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A large geological cycle involves sedimentary rocks in depth earth's crust, for a long time turning off the elements contained in them from the biological cycle system. During geological history the transformed sedimentary rocks, once again on the surface of the Earth, are gradually destroyed by the activity of living organisms, water and air, and are again included in the biospheric cycle.

A large geological cycle occurs over hundreds of thousands or millions of years. It consists in the following: rocks are destroyed, weathered and eventually washed away by water flows into the oceans. Here they are deposited on the bottom, forming sedimentary rocks, and only partially return to land with organisms removed from the water by humans or other animals.

At the heart of a large geological cycle is the process of transferring mineral compounds from one place to another on a planetary scale without the participation of living matter.

In addition to the small circulation, there is a large, geological circulation. Some substances enter the deep layers of the Earth (through the bottom sediments of the seas or in another way), where slow transformations occur with the formation various connections, mineral and organic. The processes of the geological cycle are supported mainly by the internal energy of the Earth, its active core. The same energy contributes to the release of substances to the surface of the Earth. Thus, a large circulation of substances closes. It takes millions of years.

Concerning the speed and intensity of the large geological circulation of substances, at present, no matter how accurate data can be given, there are only approximate estimates, and then only for the exogenous component of the general cycle, i.e. without taking into account the influx of matter from the mantle into the earth's crust.

This carbon takes part in a large geological cycle. This carbon, in the process of a small biotic cycle, maintains the gas balance of the biosphere and life in general.

Solid runoff of some rivers of the world.

The contribution of biospheric and technospheric components to the large geological cycle of the Earth's substances is very significant: there is a constantly progressive growth of technospheric components due to the expansion of the sphere of human production activity.

Because on earth's surface the main technobio-geochemical flow is directed within the framework of a large geological circulation of substances for 70% of the land into the ocean and for 30% - into closed drainless depressions, but always from higher to lower levels, as a result of the action gravitational forces Correspondingly, the material of the earth's crust is also differentiated from high to low elevations, from land to the ocean. Reverse flows (atmospheric transport, human activity, tectonic movements, volcanism, migration of organisms) to some extent complicate this general downward movement of matter, creating local migration cycles, but do not change it in general.

The circulation of water between land and ocean through the atmosphere refers to a large geological cycle. Water evaporates from the surface of the oceans and is either transferred to land, where it falls in the form of precipitation, which again returns to the ocean in the form of surface and underground runoff, or falls as precipitation to the surface of the ocean. More than 500 thousand km3 of water participate in the water cycle on Earth every year. The water cycle as a whole plays a major role in shaping natural conditions on our planet. Taking into account the transpiration of water by plants and its absorption in the biogeochemical cycle, the entire supply of water on Earth decays and is restored in 2 million years.

According to his wording, biological cycle substances develops on part of the trajectory of a large, geological cycle of substances in nature.

The transport of matter by surface and groundwater- this is the main factor in terms of land differentiation the globe geochemically, but not the only one, and if we talk about the large geological circulation of substances on the earth's surface as a whole, then flows play a very significant role in it, in particular oceanic and atmospheric transport.

Concerning the speed and intensity of the large geological circulation of substances, it is currently impossible to give any exact data, there are only approximate estimates, and then only for the exogenous component of the general cycle, i.e. without taking into account the influx of matter from the mantle into the earth's crust. The exogenous component of the large geological circulation of substances is the constantly ongoing process of denudation of the earth's surface.

In the biosphere, there is a global (large, or geological) circulation of substances, which existed even before the appearance of the first living organisms. It includes a variety of chemical elements. The geological cycle is carried out thanks to the solar, gravitational, tectonic and space species energy.

With the advent of living matter, on the basis of the geological cycle, the cycle of organic matter arose - a small (biotic, or biological) cycle.

The biotic cycle of substances is a continuous, cyclic, uneven in time and space process of movement and transformation of substances that occurs during direct participation living organisms. It is a continuous process of creation and destruction of organic matter and is implemented with the participation of all three groups of organisms: producers, consumers and decomposers. About 40 biogenic elements are involved in biotic cycles. Highest value for living organisms, they have cycles of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, iron, potassium, calcium and magnesium.

As living matter develops, everything is constantly extracted from the geological cycle. more items that enter a new, biological cycle. The total mass of ash substances involved annually in the biotic cycle of substances only on land is about 8 billion tons. This is several times the mass of the products of the eruption of all volcanoes in the world throughout the year. The rate of circulation of matter in the biosphere is different. The living matter of the biosphere is updated on average for 8 years, the mass of phytoplankton in the ocean is updated daily. All oxygen in the biosphere passes through living matter in 2000 years, and carbon dioxide- for 300 years.

Local biotic cycles are carried out in ecosystems, and biogeochemical cycles of atomic migration are carried out in the biosphere, which not only bind all three outer shells of the planet into a single whole, but also determine the continuous evolution of its composition.

ATMOSPHERE HYDROSPHERE

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LIVING SUBSTANCE

THE SOIL

Evolution of the biosphere

The biosphere appeared with the birth of the first living organisms about 3.5 billion years ago. In the course of the development of life, it changed. The stages of evolution of the biosphere can be distinguished taking into account the characteristics of the type of ecosystems.

1. The emergence and development of life in water. The stage is connected with the existence aquatic ecosystems. There was no oxygen in the atmosphere.

2. The emergence of living organisms on land, the development of the land-air environment and soil, and the emergence of terrestrial ecosystems. This was made possible by the presence of oxygen in the atmosphere and ozone shield. It happened 2.5 billion years ago.

3. The appearance of a person, turning him into biosocial being and the emergence of anthropoecosystems occurred 1 million years ago.

4. The transition of the biosphere under the influence of intelligent human activity into a new quality state- into the noosphere.

Noosphere

the highest stage The development of the biosphere is the noosphere - the stage of reasonable regulation of the relationship between man and nature. This term was introduced in 1927 French philosopher E. Leroy. He believed that the noosphere includes human society with its industry, language and other attributes of intelligent activity. In the 30-40s. XX century V.I. Vernadsky developed materialistic ideas about the noosphere. He believed that the noosphere arises as a result of the interaction of the biosphere and society, is controlled by close relationship laws of nature, thinking and socio-economic laws of society, and emphasized that

noosphere (sphere of the mind) - the stage of development of the biosphere, when the intelligent activity of people will become the main determining factor in its sustainable development.

The noosphere is a new, higher stage of the biosphere, associated with the emergence and development of humanity in it, which, knowing the laws of nature and improving technology, becomes the biggest force, comparable in scale to geological ones, and begins to have a decisive influence on the course of processes on Earth, profoundly changing it with their work. The formation and development of mankind was expressed in the emergence of new forms of exchange of matter and energy between society and nature, in the ever-increasing impact of man on the biosphere. The noosphere will come when humanity, with the help of science, will be able to meaningfully manage natural and social processes. Therefore, the noosphere cannot be considered a special shell of the Earth.

The science of managing the relationship between human society and nature is called noogenics.

The main goal of noogenics is the planning of the present for the sake of the future, and its main tasks are the correction of violations in the relationship between man and nature caused by the progress of technology, the conscious control of the evolution of the biosphere. A planned, scientifically substantiated use of natural resources should be formed, providing for the restoration in the cycle of substances of what a person has violated, as opposed to a spontaneous, predatory attitude towards nature, leading to a deterioration environment. This requires the sustainable development of a society that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

At present, the planet has formed biotechnosphere - a part of the biosphere, radically transformed by man into engineering structures: cities, factories and factories, quarries and mines, roads, dams and reservoirs, etc.

BIOSPHERE AND MAN

The biosphere for man is and habitat and source of natural resources.

Natural resources – natural objects and phenomena that a person uses in the labor process. They provide people with food, clothing, shelter. According to the degree of exhaustion, they are divided into exhaustible and inexhaustible . Exhaustible resources are divided into renewable and non-renewable . Non-renewable resources include those resources that are not revived (or are renewed hundreds of times slower than they are spent): oil, coal, metal ores and most minerals. Renewable natural resources - soil, vegetation and animal world, minerals ( salt). These resources are constantly being restored at different rates: animals - several years, forests - 60-80 years, soils that have lost their fertility - for several millennia. Exceeding the rate of consumption over the rate of reproduction leads to the complete disappearance of the resource.

Inexhaustible resources include water, climatic (atmospheric air and wind energy) and space: solar radiation, energy sea ​​tides and ebbs. However, the growing pollution of the environment requires the implementation of environmental measures to conserve these resources.

Satisfaction human needs unthinkable without the exploitation of natural resources.

All types of human activity in the biosphere can be combined into four forms.

1. Changing the structure of the earth's surface(plowing land, draining water bodies, deforestation, building canals). Humanity is becoming a powerful geological force. A person uses 75% of land, 15% of river waters, 20 hectares of forests are cut down every minute.

· Geological and geomorphological changes - intensification of the formation of ravines, the appearance and frequency of mudflows and landslides.

Complex (landscape) changes - violation of the integrity and natural structure landscapes, the uniqueness of natural monuments, the loss of productive land, desertification.

All substances on the planet are in the process of circulation. Solar energy causes two cycles of matter on Earth: large (geological, biospheric) and small (biological).

The large circulation of substances in the biosphere is characterized by two important points: it is carried out throughout geological development Earth and is a modern planetary process that takes a leading part in further development biosphere.

The geological cycle is associated with the formation and destruction of rocks and the subsequent movement of destruction products - detrital material and chemical elements. A significant role in these processes was played and continues to be played by the thermal properties of the surface of land and water: the absorption and reflection of sunlight, thermal conductivity and heat capacity. The unstable hydrothermal regime of the Earth's surface, together with the planetary atmospheric circulation system, determined the geological circulation of substances, which at the initial stage of the Earth's development, along with endogenous processes, was associated with the formation of continents, oceans and modern geospheres. With the formation of the biosphere, the products of vital activity of organisms were included in the great cycle. The geological cycle supplies living organisms with nutrients and largely determines the conditions for their existence.

Main chemical elements lithospheres: oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, magnesium, sodium, potassium and others - participate in a large circulation, passing from the deep parts of the upper mantle to the surface of the lithosphere. igneous rock, which arose during the crystallization of magma, having entered the surface of the lithosphere from the depths of the Earth, undergoes decomposition, weathering in the biosphere. Weathering products pass into a mobile state, are carried away by waters, wind to low places of relief, fall into rivers, the ocean and form thick layers of sedimentary rocks, which over time, plunging to a depth in areas with elevated temperature and pressure, undergo metamorphosis, i.e. "remelted". During this remelting, a new metamorphic rock appears, entering the upper horizons of the earth's crust and re-entering the circulation of substances. (rice.).

Easily mobile substances - gases and natural waters that make up the atmosphere and hydrosphere of the planet - undergo the most intensive and rapid circulation. The material of the lithosphere cycles much more slowly. In general, each circulation of any chemical element is part of the general large circulation of substances on Earth, and all of them are closely interconnected. The living matter of the biosphere in this cycle does a great job of redistributing the chemical elements that are constantly circulating in the biosphere, moving from external environment into organisms and back into the environment.

Small, or biological, circulation of substances- this is

circulation of substances between plants, animals, fungi, microorganisms and soil. The essence of the biological cycle is the flow of two opposite, but interrelated processes - the creation of organic substances and their destruction. First stage The emergence of organic substances is due to the photosynthesis of green plants, i.e., the formation of living matter from carbon dioxide, water, and simple mineral compounds using solar energy. Plants (producers) extract molecules of sulfur, phosphorus, calcium, potassium, magnesium, manganese, silicon, aluminum, zinc, copper and other elements from the soil in a solution. Herbivorous animals (consumers of the first order) absorb compounds of these elements already in the form of food of plant origin. Predators (consumers of the second order) feed on herbivorous animals, consuming more than complex composition, including proteins, fats, amino acids and other substances. In the process of destruction by microorganisms (decomposers) of organic substances of dead plants and animal remains, into the soil and aquatic environment simple mineral compounds available for assimilation by plants enter, and the next round of the biological cycle begins (Fig. 33).

The emergence and development of the noosphere

The evolution of the organic world on Earth has gone through several stages. The first is associated with the emergence of the biological cycle of substances in the biosphere. The second was accompanied by the formation multicellular organisms. These two stages are called biogenesis. The third stage is associated with the appearance human society, under whose influence modern conditions there is an evolution of the biosphere and its transformation into the sphere of the mind-noosphere (from gr.-mind,-ball). The noosphere is a new state of the biosphere, when intelligent human activity becomes the main factor that determines its development. The term "noosphere" was introduced by E. Leroy. VI Vernadsky deepened and developed the doctrine of the noosphere. He wrote: "The noosphere is a new geological phenomenon on our planet. In it, man becomes a major geological force." V. I. Vernadsky singled out the necessary prerequisites for the creation of the noosphere: 1. Humanity has become a single whole. 2. The possibility of instantaneous information exchange. 3. Real equality of people. 6. Exclusion of wars from the life of society. The creation of these prerequisites becomes possible as a result of the explosion of scientific thought in the twentieth century.

Topic - 6. Nature - man: a systematic approach. The purpose of the lecture: To form a holistic view of the system postulates of ecology.

Main questions: 1. The concept of the system and complex biosystems. 2. Features of biological systems. 3. System postulates: the law of universal communication, environmental laws B. Commoner, The law of large numbers, Le Chatelier's principle, The law of feedback in nature and the law of the constancy of the amount of living matter. 4. Models of interactions in systems " nature is man” and “man-economy-biota-environment”.

ecological system- the main object of ecology. Ecology is systemic in nature and in its theoretical form is close to general theory systems. According to the general theory of systems, a system is a real or conceivable set of parts, the integral properties of which are determined by the interaction between the parts (elements) of the system. In real life, a system is defined as a collection of objects brought together by some form of regular interaction or interdependence to perform given function. In the material there are certain hierarchies - ordered sequences of spatio-temporal subordination and complication of systems. All the varieties of our world can be represented as three sequentially emerged hierarchies. This is the main, natural, physico-chemical-biological (P, X, B) hierarchy and two side ones that arose on its basis, social (S) and technical (T) hierarchies. The existence of the latter in totality feedback affects the main hierarchy in some way. Combining systems from different hierarchies leads to "mixed" classes of systems. Thus, the combination of systems from the physico-chemical part of the hierarchy (F, X - "environment") with living systems of the biological part of the hierarchy (B - "biota") leads to a mixed class of systems called ecological. A union of systems from hierarchies C

("man") and T ("technology") leads to a class of economic, or technical and economic, systems.

Rice. . Hierarchies material systems:

F, X - physical and chemical, B - biological, C - social, T - technical

It should be clear that the impact of human society on nature, depicted in the diagram, mediated by technology and technology (technogenesis), refers to the entire hierarchy of natural systems: the lower branch - to abiotic environment, upper - to the biota of the biosphere. Below we will consider the contingency of the environmental and technical and economic aspects of this interaction.

All systems have some general properties:

1. Each system has a specific structure, determined by the form of space-time connections or interactions between the elements of the system. Structural order alone does not determine the organization of a system. The system can be called organized if its existence is either necessary to maintain some functional (performing certain work) structure, or, on the contrary, depends on the activity of such a structure.

2. According to the principle of necessary diversity the system cannot consist of identical elements devoid of individuality. The lower limit of diversity is at least two elements (proton and electron, protein and nucleic acid, "he" and "she"), the upper one is infinity. Diversity is the most important information characteristic of the system. It differs from the number of varieties of elements and can be measured. 3. The properties of a system cannot be comprehended only on the basis of the properties of its parts. It is the interaction between the elements that is decisive. It is not possible to judge the operation of the machine from the individual parts of the machine before assembly. Studying separately some forms of fungi and algae, it is impossible to predict the existence of their symbiosis in the form of a lichen. The combined effect of two or more different factors on an organism is almost always different from the sum of their separate effects. The degree of irreducibility of the properties of the system to the sum of the properties of the individual elements of which it consists determines emergence systems.

4. Allocation of the system divides its world into two parts - the system itself and its environment. Depending on the presence (absence) of the exchange of matter, energy and information with the environment, the following are fundamentally possible: isolated systems (no exchange possible); closed systems (impossible exchange of matter); open systems (matter and energy exchange is possible). The exchange of energy determines the exchange of information. In nature, there are only open dynamic systems, between internal elements which and the elements of the environment carry out the transfer of matter, energy and information. Any living system- from the virus to the biosphere - is an open dynamic system.

5. Predominance internal interactions in the system over external ones and the lability of the system in relation to external
actions define it self-preservation ability thanks to the qualities of organization, endurance and stability. An external influence on a system that exceeds the strength and flexibility of its internal interactions leads to irreversible changes.
and death of the system. The stability of a dynamic system is maintained by its continuous external cyclic work. This requires the flow and transformation of energy into this. topic. Probability of achieving main goal system - self-preservation (including through self-reproduction) is defined as its potential efficiency.

6. The action of the system in time is called it behavior. caused external factor behavior change is defined as reaction system, and a change in the reaction of the system, associated with a change in structure and aimed at stabilizing behavior, as its fixture, or adaptation. Consolidation of adaptive changes in the structure and connections of the system in time, in which its potential efficiency increases, is considered as development, or evolution, systems. The emergence and existence of all material systems in nature is due to evolution. Dynamic systems evolve in the direction from more probable to less probable organization, i.e. development proceeds along the path of complication of the organization and formation of subsystems in the structure of the system. In nature, all forms of system behavior - from elementary reaction before global evolution - essentially non-linear. An important feature of the evolution of complex systems is
unevenness, lack of monotony. Periods of gradual accumulation of minor changes are sometimes interrupted by sharp qualitative jumps that significantly change the properties of the system. They are usually associated with the so-called bifurcation points- bifurcation, splitting of the former path of evolution. A lot depends on the choice of one or another continuation of the path at the bifurcation point, up to the emergence and prosperity of a new world of particles, substances, organisms, societies, or, conversely, the death of the system. Even for decision systems the choice result is often unpredictable, and the choice itself at the bifurcation point may be due to a random impulse. Any real system can be presented in the form of some material similarity or symbolic image, i.e. respectively analog or sign system model. Modeling is inevitably accompanied by some simplification and formalization of the relationships in the system. This formalization can be
implemented in the form of logical (causal) and/or mathematical (functional) relationships. As the complexity of systems increases, they acquire new emergent qualities. At the same time, the qualities of more simple systems. Therefore, the overall diversity of the qualities of the system increases as it becomes more complex (Fig. 2.2).

Rice. 2.2. Patterns of changes in the properties of system hierarchies with an increase in their level (according to Fleishman, 1982):

1 - diversity, 2 - stability, 3 - emergence, 4 - complexity, 5 - non-identity, 6 - prevalence

In order of increasing activity in relation to external influences, the qualities of the system can be ordered in the following sequence: 1 - stability, 2 - reliability due to awareness of the environment (noise immunity), 3 - controllability, 4 - self-organization. In this series, each subsequent quality makes sense in the presence of the previous one.

Steam Difficulty system structure is determined by the number P its elements and the number t

connections between them. If in any system the number of private discrete states is investigated, then the complexity of the system FROM is determined by the logarithm of the number of bonds:

C=logm.(2.1)

Systems are conditionally classified by complexity as follows: 1) systems with up to a thousand states (O <С < 3), относятся к simple; 2) systems with up to a million states (3< С < 6), являют собой complex systems; 3) systems with more than a million states (C > 6) are identified as very complex.

All real natural biosystems are very complex. Even in the structure of a single virus, the number of biologically significant molecular states exceeds the latter value.

The biosphere of the Earth is characterized in a certain way by the existing circulation of substances and the flow of energy. The cycle of substances is the repeated participation of substances in the processes that occur in the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere, including those layers that are part of the Earth's biosphere. The circulation of matter is carried out with the continuous supply of external energy from the Sun and internal energy Earth.

Depending on the driving force, within the circulation of substances, one can distinguish geological (large circulation), biological (biogeochemical, small circulation) and anthropogenic cycles.

Geological cycle (great circulation of substances in the biosphere)

This circulation redistributes matter between the biosphere and deeper horizons of the Earth. driving force this process are exogenous and endogenous geological processes. Endogenous processes occur under the influence of the internal energy of the Earth. This is the energy released as a result radioactive decay, chemical reactions of formation of minerals, etc. K endogenous processes include, for example, tectonic movements, earthquakes. These processes lead to the formation large forms relief (continents, ocean trenches, mountains and plains). Exogenous processes proceed under the influence of the external energy of the Sun. These include the geological activity of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, living organisms and humans. These processes lead to smoothing of large landforms ( river valleys, hills, ravines, etc.).

The geological cycle continues for millions of years and consists in the fact that rocks are destroyed, and weathering products (including those soluble in water nutrients) are carried by water flows to the World Ocean, where they form marine strata and only partially return to land with precipitation. Geotectonic changes, the processes of subsidence of the continents and the rise of the seabed, the movement of the seas and oceans for a long time lead to the fact that these strata return to land and the process begins again. The symbol of this circulation of substances is a spiral, not a circle, because. the new cycle of circulation does not exactly repeat the old one, but introduces something new.

To big cycle refers to the water cycle (hydrological cycle) between the land and the ocean through the atmosphere (Fig. 3.2).

The water cycle as a whole plays a major role in shaping the natural conditions on our planet. Taking into account the transpiration of water by plants and its absorption in the biogeochemical cycle, the entire supply of water on Earth decays and is restored for 2 million years.

Rice. 3. 2. Water cycle in the biosphere.

In the hydrological cycle, all parts of the hydrosphere are interconnected. More than 500 thousand km3 of water participate in it every year. The driving force behind this process is solar energy. Water molecules under the action solar energy heat up and rise in the form of gas into the atmosphere (evaporates daily - 875 km3 fresh water). As they rise, they gradually cool, condense and form clouds. After sufficient cooling, the clouds release water in the form of various precipitations that fall back into the ocean. Water that has fallen on the ground can follow two different ways: either soak into the soil (infiltration) or run off (surface runoff). On the surface, water flows into streams and rivers that lead to the ocean or other places where evaporation occurs. Water absorbed into the soil can be retained in its upper layers (horizons) and returned to the atmosphere by transpiration. Such water is called capillary. Water that is carried away by gravity and seeps down the pores and cracks is called gravitational water. Gravity water seeps down to an impenetrable layer of rock or dense clay, filling all voids. Such reserves are called groundwater, and their upper limit is called the level. ground water. Underground rock layers through which groundwater flows slowly are called aquifers. Under the influence of gravity, groundwater moves along the aquifer until it finds a “way out” (for example, forming natural springs that feed lakes, rivers, ponds, i.e. become part of surface water). Thus, the water cycle includes three main "loops": surface runoff, evaporation-transpiration, groundwater. More than 500 thousand km3 of water is involved in the water cycle on Earth every year, and it plays a major role in shaping natural conditions.

Biological (biogeochemical) circulation

(small circulation of substances in the biosphere)

The driving force of the biological cycle of substances is the activity of living organisms. It is part of a larger one and takes place within the biosphere at the ecosystem level. A small cycle consists in the fact that nutrients, water and carbon accumulate in the matter of plants (autotrophs), are spent on building bodies and life processes, both plants and other organisms (usually animals - heterotrophs) that eat these plants. The decomposition products of organic matter under the action of destructors and microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, worms) decompose again to mineral components. These inorganic substances can be reused for the synthesis of organic substances by autotrophs.

In biogeochemical cycles, a reserve fund (substances that are not associated with living organisms) and an exchange fund (substances that are connected by direct exchange between organisms and their immediate environment) are distinguished.

Depending on the location of the reserve fund, biogeochemical cycles are divided into two types:

gyres gas type with a reserve fund of substances in the atmosphere and hydrosphere (cycles of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen).

Cycles of sedimentary type with a reserve fund in the earth's crust (circulations of phosphorus, calcium, iron, etc.).

Cycles of the gas type, having a large exchange fund, are more perfect. And besides, they are capable of rapid self-regulation. Sedimentary-type cycles are less perfect, they are more inert, since the bulk of the matter is contained in the reserve fund of the earth's crust in a form inaccessible to living organisms. Such cycles are easily disturbed by various kinds of influences, and part of the exchanged material leaves the cycle. It can return again to the circulation only as a result of geological processes or by extraction by living matter.

The intensity of the biological cycle is determined by the ambient temperature and the amount of water. For example, the biological cycle proceeds more intensively in wet tropical forests than in the tundra.

Cycles of the main biogenic substances and elements

The carbon cycle

All life on earth is based on carbon. Each molecule of a living organism is built on the basis of a carbon skeleton. Carbon atoms are constantly migrating from one part of the biosphere to another (Fig. 3. 3.).

Rice. 3. 3. Carbon cycle.

The main carbon reserves on Earth are in the form of carbon dioxide (CO2) contained in the atmosphere and dissolved in the oceans. Plants absorb carbon dioxide molecules during photosynthesis. As a result, the carbon atom is converted into a variety of organic compounds and thus included in the structure of plants. Following are several options:

carbon remains in plants ® plant molecules are eaten by decomposers (organisms that feed on dead organic matter and at the same time break it down to simple inorganic compounds) ® carbon is returned to the atmosphere as CO2;

· plants are eaten by herbivores ® carbon is returned to the atmosphere during the respiration of animals and as they decompose after death; or herbivores will be eaten by carnivores and then the carbon will again return to the atmosphere in the same ways;

· after death, plants turn into fossil fuels (for example, into coal) ® carbon is returned to the atmosphere after the use of fuel, volcanic eruptions and other geothermal processes.

In the case of dissolution of the initial CO2 molecule in sea ​​water several options are also possible: carbon dioxide can simply return to the atmosphere (this type of mutual gas exchange between the oceans and the atmosphere occurs constantly); carbon can enter the tissues of marine plants or animals, then it will gradually accumulate in the form of sediments on the bottom of the oceans and eventually turn into limestone or again pass from the sediments into sea water.

The CO2 cycle rate is about 300 years.

Human intervention in the carbon cycle (burning of coal, oil, gas, dehumification) leads to an increase in the content of CO2 in the atmosphere and the development greenhouse effect. At present, the study of the carbon cycle has become an important task for scientists involved in the study of the atmosphere.

Oxygen cycle

Oxygen is the most common element on Earth (sea water contains 85.82% oxygen, atmospheric air 23.15%, in the earth's crust 47.2%). Oxygen compounds are indispensable for maintaining life (they play an important role in metabolic processes and respiration, are part of proteins, fats, carbohydrates, from which organisms are “built”). Main mass oxygen is in bound state(the amount of molecular oxygen in the atmosphere is only 0.01% of general content oxygen in the earth's crust).

Since oxygen is found in many chemical compounds, its circulation in the biosphere is very complex and mainly occurs between the atmosphere and living organisms. The concentration of oxygen in the atmosphere is maintained through photosynthesis, as a result of which green plants, under the influence of sunlight, convert carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates and oxygen. The bulk of oxygen is produced by land plants - almost ¾, the rest - by photosynthetic organisms of the oceans. A powerful source of oxygen is the photochemical decomposition of water vapor in the upper atmosphere under the influence of ultraviolet rays sun. In addition, oxygen makes the most important cycle, being part of the water. A small amount of oxygen is formed from ozone under the influence of ultraviolet radiation.

The oxygen cycle rate is about 2 thousand years.

Deforestation, soil erosion, various mine workings on the surface reduce the total mass of photosynthesis and reduce the oxygen cycle over large areas. In addition, 25% of the oxygen generated as a result of assimilation is consumed annually for industrial and domestic needs.

nitrogen cycle

The biogeochemical nitrogen cycle, like the previous cycles, covers all areas of the biosphere (Fig. 3.4).

Rice. 3. 4. Nitrogen cycle.

Nitrogen is included in earth's atmosphere unbound in the form diatomic molecules(approximately 78% of the total volume of the atmosphere is nitrogen). In addition, nitrogen is found in plants and animals in the form of proteins. Plants synthesize proteins by absorbing nitrates from the soil. Nitrates are formed there from atmospheric nitrogen and ammonium compounds present in the soil. The process of converting atmospheric nitrogen into a form usable by plants and animals is called nitrogen fixation. When organic matter rots, a significant part of the nitrogen contained in them turns into ammonia, which, under the influence of nitrifying bacteria living in the soil, is then oxidized into ammonia. nitric acid. This acid, reacting with carbonates in the soil (for example, calcium carbonate CaCO3), forms nitrates. Some of the nitrogen is always released during decay in free form into the atmosphere. In addition, free nitrogen is released during the combustion of organic substances, during the combustion of firewood, hard coal, peat. In addition, there are bacteria that, with insufficient air access, can take oxygen from nitrates, destroying them with the release of free nitrogen. The activity of denitrifying bacteria leads to the fact that part of the nitrogen from the form available to green plants (nitrates) becomes inaccessible (free nitrogen). Thus, far from all the nitrogen that was part of the dead plants returns back to the soil (part of it is gradually released in a free form).

The processes that compensate for the loss of nitrogen include, first of all, those occurring in the atmosphere electrical discharges, at which a certain amount of nitrogen oxides is always formed (the latter with water give nitric acid, which turns into nitrates in the soil). Another source of replenishment of nitrogen compounds in the soil is the vital activity of the so-called azotobacteria, which are able to assimilate atmospheric nitrogen. Some of these bacteria settle on the roots of plants from the legume family, causing the formation of characteristic swellings - nodules. Nodule bacteria, assimilating atmospheric nitrogen, process it into nitrogen compounds, and plants, in turn, convert the latter into proteins and other complex substances. Thus, in nature, a continuous cycle of nitrogen takes place.

Due to the fact that every year with the harvest the most protein-rich parts of plants (for example, grain) are removed from the fields, the soil “requires” to apply fertilizers that compensate for the loss in it. essential elements plant nutrition. The main uses are calcium nitrate (Ca(NO)2), ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3), sodium nitrate (NANO3), and potassium nitrate (KNO3). Also, instead of chemical fertilizers, the plants themselves from the legume family are used. If the amount of artificial nitrogen fertilizers applied to the soil is excessively large, then nitrates also enter the human body, where they can turn into nitrites, which are highly toxic and can cause cancer.

Phosphorus cycle

The bulk of phosphorus is contained in rocks formed in past geological epochs. The content of phosphorus in the earth's crust is from 8 - 10 to 20% (by weight) and it is found here in the form of minerals (fluorapatite, chlorapatite, etc.), which are part of natural phosphates - apatites and phosphorites. Phosphorus can enter the biogeochemical cycle as a result of rock weathering. Erosion processes carry phosphorus into the sea in the form of the mineral apatite. In the transformation of phosphorus big role played by living organisms. Organisms extract phosphorus from soils and water solutions. Further, phosphorus is transferred through the food chains. With the death of organisms, phosphorus returns to the soil and to the silt of the seas, and is concentrated in the form of marine phosphate deposits, which in turn creates conditions for the creation of phosphorus-rich rocks (Fig. 3. 5.).

Rice. 3.5. The cycle of phosphorus in the biosphere (according to P. Duvigno, M. Tang, 1973; with changes).

At misapplication phosphate fertilizers, as a result of water and wind erosion (destruction under the action of water or wind), a large amount of phosphorus is removed from the soil. On the one hand, this leads to excessive consumption of phosphorus fertilizers and depletion of phosphorus-containing ores.

On the other hand, an increased content of phosphorus in waterways its transfer causes a rapid increase in the biomass of aquatic plants, "blooming of reservoirs" and their eutrophication (enrichment with nutrients).

Since plants carry away a significant amount of phosphorus from the soil, and the natural replenishment of soil phosphorus compounds is extremely insignificant, the application of phosphorus fertilizers to the soil is one of the most important measures to increase productivity. Approximately 125 million tons are mined annually in the world. phosphate ore. Most of it is spent on the production of phosphate fertilizers.

Sulfur cycle

The main reserve fund of sulfur is found in sediments, soil and atmosphere. the main role in the involvement of sulfur in the biogeochemical cycle belongs to microorganisms. Some of them are reducing agents, others are oxidizing agents (Fig. 3. 6.).

Rice. 3. 6. Sulfur cycle (according to Yu. Odum, 1975).

In nature in in large numbers various sulfides of iron, lead, zinc, etc. are known. Sulfide sulfur is oxidized in the biosphere to sulfate sulfur. Sulfates are taken up by plants. In living organisms, sulfur is part of amino acids and proteins, and in plants, in addition, it is part of essential oils, etc. The processes of destruction of the remains of organisms in soils and in the silts of the seas are accompanied by complex transformations of sulfur (microorganisms create numerous intermediate sulfur compounds). After the death of living organisms, part of the sulfur is reduced in the soil by microorganisms to H2S, the other part is oxidized to sulfates and is again included in the cycle. Hydrogen sulfide formed in the atmosphere is oxidized and returned to the soil with precipitation. In addition, hydrogen sulfide can re-form "secondary" sulfides, and sulfate sulfur creates gypsum. In turn, sulfides and gypsum are again destroyed, and sulfur resumes its migration.

In addition, sulfur in the form of SO2, SO3, H2S and elemental sulfur is emitted by volcanoes into the atmosphere.

The sulfur cycle can be disrupted by human intervention. The reason for this is the burning of coal and emissions from the chemical industry, resulting in the formation of sulfur dioxide, which disrupts the processes of photosynthesis and leads to the death of vegetation.

Thus, biogeochemical cycles provide homeostasis of the biosphere. However, they are largely subject to human influence. And one of the most powerful anti-environmental actions of a person is associated with the violation and even destruction of natural cycles (they become acyclic).

Anthropogenic cycle

The driving force of the anthropogenic cycle is human activity. This cycle includes two components: biological, associated with the functioning of a person as a living organism, and technical, associated with economic activity of people. The anthropogenic cycle, unlike the geological and biological cycles, is not closed. This openness causes the depletion of natural resources and pollution of the natural environment.

A large geological cycle of mineral substances and water proceeds under the influence of a huge number of abiotic factors.

4.3.1. Circulation of substances in a large geological cycle.

According to the theory of lithospheric plates, the outer shell of the Earth consists of several very large blocks (plates). This theory assumes the existence of horizontal movements of powerful lithospheric plates, 100-150 km thick.

At the same time, within the mid-ocean ridges, the so-called rift zone. There is a rupture and separation of lithospheric plates with the formation of a young oceanic crust

This phenomenon is called ocean floor spreading. Thus, a flow of mineral substances rises from the depths of the mantle, forming young crystalline rocks.

In contrast to this process, in the zone of deep ocean trenches, one part of the continental crust to another, which is accompanied by the immersion of the peripheral part of the plate into the mantle, i.e., part solid matter the earth's crust becomes part of the earth's mantle. The process that occurs in oceanic deep-sea trenches is called subduction of the oceanic crust.

The water cycle on the planet operates continuously and everywhere. Driving forces of the water cycle thermal energy and gravity. Under the influence of heat, evaporation, condensation of water vapor and other processes occur, which consumes about 50% of the energy coming from the sun. Under the influence of gravity - the fall of raindrops, the flow of rivers, the movement of soil and groundwater. Often these causes act together, for example, both thermal processes and gravity act on the atmospheric circulation of water.

4.3.2. The cycle of elements in inanimate nature

It is carried out in two ways: water and air migration. Air migrants include: oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, iodine.

Water migrants include those substances that migrate mainly in soils, surface and underground waters mainly in the form of molecules and ions: sodium, magnesium, aluminum, silicon, phosphorus, sulfur, chlorine, potassium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, strontium , lead, etc. Air migrants are also part of the salts that migrate in the water. However, air migration is more typical for them.

4.4 Small (biological) circulation

The mass of living matter in the biosphere is relatively small. If it is distributed over the earth's surface, then a layer of only 1.5 cm will be obtained. Table 4.1 compares some quantitative characteristics of the biosphere and other geospheres of the Earth. The biosphere, accounting for less than 10-6 masses of other shells of the planet, has an incomparably greater diversity and renews its composition a million times faster.

Table 4.1

Comparison of the biosphere with other geospheres of the Earth

*Live substance based on live weight

4.4.1. Functions of the biosphere

Thanks to the biota of the biosphere, the predominant part of the chemical transformations on the planet is carried out. Hence the judgment of V.I. Vernadsky about the huge transformative geological role of living matter. For organic evolution living organisms a thousand times (for different cycles from 103 to 105 times) passed through themselves, through their organs, tissues, cells, blood, the entire atmosphere, the entire volume of the World Ocean, most masses of soils, a huge mass of mineral substances. And they not only missed it, but also modified the earthly environment in accordance with their needs.

Thanks to the ability to transform solar energy into the energy of chemical bonds, plants and other organisms perform a number of fundamental biogeochemical functions on a planetary scale.

gas function. Living beings constantly exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide with the environment in the processes of photosynthesis and respiration. Plants played a decisive role in the change from a reducing environment to an oxidizing environment in the geochemical evolution of the planet and in the formation of the gas composition of the modern atmosphere. Plants strictly control the concentrations of O2 and CO2, which are optimal for the totality of all modern living organisms.

concentration function. Passing through your body large volumes air and natural solutions, living organisms carry out biogenic migration (movement chemical substances) and concentration of chemical elements and their compounds. This applies to the biosynthesis of organic matter, the formation of coral islands, the construction of shells and skeletons, the appearance of sedimentary limestone strata, deposits of certain metal ores, the accumulation of iron-manganese nodules, on the ocean floor, etc. The early stages of biological evolution took place in the aquatic environment. Organisms have learned to extract the substances they need from a dilute aqueous solution, multiplying their concentration in their bodies many times over.

The redox function of living matter is closely related to the biogenic migration of elements and the concentration of substances. Many substances in nature are stable and do not undergo oxidation under normal conditions, for example, molecular nitrogen is one of the most important biogenic elements. But living cells have such powerful catalysts - enzymes that they are able to carry out many redox reactions millions of times faster than it can take place in an abiotic environment.

Information function of the living matter of the biosphere. It was with the advent of the first primitive living beings that active (“live”) information appeared on the planet, which differs from the “dead” information, which is a simple reflection of the structure. Organisms turned out to be able to receive information by connecting the flow of energy with an active molecular structure that plays the role of a program. The ability to perceive, store and process molecular information has undergone an advanced evolution in nature and has become the most important ecological system-forming factor. Total stock genetic information biota is estimated at 1015 bits. The total power of the flow of molecular information associated with the metabolism and energy in all cells of the global biota reaches 1036 bit/s (Gorshkov et al., 1996).

4.4.2. Components of the biological cycle.

The biological cycle is carried out between all components of the biosphere (ie, between soil, air, water, animals, microorganisms, etc.). It occurs with the obligatory participation of living organisms.

Solar radiation reaching the biosphere carries an energy of about 2.5 * 1024 J per year. Only 0.3% of it is directly converted into energy during photosynthesis. chemical bonds organic matter, i.e. involved in the biological cycle. And 0.1 - 0.2% of the solar energy falling on the Earth turns out to be enclosed in pure primary production. The further fate of this energy is connected with the transfer of food organic matter through cascades of trophic chains.

The biological cycle can be conditionally divided into interrelated components: the cycle of substances and the energy cycle.

4.4.3. Energy cycle. Energy transformation in the biosphere

An ecosystem can be described as a collection of living organisms continuously exchanging energy, matter, and information. Energy can be defined as the ability to do work. The properties of energy, including the movement of energy in ecosystems, are described by the laws of thermodynamics.

The first law of thermodynamics or the law of conservation of energy states that energy does not disappear and is not created anew, it only changes from one form to another.

The second law of thermodynamics states that in closed system entropy can only increase. With regard to energy in ecosystems, the following formulation is convenient: the processes associated with the transformation of energy can occur spontaneously only if the energy passes from a concentrated form to a diffuse one, that is, it degrades. A measure of the amount of energy that becomes unavailable for use, or otherwise a measure of the change in order that occurs when energy is degraded, is entropy. The higher the order of the system, the lower its entropy.

In other words, living matter receives and transforms the energy of the cosmos, the sun into the energy of terrestrial processes (chemical, mechanical, thermal, electrical). It involves this energy and inorganic matter in the continuous circulation of substances in the biosphere. The flow of energy in the biosphere has one direction - from the Sun through plants (autotrophs) to animals (heterotrophs). Natural untouched ecosystems in a stable state with constant important environmental indicators (homeostasis) are the most ordered systems and are characterized by the lowest entropy.

4.4.4. The cycle of substances in nature

The formation of living matter and its decomposition are two sides of a single process, which is called the biological cycle of chemical elements. Life is the circulation of chemical elements between organisms and the environment.

The reason for the cycle is the limitedness of the elements from which the bodies of organisms are built. Each organism extracts from the environment the substances necessary for life and returns unused. Wherein:

some organisms consume minerals directly from the environment;

others use products processed and isolated first;

the third - the second, etc., until the substances return to the environment in their original state.

In the biosphere, the need for the coexistence of various organisms that can use each other's waste products is obvious. We see practically waste-free biological production.

The cycle of substances in living organisms can be conditionally reduced to four processes:

1. Photosynthesis. As a result of photosynthesis, plants absorb and accumulate solar energy and synthesize organic substances - primary biological products - and oxygen from inorganic substances. Primary biological products are very diverse - they contain carbohydrates (glucose), starch, fiber, proteins, fats.

The scheme of photosynthesis of the simplest carbohydrate (glucose) has the following scheme:

This process takes place only during the day and is accompanied by an increase in the mass of plants.

About 100 billion tons of organic matter are produced annually on Earth as a result of photosynthesis, about 200 billion tons of carbon dioxide are assimilated, and approximately 145 billion tons of oxygen are released.

Photosynthesis plays a decisive role in ensuring the existence of life on Earth. Its global significance is explained by the fact that photosynthesis is the only process during which energy in the thermodynamic process, according to the minimalist principle, does not dissipate, but rather accumulates.

By synthesizing the amino acids necessary for building proteins, plants can exist relatively independently of other living organisms. This manifests the autotrophy of plants (self-sufficiency in nutrition). At the same time, the green mass of plants and the oxygen formed in the process of photosynthesis are the basis for maintaining the life of the next group of living organisms - animals, microorganisms. This shows the heterotrophy of this group of organisms.

2. Breathing. The process is the reverse of photosynthesis. Occurs in all living cells. When breathing organic matter oxidized by oxygen, as a result, carbon dioxide, water and energy are released.

3. Nutritional (trophic) relationships between autotrophic and heterotrophic organisms. AT this case there is a transfer of energy and matter along the links of the food chain, which we discussed in more detail earlier.

4. The process of transpiration. One of the most important processes in the biological cycle.

Schematically, it can be described as follows. Plants absorb soil moisture through their roots. At the same time, mineral substances dissolved in water enter them, which are absorbed, and moisture evaporates more or less intensively, depending on environmental conditions.

4.4.5. Biogeochemical cycles

Geological and biological cycles are connected - they exist as a single process, giving rise to the circulation of substances, the so-called biogeochemical cycles (BGCC). This circulation of elements is due to the synthesis and decay of organic substances in the ecosystem (Fig. 4.1). Not all elements of the biosphere are involved in BHCC, but only biogenic ones. Living organisms consist of them, these elements enter into numerous reactions and participate in the processes occurring in living organisms. In percentage terms, the total mass of the living matter of the biosphere consists of the following main biogenic elements: oxygen - 70%, carbon - 18%, hydrogen - 10.5%, calcium - 0.5%, potassium - 0.3%, nitrogen - 0, 3%, (oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon are present in all landscapes and are the basis of living organisms - 98%).

Essence of biogenic migration of chemical elements.

Thus, in the biosphere there is a biogenic cycle of substances (ie, a cycle caused by the vital activity of organisms) and a unidirectional flow of energy. Biogenic migration of chemical elements is determined mainly by two opposite processes:

1. The formation of living matter from the elements of the environment due to solar energy.

2. The destruction of organic substances, accompanied by the release of energy. At the same time, elements of mineral substances repeatedly enter living organisms, thereby entering into the composition of complex organic compounds, forms, and then, when the latter are destroyed, they again acquire a mineral form.

There are elements that are part of living organisms, but not related to biogenic ones. Such elements are classified according to their weight fraction in organisms:

Macronutrients - components of at least 10-2% of the mass;

Trace elements - components from 9 * 10-3 to 1 * 10-3% of the mass;

Ultramicroelements - less than 9 * 10-6% of the mass;

To determine the place of biogenic elements among other chemical elements of the biosphere, let us consider the classification adopted in ecology. According to the activity shown in the processes occurring in the biosphere, all chemical elements are divided into 6 groups:

The noble gases are helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon. Inert gases are not part of living organisms.

Noble metals - ruthenium, radium, palladium, osmium, iridium, platinum, gold. These metals almost do not create compounds in the earth's crust.

Cyclic or biogenic elements (they are also called migratory). This group of biogenic elements in the earth's crust accounts for 99.7% of the total mass, and the remaining 5 groups - 0.3%. Thus, the bulk of the elements are migrants who carry out circulation in the geographical envelope, and some of the inert elements are very small.

Scattered elements, characterized by the predominance of free atoms. They enter into chemical reactions, but their compounds are rarely found in the earth's crust. They are divided into two subgroups. The first - rubidium, cesium, niobium, tantalum - create compounds in the depths of the earth's crust, and on the surface of their minerals are destroyed. The second - iodine, bromine - react only on the surface.

Radioactive elements - polonium, radon, radium, uranium, neptunium, plutonium.

Rare earth elements - yttrium, samarium, europium, thulium, etc.

Year-round biochemical cycles set in motion about 480 billion tons of matter.

IN AND. Vernadsky formulated three biogeochemical principles that explain the essence of biogenic migration of chemical elements:

Biogenic migration of chemical elements in the biosphere always tends to its maximum manifestation.

The evolution of species in the course of geological time, leading to the creation of sustainable forms of life, proceeds in a direction that enhances the biogenic migration of atoms.

Living matter is in continuous chemical exchange with its environment, which is a factor that recreates and maintains the biosphere.

Let us consider how some of these elements move in the biosphere.

The carbon cycle. The main participant in the biotic cycle is carbon as the basis of organic substances. Mostly carbon cycle occurs between living matter and carbon dioxide of the atmosphere in the process of photosynthesis. Herbivores get it with food, predators get it from herbivores. When breathing, rotting, carbon dioxide is partially returned to the atmosphere, the return occurs when organic minerals are burned.

In the absence of carbon return to the atmosphere, it would be used up by green plants in 7-8 years. The rate of biological turnover of carbon through photosynthesis is 300 years. The oceans play an important role in regulating the content of CO2 in the atmosphere. If the CO2 content rises in the atmosphere, some of it dissolves in water, reacting with calcium carbonate.

The oxygen cycle.

Oxygen has a high chemical activity, enters into compounds with almost all elements of the earth's crust. It occurs mainly in the form of compounds. Every fourth atom of living matter is an oxygen atom. Almost all of the molecular oxygen in the atmosphere originated and is maintained at a constant level due to the activity of green plants. Atmospheric oxygen, bound during respiration and released during photosynthesis, passes through all living organisms in 200 years.

The nitrogen cycle. Nitrogen is an integral part of all proteins. The total ratio of bound nitrogen, as an element constituting organic matter, to nitrogen in nature is 1:100,000. The chemical bond energy in the nitrogen molecule is very high. Therefore, the combination of nitrogen with other elements - oxygen, hydrogen (the process of nitrogen fixation) - requires a lot of energy. Industrial nitrogen fixation takes place in the presence of catalysts at a temperature of -500°C and a pressure of -300 atm.

As you know, the atmosphere contains more than 78% of molecular nitrogen, but in this state it is not available to green plants. Plants can only use nitrogen salts for their nutrition. nitrous acid. What are the ways of formation of these salts? Here is some of them:

In the biosphere, nitrogen fixation is carried out by several groups of anaerobic bacteria and cyanobacteria at normal temperature and pressure due to the high efficiency of biocatalysis. Bacteria are thought to be converted into bound form approximately 1 billion tons of nitrogen per year (the world volume of industrial fixation is about 90 million tons).

Soil nitrogen-fixing bacteria are able to assimilate molecular nitrogen from the air. They enrich the soil with nitrogenous compounds, so their value is extremely high.

As a result of the decomposition of nitrogen-containing compounds of organic substances of plant and animal origin.

Under the action of bacteria, nitrogen is converted into nitrates, nitrites, ammonium compounds. In plants, nitrogen compounds take part in the synthesis of protein compounds, which are transferred from organism to organism in food chains.

Phosphorus cycle. Another important element, without which protein synthesis is impossible, is phosphorus. The main sources are igneous rocks (apatites) and sedimentary rocks (phosphorites).

Inorganic phosphorus is involved in the cycle as a result of natural leaching processes. Phosphorus is assimilated by living organisms, which, with its participation, synthesize a number of organic compounds and transfer them to various trophic levels.

Having finished their journey along the trophic chains, organic phosphates are decomposed by microbes and turn into mineral phosphates available to green plants.

In the process of biological circulation, which ensures the movement of matter and energy, there is no place for the accumulation of waste. The waste products (i.e. waste products) of each life form are the breeding ground for other organisms.

Theoretically, the biosphere should always maintain a balance between the production of biomass and its decomposition. However, in certain geological periods, the balance of the biological cycle was disturbed when, due to certain natural conditions, cataclysms, not all biological products were assimilated and transformed. In these cases, surpluses of biological products were formed, which were conserved and deposited in the earth's crust, under the water column, sediments, and ended up in the permafrost zone. So deposits of coal, oil, gas, limestone were formed. It should be noted that they do not litter the biosphere. The energy of the Sun, accumulated in the process of photosynthesis, is concentrated in organic minerals. Now, by burning organic fossil fuels, a person releases this energy.