The Arctic Ocean is the smallest ocean in terms of area and depth, located entirely in the northern hemisphere, between Eurasia and North America. It is adjoined by the territories of Denmark (Greenland), Iceland, Canada, Norway, Russia and the United States of America. The seas of the Arctic Ocean are marginal and inland, and together with bays and straits occupy 10.28 million square meters. km.

Seas of the Arctic Ocean

The list of water bodies belonging to the Arctic Ocean consists of ten seas, six of which wash the shores of the Russian Federation.

• Norwegian. Washes the shores of Iceland and the Scandinavian Peninsula.
• Greenlandic. located between east coast Greenland and the western border of Iceland.
• Barents. Sea located in the western part of Russia.
• White. Northern coast of Europe.
• East Siberian. It washes the coast of Russia, is located among the Novosibirsk and Wrangel Islands.
• Kara. The eastern boundary of the sea runs along the archipelago Severnaya Zemlya, and the western one borders the coastline a large number islands, including Novaya Zemlya.
• Baffin. It runs along the western border of the island of Greenland, and on the other hand washes the shores of the Arctic Canadian archipelago.
• Laptev. It washes the shores of Taimyr, the New Siberian Islands and Severnaya Zemlya.
• Beaufort. Coastline North American continent, from Cape Barrow to the Canadian Arctic Archipelago.
• Chukchi. It washes the shores of two continents: Eurasia and North America.

Rice. 1. Location of the seas of the Arctic Ocean

The largest in area is the Barents Sea, which is located in the western part of the Eurasian continent. In comparison with other seas of the Arctic Ocean, the Greenland Sea is recognized as the deepest, whose depths reach about 5500 m.

Rice. 2. The Barents Sea is the largest in the Arctic Ocean

The warmest, non-freezing is the Norwegian Sea, as its warm current prevents the waters from freezing even in winter period.

The seas of the Arctic Ocean washing Russia

The northern seas of Russia consist of five marginal seas and one internal.

• Barents Sea- marginal sea of ​​the Arctic Ocean. It washes the shores of Russia and Norway. The sea is located on continental shelf, It has great importance for transport and fishing, here is a large Russian port - Murmansk.

southeastern part Barents Sea, bounded by the islands of Vaigach and Kolguev, is called the Pechora Sea - it is the shallowest. Its average depth is only 6 m.

• Chukchi Sea- marginal sea, located between Chukotka and Alaska. In the west, the Long Strait connects with the East Siberian Sea, in the east, near Cape Barrow, it connects with the Beaufort Sea, in the south, the Bering Strait connects it with the Bering Sea of ​​the Pacific Ocean. The international date line runs through the sea. Fishing and sea animal slaughter are poorly developed.
• White Sea The Arctic Ocean is inland, located in the north of the European part of Russia. Its salinity is very low, due to its connection with several freshwater rivers. The White Sea is the smallest sea in the Arctic Ocean, washing the shores of Russia.
• Laptev sea- marginal sea, located between the northern coast of Siberia in the south, the Taimyr Peninsula, the Severnaya Zemlya islands in the west and the New Siberian Islands in the east. It has a harsh climate, poor nature and small numbers population on the coast. Most of the time, with the exception of August and September, it is under ice.

Rice. 3. The Laptev Sea is almost always covered in ice

• East-Siberian Sea- the marginal sea is located between the New Siberian Islands and Wrangel Island. The sea is connected by straits with the Chukchi Sea and the Laptev Sea. Almost the whole year the sea is covered with ice. In the eastern part of the sea, floating perennial ice remains even in summer.
• Kara Sea- marginal sea in the basin of the Arctic Ocean. This is one of the coldest seas in Russia, only near the mouths of the rivers the water temperature in summer is above 0 °C. Frequent fogs and storms. Most of the year the sea is covered with ice.

1. BARENTS SEA

The Barents Sea is located between the parallels 81 degrees 52 minutes and 66 degrees 44 minutes northern latitude and between meridians 16 degrees 30 minutes and 68 degrees 32 minutes east longitude. The western boundary of the Barents is the line Cape Yuzhny (Svalbard Island) - Bear Island - Cape North Cape. The southern border is the coast of the mainland and the line Cape Svyatoi Hoc - Cape Kanin Nos, separating it from the White Sea. In the east, the sea is bounded by the western coast of the Vaigach and Novaya Zemlya islands and further by the line Cape Zhelaniya - Cape Kolzat and in the north along the northern edge of the islands of the Franz Josef Land archipelago, further from Cape Mary Harmsworth (Alexandra Land Island) through the Victoria and White Islands to the Cape Lee Smith.
Its area is 1.424 million square meters. km, the volume is 316 thousand cubic meters. km, average depth 222 m, maximum depth 600 m.
There are many islands in the Barents Sea. Among them are the largest polar archipelagos - Svalbard and Franz Josef Land, as well as the islands of Novaya Zemlya, Kolguev, Medvezhiy, etc.
The highest salinity of the Barents Sea on the sea surface is 35%o in the southwestern part in the area of ​​the North Cape Trench, where saline Atlantic waters, to the north and south, the salinity drops to 34.5%o due to the melting of ice, and the waters in the southeastern part of the sea have a salinity of up to 32-33%.
The Barents Sea is one of the arctic seas, but it is the only one of the Arctic seas that never completely freezes (about a quarter of the surface is not covered with ice throughout the year).
Fishing is very developed; cod, haddock, halibut, sea bass, herring, capelin are fished here.
2. BUFFIN SEA

The Baffin Sea is located between Greenland and the eastern shores of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Area 530 thousand square meters. km. The Baffin Sea is deep, average depths are about 860 m, maximum depths are 2400 m. In the north, the sea communicates with open waters the Arctic Ocean, in the south - through the wide and deep (700 m) Davis Strait - with the Labrador Atlantic basin.
The climate of the sea is cold and the average water temperature in winter is below zero degrees, in summer up to 5 degrees.
3. WHITE SEA

The White Sea occupies the space between 68 degrees 40 minutes and 63 degrees 48 minutes north latitude, and 32 degrees 00 minutes and 44 degrees 30 minutes east longitude.
The White Sea belongs to inland seas. Its area is 90 thousand square meters. km, the volume is 6 thousand cubic meters. km, average depth 67 m, maximum depth 350 m.
The White Sea is one of the cold Arctic seas, which is associated not only with its position in high latitudes, but also with the hydrological processes occurring in it.
Economic activity associated with the use of biological resources: fish farming, fishing for sea animals and algae. The species composition of fish catches is dominated by saffron cod, White Sea herring, smelt, cod, and salmon. There is fishing for harp seals on the ice of the White Sea, and hunting for ringed seals and beluga whales. Algae are harvested and processed at the Arkhangelsk and Belomorsk algae plants.
4. BEAUFORT SEA

BEAUFORT SEA, marginal sea of ​​the Arctic Ocean, off the coast of North America. Area 481 thousand square meters. km. Depth up to 3749 m. The whole year is covered with ice. The Mackenzie River flows into the sea. Named after the English hydrographer and cartographer F. Beaufort.
5. EAST-SIBERIAN SEA

The East Siberian Sea covers an area of ​​913 thousand square meters. km, the volume is 49 thousand cubic meters. km, average depth 54 m, maximum depth 915 m.
The western border runs from the point of intersection of the meridian of the northern tip of Kotelny Island with the edge of the continental shelf (79 degrees north latitude, 139 degrees east longitude) to the northern tip of this island (Cape Anisii), then along its western coast and then follows along eastern border the Laptev Sea. The northern boundary runs along the edge of the continental shelf from a point with coordinates 79 degrees north latitude, 139 degrees east longitude. to the point with coordinates 76 degrees north latitude, 180 degrees east longitude, and the eastern border - from the point with these coordinates along the meridian 180 degrees to Wrangel Island, then along its northwestern coast to Cape Blossom and further to Cape Yakan on the mainland. southern border runs along the mainland coast from Cape Yakan to Cape Svyatoy Nos (the western border of the Dmitry Laptev and Sannikov Straits).
The East Siberian Sea belongs to the type of continental marginal seas.
The East Siberian Sea is one of the coldest Arctic seas in Russia.
Surface salinity generally increases from southwest to northeast.
locals They live by fishing and harvesting sea animals in coastal waters, but the reserves of the East Siberian Sea have no economic significance throughout the country.
6. GREENLAND SEA

The Greenland Sea is located between the islands of Greenland, Iceland, Jan Mayen, Bear and Svalbard. Area 1195 thousand square meters. km. Depth up to 5527 m.
7. KARA SEA

The Kara Sea lies on western outskirts seas of the Siberian Arctic, east of Novaya Zemlya and occupies the space between the parallels 81 degrees 6 minutes and 66 degrees north latitude and between the meridians 55 degrees 2 minutes and 104 degrees 1 minute east longitude. Its contours are outlined by land and conditional lines. The western boundary of the sea runs from Cape Kolzat to Cape Zhelaniya, then along the eastern shores of Novaya Zemlya, along the western boundary of the Kara Gate Strait from Cape Kusov Nos to Cape Rogaty, along east coast Vaigach Islands and along the western border of the Yugorsky Shar Strait from Cape Kolzat to Cape Arktichesky to the Komsomolets Islands (Severnaya Zemlya). The eastern border of the sea runs along the western coast of the islands of the Severnaya Zemlya archipelago and the eastern borders of the straits of the Red Army, Shokalsky and Vilkitsky, and the southern border - along the mainland coast from Cape Bely Nos to Cape Pronchishchena.
Its area is 883 thousand square meters. km, volume - 98 thousand cubic meters. km, average depth 111 m, maximum depth 600 m.
There are many islands in the Kara Sea, the most significant of which are: Bely, Shokalsky, Vilkitsky, Neupokoev, Sibiryakov, Dikson, Sverdrup, Nansen, Russian, etc. The islands are located in groups Arctic Institute, Sergey Kirov, Nordenskiöld archipelago, Minin Skerries.
harsh nature Kara Sea restricts maritime transportation - the main direction of economic activity.
8. CELTIC SEA

The Celtic Sea is located south of the Irish Sea. At the bottom of the sea, underwater ridges with a relative height of up to 55 m stretch from the northeast to the southwest, forming the banks of Jones, Great Sol, Cockburn.
9. LAPTEV SEA

The Laptev Sea lies between the Severnaya Zemlya archipelago and the Taimyr Peninsula in the west and the New Siberian Islands in the east, and its dimensions are: an area of ​​662 thousand square meters. km, the volume is 353 thousand cubic meters. km, average depth 533 m, maximum depth 3385 m. Its western border runs along the eastern shores of the Severnaya Zemlya islands from Cape Arkticheskoy (Komsomolets Island), then through the Strait of the Red Army along the eastern coast of the island October revolution to Cape Anuchin, through the Shokalsky Strait to Cape Sandy on Bolshevik Island and along its eastern shore to Cape Vaigach, then along the eastern border of the Vilkitsky Strait and further along the mainland coast to the top of the Khatanga Bay. The northern boundary of the sea runs from Cape Arktichesky to the point of intersection of the meridian of the northern tip of Kotelny Island (139 degrees east longitude) with the edge of the continental shoal (79 degrees north latitude, 139 degrees east longitude), the eastern boundary from this point - to the western coast of Kotelny island, then along the western border of the Sannikov Strait, goes around the western shores of the Bolshoi and Maly Lyakhovsky Islands and then goes along the western border of the Dmitry Laptev Strait. The southern boundary of the sea runs along the mainland coast from Cape St. Nose to the top of the Khatanga Bay. Within these boundaries, the sea lies between the parallels 81 degrees 16 minutes and 70 degrees 42 minutes north latitude and the meridians 95 degrees 44 minutes and 143 degrees 30 minutes east longitude.
The Laptev Sea belongs to the type of continental marginal seas.
There are several dozen islands in the Laptev Sea. Most of them are located in the western part of the sea, and in some places they are located in groups, in some places - alone. The most significant groups of islands are: Komsomolskaya Pravda, Vilkitsky and Fadeya. Among the single islands, Starokadomsky, Maly Taimyr, Bolshoy Begichev, Peschany, Stolbovoy and Belkovsky stand out for their size. Many small islands are located in river deltas.
Transportation along the Northern Sea Route - the main economic importance this sea, since the insignificant fisheries and marine animals in the estuarine areas are of only local importance.
10. NORWEGIAN SEA

Norwegian Sea, marginal sea of ​​the Arctic Ocean, between Scandinavian peninsula and the islands of Shetland, Faroe, Iceland, Jan Mayen, Bear. Together with the Greenland Sea, it is a single deep ocean basin with a common water circulation system. Area 1383 thousand square meters. km. Depth up to 3734 m. Separated from Atlantic Ocean underwater ridge on which the Faroe and Shetland Islands are located.
In most of the sea, the average water temperature in February is from 2 to 7 degrees, in August from 8 to 12 degrees. Salinity 34-35.2% o. The warm Norwegian Current passes through the Norwegian Sea, which makes it non-freezing.
The main wealth of the Norwegian Sea is herring. Off the coast of Norway and Iceland and near some hills they catch cod and some other bottom fish.
11. CHUKOTS SEA

The Chukchi Sea covers an area of ​​595 thousand square meters. km, its volume is 42 thousand km. km, average depth 71 m, maximum depth 1256 m.
Its western border runs from the point of intersection of the 180 degree meridian with the edge of the continental shelf (76 degrees north latitude, 180 degrees east longitude) along the 180 degree meridian to Wrangel Island and further along the eastern border of the East Siberian Sea. The northern boundary runs from the point with coordinates 72 degrees north latitude, 156 degrees west longitude, to Cape Barrow in Alaska, then along the mainland coast to the southern entrance cape of Shishmareva Bay (Seward Peninsula). The southern boundary of the Chukchi Sea runs along the northern boundary of the Bering Strait from the southern entrance cape of Shishmarev Bay to Cape Unikan ( Chukotka Peninsula) and further along the mainland coast to Cape Yakan. The Long Strait belongs to the Chukchi Sea. Within these boundaries, the sea occupies the space between the parallels 76 degrees and 66 degrees north latitude and the meridians 180 degrees east longitude and 156 degrees west longitude.
Chukchi belongs to the type of continental marginal seas. The Chukchi Sea contains few islands, the rivers flowing into it are shallow, the coastline is slightly indented, and the bottom is even.
The economy of the Chukchi Sea is entirely determined by transportation along the Northern Sea Route. Coastal fishing and marine animal fishing are of local importance.

Area 14.75 million sq. km, average depth 1225 m, maximum depth 5527 m in the Greenland Sea. The volume of water is 18.07 million km³.

The shores in the west of Eurasia are predominantly high, fjords, in the east - delta-shaped and lagoonal, in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago - mostly low, even. The shores of Eurasia are washed by the seas: Norwegian, Barents, White, Kara, Laptev, East Siberian and Chukchi; North America - Greenland, Beaufort, Baffin, Hudson Bay, bays and straits of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago.

In terms of the number of islands, the Arctic Ocean ranks second after the Pacific Ocean. The largest islands and archipelagos of continental origin: the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, Greenland, Svalbard, Franz Josef Land, Novaya Zemlya, Severnaya Zemlya, New Siberian Islands, Wrangel Island.

The Arctic Ocean is usually divided into 3 vast water areas: the Arctic Basin, which includes the deep-water central part of the ocean, the North European Basin (Greenland, Norwegian, Barents and White Seas) and the seas located within the continental shallows (Kara, Laptev Sea, East Siberian , Chukchi, Beaufort, Baffin), occupying more than 1/3 of the ocean area.

The width of the continental shelf in the Barents Sea reaches 1300 km. Behind the continental shelf, the bottom drops sharply, forming a step with a depth at the foot of up to 2000-2800 m, fringing the central deep-water part of the ocean - the Arctic basin, which is divided by the Gakkel, Lomonosov and Mendeleev underwater ridges into a number of deep-sea basins: Nansen, Amundsen, Makarov, Canadian, Submariners and others.

The Fram Strait between the islands of Greenland and Spitsbergen of the Arctic basin is connected to the North European basin, which in the Norwegian and Greenland seas is crossed from north to south by the Icelandic, Mona and Knipovich underwater ridges, which, together with the Gakkel ridge, make up the northernmost segment of the world system of mid-ocean ridges.

In winter, 9/10 of the area of ​​the Arctic Ocean is covered with drift ice, mainly multi-year (about 4.5 m thick), and fast ice (in coastal zone). Overall volume ice is about 26 thousand km3. Icebergs are common in the Baffin and Greenland Seas. In the Arctic Basin drift (for 6 or more years) the so-called ice islands, formed from the ice shelves of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago; their thickness reaches 30-35 m, as a result of which it is convenient to use them for the operation of long-term drifting stations.

The flora and fauna of the Arctic Ocean is represented by Arctic and Atlantic forms. The number of species and individuals of organisms decreases towards the pole. However, throughout the Arctic Ocean, phytoplankton is intensively developing, including among the ice of the Arctic Basin. The fauna is more diverse in the North European basin, mainly fish: herring, cod, sea bass, haddock; in the Arctic Basin - polar bear, walrus, seal, narwhal, white whale, etc.

Within 3-5 months, the Arctic Ocean is used for shipping, which is carried out by Russia through the Northern Sea Route, the USA and Canada through the Northwest Passage.

The most important ports: Churchill (Canada); Tromsø, Trondheim (Norway); Arkhangelsk, Belomorsk, Dikson, Murmansk, Pevek, Tiksi (Russia).

The seas of the Arctic Ocean are located in the Arctic zone between 70 and 80 ° N. sh. and wash the northern coast of Russia. From west to east, the Barents, White, Kara, Laptev, East Siberian and Chukchi Seas succeed each other. Their formation occurred as a result of the flooding of the marginal parts of Eurasia, as a result of which most of the seas are shallow. Communication with the ocean is carried out through wide open bodies of water. The seas are separated from each other by the archipelagos and islands of Novaya Zemlya, Severnaya Zemlya, the New Siberian Islands and Wrangel Island. The natural conditions of the northern seas are very severe, there is a significant ice cover from October to May-June. Only south- West Side The Barents Sea, where a branch of the warm North Atlantic Current enters, remains ice-free all year round. The biological productivity of the seas of the Arctic Ocean is low, which is associated with adverse conditions for the development of plankton. The greatest ecosystem diversity is typical only for the Barents Sea, which is also of great importance for fishing. The Northern Sea Route passes through the seas of the Arctic Ocean - the shortest distance from western borders Russia to the North and Far East - has a length of 14,280 km from St. Petersburg (through the North and Norwegian Seas) to Vladivostok.

Barents Sea

The Barents Sea washes the shores of Russia and Norway and is limited by the northern coast of Europe and the archipelagos of Svalbard, Franz Josef Land and Novaya Zemlya (Fig. 39). The sea is located within the continental shelf and is characterized by depths of 300–400 m. southern part The sea has a predominantly leveled relief, the northern part is characterized by the presence of both hills (Central, Perseus), and depressions and trenches.
The climate of the Barents Sea is formed under the influence of warm air masses from the Atlantic and cold Arctic air from the Arctic Oceans, which causes great variability of weather conditions. This leads to significant temperature fluctuations in different parts water areas. In the coldest month of the year - February - the air temperature varies from 25 ° C in the north to -4 ° C in the southwest. Usually cloudy weather prevails over the sea.
The salinity of the surface layer of water in the open sea during the year is 34.7–35%o in the southwest, 33–34% in the east, and 32–33%o in the north. AT coastal strip sea ​​in spring and summer, salinity drops to 30-32% o, by the end of winter it increases to 34-34.5%.

AT water balance In the Barents Sea, water exchange with neighboring water areas is of great importance. surface currents form a counterclockwise cycle. The role of the warm North Cape current (a branch of the Gulf Stream) is especially important in the formation of the hydrometeorological regime. In the central part of the sea there is a system of intracircular currents. The circulation of sea waters changes under the influence of changes in winds and water exchange with adjacent seas. Near the coasts, the importance of tidal currents is increasing, characterized as semidiurnal, highest altitude which is 6.1 m Kola Peninsula.
The ice cover reaches its maximum distribution in April, when at least 75% of the sea surface is occupied by floating ice. However, its southwestern part remains ice-free in all seasons due to the influence warm current. The northwestern and northeastern margins of the sea are completely free of ice only in warm years.
The biodiversity of the Barents Sea stands out among all the waters of the Arctic Ocean, which is associated with natural and climatic conditions. 114 species of fish are found here, 20 of which are of commercial importance: cod, haddock, herring, sea bass, halibut and others. The benthos is very diverse, among which are common sea ​​urchins, echinoderms, invertebrates. Imported back in the 30s. 20th century The red king crab adapted to the new conditions and began to multiply intensively on the shelf. The coasts abound with bird colonies. Among large mammals there is a polar bear, a white whale, a harp seal.
Haddock, a fish of the cod family, is an important fish species in the Barents Sea region. Haddock makes long-distance feeding and spawning migrations. Haddock eggs are carried by currents over long distances from spawning grounds. Fry and juveniles of haddock live in the water column, often hiding from predators under the domes (bells) of large jellyfish. Adult fish are predominantly bottom-dwelling.
serious ecological problems in the Barents Sea are associated with pollution radioactive waste Norwegian processing plants, as well as with the influx of polluted water from the land surface. The greatest oil pollution is typical for the Kola, Teribersky and Motovsky bays.

White Sea

White Sea belongs to the category of inland and is the smallest among the seas washing Russia (Fig. 40). It washes the southern coast of the Kola Peninsula and is separated from the Barents Sea by a line connecting Capes Svyatoy Nos and Kanin Nos. The sea is replete with small islands, among which the most famous are the Solovetsky. The coast is indented by numerous bays. The bottom relief is complex, in the central part of the sea there is a closed basin with depths of 100–200 m, separated from the Barents Sea by a threshold with shallow depths. Soils in shallow water are represented by a mixture of pebbles and sand, turning into clayey silt at depths.
The geographical position of the White Sea determines the climatic conditions, where the features of both marine and continental climate. In winter, cloudy weather sets in with low temperatures and heavy snowfalls, and the climate of the northern part of the sea is somewhat warmer, which is associated with the influence of warm air and water masses from the Atlantic. AT summer time the White Sea is characterized by cool rainy weather with average temperatures of +8-+13°C.

The influx of fresh water and insignificant water exchange with neighboring water areas led to the low salinity of the sea, which is about 26%o near the coasts and 31%o in the deep zones. In the central part, an annular flow is formed, directed counterclockwise. Tidal currents are semi-diurnal in nature and range from 0.6 to 3 m. In narrow areas, the height of the tide can reach 7 m and penetrate up to 120 km high along the rivers (Northern Dvina). Despite the small area, storm activity is developed in the sea, especially in the autumn period - the White Sea freezes annually for 6-7 months. Fast ice forms near the coast, the central part is covered with floating ice, reaching a thickness of 0.4 m, in severe winters - up to 1.5 m.
The diversity of ecosystems in the White Sea is much lower than in the neighboring Barents Sea, however, various algae and benthic invertebrates are found here. Among marine mammals, the harp seal, beluga whale, and ringed seal should be noted. In the waters of the White Sea there are important commercial fish: navaga, White Sea herring, smelt, salmon, cod.
In 1928, the Soviet hydrobiologist K.M. Deryugin noted the presence of a number of endemic forms in the White Sea due to isolation, as well as a shortage of species compared to the Barents Sea, which is associated with the peculiarities of the hydrodynamic regime. Over time, it turned out that there are no endemics in the White Sea, all of them are either reduced to synonyms, or are still found in other seas.
The water area is of great transport importance, as a result of which the ecological state individual sections water area is deteriorating, especially due to the transportation of petroleum products and chemical raw materials.

Kara Sea

The Kara Sea is the coldest sea washing the shores of Russia (Fig. 41). It is limited by the coast of Eurasia in the south and the islands: Novaya Zemlya, Franz Josef Land, Severnaya Zemlya, Geyberga. The sea is located on the shelf, where depths from 50 to 100 m predominate. It can be conditionally divided into three parts: from the west and east, the sea is limited by two trenches (St. Anna and Voronin), between which there is a shallow Central Kara Plateau. In shallow water, sandy soil dominates, the gutters are covered with silt.
The Kara Sea is characterized by a maritime polar climate, which is due to its geographical position. Weather fickle, frequent storms. In this area, the lowest temperature that can be set at sea was recorded: -45-50 ° С. In summer, an area is formed over the water area high blood pressure, the air warms up from +2—+6 °С in the north and west to + 18—+20 °С on the coast. However, even in summer, snow can be observed.
The salinity of the sea near the coasts is about 34% o, which is associated with good mixing and uniform temperatures, in the deep areas the salinity increases to 35% o. In the mouths of rivers, especially during the melting of ice, salinity decreases sharply and the water becomes closer to fresh.
The circulation of the waters of the Kara Sea has complex nature, which is associated with the formation of cyclonic water cycles and the river runoff of Siberian rivers. The tides are semidiurnal, their height does not exceed 80 cm.
The sea is covered with ice almost all year round. In some areas, perennial ice up to 4 m thick is encountered. Fast ice forms along the Zeregovaya line, the formation of which begins already in September.

In the Kara Sea, predominantly arctic ecosystems are represented, however, during the period global warming accumulations of boreal and boreal-arctic species are noted. The greatest biodiversity is confined to the upwelling zones, the edge sea ​​ice, river estuaries, underwater hydrothermal areas and tops of the seabed topography. Commercial concentrations of polar cod, flounder, black halibut, and whitefish have been recorded in the water area. Among the environmentally unfavorable factors leading to the disruption of ecosystems, pollution by heavy metals and oil products should be noted. Also in the water area are the sarcophagi of radioactive reactors, which were buried in the second half of the 20th century.
Arctic omul is a semi-anadromous fish and is an important commercial species. It spawns in the Yenisei River, and feeding takes place in the coastal zone of the Kara Sea. According to one of the hypotheses, the omul could reach Baikal, the reason for the formation of which is a glacier. Because of the glacier, the omul could not return to historical homeland", giving rise to a branch of the Baikal omul.

Laptev sea

The Laptev Sea is a marginal sea of ​​the Arctic Ocean, located between the Taimyr Peninsula and the Severnaya Zemlya Islands in the west and the New Siberian Islands in the east (Fig. 42). This is one of the deepest northern seas, the greatest depth is 3385 m. The coast is heavily indented. The southern part of the sea is shallow with depths up to 50 m, bottom sediments are represented by sand, silt with admixtures of pebbles and boulders. The northern part is a deep-sea basin, the bottom of which is covered with silt.
The Laptev Sea is one of the most severe seas in the Arctic Ocean. Climatic conditions close to continental. In winter, the region of high atmospheric pressure, which causes low air temperatures (-26-29 ° C) and slight cloudiness. summer area high pressure is replaced by low, while the air temperature increases, reaching the highest point in August at +1-+5 ° C, but in enclosed spaces the temperature can reach higher values. So, for example, in the Tiksi Bay, a temperature of +32.5 °C was recorded.
The salinity of the water varies from 15%o in the south to 28%o in the north. Near the estuarine areas, salinity does not exceed 10% o. Salinity increases with depth, reaching 33% o. Surface currents form a cyclonic circulation. The tides are semidiurnal, up to 0.5 m high.
The cold climate causes active development of ice in the water area, which can persist throughout the year. Hundreds of kilometers of shallow water are occupied by fast ice; floating ice and icebergs are noted in open water areas.
Ecosystems of the Laptev Sea do not differ in species diversity, which is associated with extreme natural conditions. The ichthyofauna has only 37 species, and the benthic fauna is about 500. The fishery is developed mainly along the coasts and in the mouths of the rivers. However, the Laptev Sea is of great transport importance. The port of Tiksi is of the greatest importance. Ecological state some areas of the sea is assessed as catastrophic. In coastal waters, there is an increased content of phenol, oil products, and organic substances. Most of the pollution comes from river waters.

From time immemorial, the Laptev Sea has been the main "workshop" for the production of ice in the Arctic. An international team of researchers within the framework of the Polynya project has been studying the climate in the water area for several years, as a result of which it was noted that since 2002 the water temperature has increased by 2 °C, which will inevitably affect its ecological state.

East-Siberian Sea

The East Siberian Sea is a marginal sea of ​​the Arctic Ocean. It is located between the New Siberian Islands and Wrangel Island (see Fig. 42). The coasts are gently sloping, slightly indented, in some places there are sandy-silty drylands. In the eastern part, behind the mouth of the Kolyma, there are rocky cliffs. The sea is shallow, the greatest depth is 358 m. The northern boundary coincides with the edge of the continental shelf.
The bottom relief is leveled, has a slight slope from the southwest to the northeast. Two underwater trenches stand out in the relief, which, presumably, are former river valleys. The soil is represented by silt, pebbles, boulders.
Proximity to the North Pole determines the severity of the climate, which should be attributed to the polar sea. It should also be noted the impact on the climate of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, where cyclonic air masses. The air temperature in January over the area is -28-30 °C, the weather is clear and calm. In summer, an area of ​​high pressure forms over the sea, and a low pressure area forms over the adjacent land, which leads to strong winds, the speed of which is maximum by the end of summer, when the western part of the water area turns into a zone strong storms, while the temperature does not exceed +2—+3 °С. This section of the Northern Sea Route during this period becomes the most dangerous.
The salinity of the water near the mouths of the rivers is no more than 5%o, increasing to the northern margins up to 30%o. With depth, salinity rises to 32% o.
Even in summer, the sea is not free of ice. They drift into northwest direction, obeying the circulation of water masses. As the activity of the cyclonic circulation intensifies, ice penetrates into the water area from the northern borders. The tides in the East Siberian Sea are regular semi-diurnal. They are most clearly expressed in the north-west and north; near the southern coasts, the height of the tide is insignificant, up to 25 cm.

The combination of natural and climatic conditions influenced the formation of ecosystems in the East Siberian Sea. Biodiversity is much lower compared to other northern seas. In the estuarine areas there are schools of white fish, polar cod, arctic char, whitefish, and grayling. There are also marine mammals: walruses, seals, polar bears. AT central parts cold-loving brackish-water forms are common.
East Siberian cod (nine-fingered) (Fig. 43) lives near the coast in brackish waters, enters the mouths of rivers. The biology of the species is almost not studied. Spawning occurs in the summer in warm coastal waters. It is an object of fishing.

Chukchi Sea

The Chukchi Sea is located between the peninsulas of Chukotka and Alaska (Fig. 44). The Long Strait connects with the East Siberian Sea, in the area of ​​Cape Barrow it borders on the Beaufort Sea, the Bering Strait connects it with the Bering Sea. The international date line passes through the waters of the Chukchi Sea. More than 50% of the sea area is occupied by depths up to 50 m. There are shallows with depths up to 13 m. The bottom relief is complicated by two underwater canyons with depths from 90 to 160 m. The coast is characterized by weak indentation. The soils are represented by loose deposits of sand, silt, and gravel. The climate of the sea is greatly influenced by the proximity of the North Pole and the Pacific Ocean. In summer, anticyclonic circulation is manifested. The sea is characterized by high storm activity.

The circulation of water masses is due to the interaction of cold Arctic and warm Pacific waters. A cold current runs along the Eurasian coast, carrying water from the East Siberian Sea. The warm Alaska Current enters the Chukchi Sea through the Bering Strait, heading towards the shores of the Alaska Peninsula. The tides are semidiurnal. The salinity of the sea varies from west to east from 28 to 32% o. At melting ice edges and river mouths, salinity decreases.
The main part of the year the sea is covered with ice. In the southern part of the sea, ice is cleared for 2-3 warm months. However, floating ice is brought to the coast of Chukotka from the East Siberian Sea. North is covered multi-year ice more than 2 m thick.
Penetration warm waters The Pacific Ocean is the main reason for some increase in the species diversity of the Chukchi Sea. Boreal species join typical Arctic species. 946 species live here. There are saffron cod, grayling, char, polar cod. Of the marine mammals, polar bears, walruses, and whales are common. Location at a reasonable distance from industrial centers causes no major changes in marine ecosystems. The ecological picture of the water area has Negative influence the flow of oil products along the Northern Sea Route, as well as water containing aerosol materials coming from the coast of North America.
The Chukchi Sea serves as a link between ports Far East, mouths of Siberian rivers and European part Russia, as well as between the Pacific ports of Canada and the United States and the mouth of the Mackenzie River.

The smallest and cold ocean on our planet is the Arctic Ocean. It is located in the central part of the Arctic, north of such continents as: North America and Eurasia. The area of ​​the ocean is 15 million square kilometers, it occupies a wide area around the North Pole.

Characteristics of the Arctic Ocean:

Ocean area - 14.7 million square km;

The maximum depth - 5527 meters - is the shallowest ocean on the planet;

The largest seas are the Greenland Sea, the Norwegian Sea, the Kara Sea, the Beaufort Sea;

Most large bay– Hudson Bay (Hudson);

Most major islands– Greenland, Svalbard, Novaya Zemlya;

The strongest currents:

- Norwegian, Svalbard - warm;

- East Greenland - cold.

History of exploration of the Arctic Ocean

The goal of many generations of navigators is a series of heroic deeds in its exploration; even in ancient times, Russian coast-dwellers traveled on wooden boats and kochas. They knew well the conditions of navigation in the polar latitudes, and were engaged in hunting and fishing. One of the most accurate maps of the Arctic Ocean was compiled by Willem Barents in the 16th century following his travels, who was trying to find the shortest route between Europe and the countries of the East. But the ocean began to be studied in more detail at a later time.

In the study of the ocean, the works were involved famous travelers and scientists: Chelyuskin S.I., who researched northern tip Eurasia, describing part of the coast of Taimyr; Lapteva Kh.P. and Lapteva D.Ya., who marked the coasts of the ocean to the west and east from the sources of the Lena River; Papanina I.D., who, with three polar explorers, drifted on an ice floe from the North Pole to Greenland, and others. Many of them have fixed their names in the names geographical importance. In 1932, Otto Schmidt, together with an expedition on the icebreaker "Sibiryakov", established the thickness of the ice cover at various parts ocean. Today, research continues with modern technologies and spacecraft.

Features of the climate of the Arctic Ocean

The modern climate of the ocean is determined by its geographic location. In most cases, arctic air masses predominate. The average air temperature in winter ranges from -20 degrees to -40 degrees Celsius, while in summer the temperature is close to zero.

Replenished with heat from the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, the water of the ocean does not cool in winter, but significantly warms the shores of the land. Through constant replenishment fresh water from Siberian rivers flowing, the water of the Arctic Ocean is less salty in relation to other oceans.

The presence of huge masses of ice is the most salient feature Arctic Ocean. For ice, the most favorable habitat is a low temperature and low salinity of the water. Strong currents and constant winds under the influence of strong lateral compressions form ice heaps - hummocks. There have been cases when ships caught in ice captivity were pushed up or crushed.

Hummocks of the Arctic Ocean

There is no time at the North Pole (as well as the South Pole). The time always shows noon because all lines of longitude converge. Working people in this region use the time of the country they come from. Sunset and sunrise occur here once a year. Due to the geographical position, the sun in these latitudes rises in March and the longest day on earth sets in, equal to half a year (178 days), and sets in September, starting polar night(187 days).

Flora and fauna of the Arctic Ocean

Compared to other oceans, flora and fauna are quite poor. The bulk of organic matter is algae, which are adapted to life in icy water and even on ice. Diversity flora prevails only in the near-Atlantic area of ​​the ocean and on the shelf near the mouths of rivers. Fish are found here: saffron cod, cod, halibut. Whales, walruses and seals live in the ocean. In the area of ​​the Barents Sea, the bulk of the plankton of the ocean is formed. In summer, many birds fly here, which form bird "markets" on the ice rocks.

AT modern world many states are trying to divide the area of ​​the Arctic Ocean. The places are rich in deposits. According to some data, the richest deposits of gas and oil are located in the waters of the ocean. Rich deposits of various ores have been discovered in the area of ​​the Laptev Seas. Severe weather makes it difficult to find them. The Arctic Ocean, despite its shortcomings, has always attracted people from all over the planet. It attracts them to this day.

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