on impact, etc.), other minerals are salty or bitter-salty in taste (rock salt).

Radioactivity - it is possessed by minerals containing radioactive elements.

All basic properties are manifested (except for special ones) in each mineral. Often, minerals of different chemical composition are outwardly similar in one or more properties. For example, the minerals quartz and calcite are similar in color, luster, and transparency, and it is difficult to distinguish them by these properties. But in other properties - hardness and cleavage, they differ sharply from each other. These properties are diagnostic features for them. Thus, the properties of minerals by which they can be identified or distinguished from each other are their diagnostic features.

All properties of minerals are studied:

macroscopically, i.e. define properties visually;

· by using laboratory research using a variety of instruments and analyzers: so chemical composition mineral is established after a series of chemical or spectral analyzes to determine the elements included in its composition;

structure crystal lattice determined using x-ray diffraction analysis based on the reflection and diffraction of x-rays from crystallographic planes. AT recent times used to study the structure of a mineral electron microscope;

· optical properties minerals are examined under a microscope.

Now many devices have been created that make it possible to carry out a complex of laboratory studies directly in a sample containing the mineral under study, i.e. eliminates the laborious work of extracting the mineral in pure form, without impurities of another mineral.

The study of the properties of minerals gave impetus experimental research to obtain minerals in the laboratory. Such studies make it possible to simulate the conditions for the formation of minerals, which is an undoubted scientific interest. The practical significance of such research is the production of artificial minerals for the jewelry industry, radio electronics, and other industries.

About the names of minerals - many came from ancient times:

Based physical properties or chemical composition (for example - magnetite, nickeline),

By geographical location discoveries (ilmenite - in the Ilmensky mountains, aragonite - in the Spanish province);

Named after great scientists or figures - uvarovite (mini page pr. Uvarov illumination), sheelite (in honor of the scientist chemist Scheele, who discovered the W element).

Many minerals, in addition to the main one, have one or more other names, called synonyms. For example, fluorite is fluorspar, sphalerite is zinc blende, etc.

The processes of mineral formation in nature occur according to the laws physical chemistry and thermodynamics. The main factors are the chemical composition of the medium, temperature and pressure. All of them change their parameters in the process of mineral formation, i.e. are variables. Change in concentration value chemical elements, temperature and pressure can flow smoothly and gradually, or abruptly abruptly. Under such conditions, minerals can crystallize simultaneously-successively one after another: olivine>? pyroxene>? hornblende; or simultaneously, for example, with intensive evaporation sea ​​water salt deposits are formed in the lagoons, consisting of minerals: halite>? sylvin>? carnalite>? gypsum>? sulfur. Such a joint occurrence of minerals formed at a certain stage of the mineral formation process is called MINERAL PARAGENESIS. And minerals formed together at a certain stage of mineral formation are called a paragenetic association. Knowledge of mineral paragenesis is of great scientific and practical value. So it was theoretically and practically established that in kimberlite pipes together with diamonds, a mineral of the garnet group, PYROP, crystallizes. In Yakutia, diamond deposits were discovered based on pyrope finds.

Vibration, noise, beating, knocking, fluid leakage and others external manifestations violations of the normal working process are signs of a malfunction of the mechanism or vehicle assembly. In diagnostics, signs are used as carriers of information about the technical condition of the mechanism; the limiting value of the attribute determines the need for maintenance or repair, the rate of change of the attribute - the resource of work until the next maintenance or repair. Often one simple sign carries narrow information about the state of the mechanism and does not provide a proper idea of ​​the technical condition of the mechanism. For example, monitoring the gap between the contacts in the ignition system interrupter (in a static state) does not allow determining its technical condition. Checking the same angle closed state contacts on a running engine reflects not only the wear of the contacts, but also the wear of the cam, cam roller, spring elasticity and the shape of the contact surface. Such a sign, which carries more information, is called complex. To diagnose a car as a whole, complex signs can be more general. For example, fuel and oil consumption by a car, engine power, coasting and others.

Knowing the limiting value of the attribute and its change as the mileage progresses, it is possible to determine the mechanism's uptime, the frequency of maintenance, and the vehicle's mileage before repair.

Determining the optimal troubleshooting sequence is a complex technical problem that has not yet been fully resolved.

The assessment of the technical condition of the mechanism of the unit or system is carried out according to a two-dimensional system: "good-failed", "lower-higher". As equipment for determining and recording the parameters of the technical condition, stands are used, mobile and pepsiotic with manual control, as well as with semi-automatic or automatic devices.

The scheme of the stand with running drums for car diagnostics is shown in the figure:

Rice. Stand with running drums:
1 - frame; 2 - running drum; 3 - clutch that separates the drums when testing brakes; 4 - sleeve-finger coupling; 5 - balancing type generator; 6 - control panel; 7 - electric motor direct current; 8 - DC generator

To determine the technical condition of the transmission by impedance, brakes and individual units - by vibration parameters, balance-type DC generators operate in the electric motor mode and scroll the vehicle's units.

When measuring torque, power supplied to the rear wheels, fuel consumption and other parameters, the balancing generators are driven by the wheels of the vehicle and operate in the generator mode, supplying current to the load resistances. On such stands, in combination with additional devices, it is possible to carry out all the basic work on car diagnostics, for example, to determine the change in power indicators at various loads and engine speeds by the developed power, to determine the actions of the brakes, etc.

Approximate calculations and the results of the work of some fleets show that with the introduction of diagnostics, the total cost of Maintenance and Maintenance are reduced by 10-15%.

The properties and features of handwriting, the manifestations of which are used in the process of forensic handwriting studies, are very diverse. That's why general definition sign of handwriting as an epistemological category is possible only by focusing on its informativeness for solving various classes forensic tasks. Since identification and diagnosis in forensics are considered as special cases of the general cognitive process- pattern recognition (27, 28), a sign of handwriting will be such a manifestation of its property, which is informative from the standpoint of this recognition.

The purpose of recognition in forensic handwriting is: specific handwriting (identification of the handwriting of a certain person), personality traits and conditions for the execution of handwritten objects (diagnostics). General content ideas about the information content of a feature, regardless of the class or type of task, should be the degree or measure of its ability to serve the purpose of pattern recognition when solving specified tasks, which differ in the desired objects. This degree or measure is determined by the frequency of occurrence of the manifestation of a feature, depending on the desired object.

From this position, when identifying, the informativeness of the manifestation of a feature is determined by the frequency of its occurrence in handwriting. different people. AT traditional research This definition is made using guidelines and "uncounted" statistics, which each expert has, thanks to his personal experience and practice. If the research methodology includes evaluation quantitative components, then the frequency of occurrence of manifestations of signs in handwriting different persons, using a certain script, having a certain handwriting in terms of the degree of development and structure, is based on statistical analysis and quantitative indicators of the informativeness (or identification significance) of the manifestations of handwriting signs.

In the process of establishing personality traits (socio-demographic or psychological), the role of a sign is such a manifestation of it that has the ability to vary in frequency of occurrence depending on the studied personality trait.

In the case of diagnosing the conditions for the execution of a manuscript or a "confusing" factor, a sign will be its manifestation, which varies in frequency of occurrence depending on whether the manuscript is performed in the norm (general or individual) or in unusual conditions and in which ones (a group of conditions or specific ones).

Thus, the information content of a feature is the ability of its manifestation to vary in frequency of occurrence, depending on the desired object.

In forensic handwriting much attention was paid to the study of the content of handwriting features as an expression of the properties of PD FDC, their psychophysiological nature. The research of forensic scientists, which was carried out mainly in line with the development of the theory and practice of forensic handwriting identification, led to the creation of a complete (exhaustive on appropriate level development of science) the basic system of handwriting features and their manifestations, which made it possible to describe any handwriting object. It had great value and for diagnostic tests, who could use the same signs and (or) their manifestations for their own purposes, considering their informativeness from the point of view of their ability to serve the solution of other problems. So, for the solution of diagnostic problems proper, it is precisely certain manifestations of signs that are essential, the frequency of which, when certain conditions occur, is high. For example, certain manifestations of such signs as coordination of movements, pace, and pressure are clearly diagnostic in nature even at the traditional level of their analysis.

As many criminologists correctly noted, there is no clear boundary between identification and diagnostic features. The dependence of the essence of the feature on the nature of the object brings together the content of diagnostic and identification features. As diagnostic features, certain manifestations of identification features are used, and as identification features, certain manifestations of diagnostic features are used, if they are present in the handwriting samples of the intended performer. For example, manifestations of reduced coordination of movements of the 1st group, which are of a permanent nature and coincide with the handwriting samples of the alleged performer in terms of volume, nature and localization of manifestations, are included in the complex of matching signs during identification. specific person. At the same time, the manifestation and “behavior” of signs that are used primarily for identification purposes, including private ones, may be symptomatic both for establishing the personality traits of the manuscript executor and the conditions for its implementation.

Thus, special basic system There are no diagnostic signs of handwriting and there is no need for it. For diagnostic purposes, the generally accepted basic system of handwriting features used for identification purposes is quite sufficient, which provides a description of all features and their manifestations that are available for identification, comparison and evaluation at the traditional level of research. These signs and their manifestations are available for statistical analysis in order to establish the frequency of their occurrence, which is the case in many developed non-traditional methods.

However, general principles systematization of diagnostic features can and should be formulated. Relationship of feature systematization with methodological foundations examination requires taking into account the principles of constructing methods, schemes, procedures for solving diagnostic problems. When developing methods for solving diagnostic problems, on the basis of the basic system of handwriting features, particular systems of features are built that are focused on solving certain problems. Many of them are purely utilitarian in nature; are only used in the research for which they are intended. For example, depending on whether the methodology is based on the principle of narrowing down possible alternatives or on the principle of reaching the most probable conditions or enumerating them, the basis for systematization will differ. Sometimes such systems can be simply lists of informative features. Such, for example, was a list of 21 features designed to establish gender according to a highly developed handwriting.

On the basis of the foregoing, a diagnostic sign can be defined as a manifestation of a handwriting property that can serve as a source of information about personality traits (socio-demographic or psychological) or about the conditions for writing manuscripts. Diagnostic signs will be signs, the manifestations of which are used to establish sex, age, psychological characteristics by handwriting; signs informative for establishing “confounding” factors in the writing process and specific reasons, time, simultaneity or non-simultaneity of manuscript execution.

Diagnostic feature systems designed to address various tasks diagnostic nature will be considered in the methodological part of this work. Here we only note that many of the bases of systematization adopted in relation to identification features are quite applicable to diagnostic features. So, in relation to diagnostic features, such systematization grounds as the volume of manifestation of the feature (general, particular), the type of representation of the feature (qualitative-descriptive, quantitative), and the mediation of the reflected properties (primary, secondary) can be used.

Due to the fact that the main content of a diagnostic feature is its information content for solving a specific problem, let us dwell on this essential quality in more detail.