Coal - solid fossil fuel plant origin, a type of fossil coal, intermediate between brown coal and anthracite. Coal is a dense sedimentary rock of black, sometimes cepo-black color, giving a black line on a porcelain plate. Organic matter contains 75-92% carbon, 2.5-5.7% hydrogen, 1.5-15% oxygen. The higher calorific value in terms of dry ashless state is 30.5-36.8 MJ/kg. Most hard coals are humoliths; sapropelites and humitosapropelites are present as lenses or small layers.
Coal is a product of deep decomposition of plant remains (tree ferns, horsetails and club mosses, as well as the first gymnosperms). Most coal deposits were formed in the Paleozoic, predominantly in the Carboniferous period, approximately 300-350 million years ago. The formation of coal is characteristic of almost all geological systems - from the Devonian to the Neogene (inclusive); they were widely used in the Carboniferous, Permian, and Jurassic.
Bituminous coals occur in the form of seams and lenticular deposits of various thicknesses (from fractions of meters to several tens and hundreds of meters) at different depths (from outcrops to 2,500 m and deeper). Coals are formed from the decomposition products of organic residues. higher plants that have undergone changes (metamorphism) under the pressure of surrounding rocks earth's crust and relatively high temperatures.

Hard coal is characterized by a neutral composition organic matter. They do not react with weak alkalis in any way. normal conditions, nor under pressure. Their bitumens, in contrast to brown coals, are mainly represented by compounds of aromatic structure. They were not found fatty acid and esters, compounds with the structure of paraffins are of little importance. Hard coals are divided into shiny, semi-shiny, semi-matte, matte. Depending on the predominance of certain petrographic components, vitren, claren, duren-claren, clarine-durene, durene, and fusene bituminous coals are distinguished. Seams of coal can be composed of one of the indicated lithotypes, more often their alternation ( banded coals). As a rule, shiny varieties of coal are low-ash due to the insignificant content of mineral impurities.

Among the structures of the predominant substance of coals (coal-forming microcomponents), 4 types (thelinite, post-thelinite, precollinite and collinite) are distinguished, which are successive stages single process decomposition of lignin-cellulose fabrics and reflective general patterns formation of coal formations. Basic units classifications of bituminous coals - genetic groups established by the structure of the substance of coal-forming microcomponents, where, in addition to the mentioned 4 types, leuptinite coals are additionally included. Thus, 5 genetic groups have been identified. Each of them is divided into corresponding classes according to the type of substance of coal-forming microcomponents.

Under conditions of increasing pressure and temperature, when the coal-bearing stratum is immersed to a depth, a consistent transformation of the organic part of coal occurs - a change in its chemical composition, physical properties and intramolecular structure, defined by the term "regional coal metamorphism". At the final (highest) stage of metamorphism, bituminous coals are transformed into anthracites and graphites with a distinct crystal structure. Less common are transformations of the organic part of hard coals from exposure to the heat of igneous rocks that have intruded into coal-bearing strata or overlying (underlying) their deposits (thermal metamorphism), as well as directly into coal seams (contact metamorphism). An increase in the degree of metamorphism in the organic matter of hard coals is caused by a successive increase in the relative content of carbon and a decrease in the content of oxygen and hydrogen. The yield of volatile substances is consistently reduced (from 50 to 8% in terms of dry ash-free state); also change the heat of combustion, the ability to sinter into coke and physical properties coal.

The change in the physical properties of hard coals as a result of their metamorphism manifests itself according to a linear, dependent on the compaction of matter, or parabolic laws with inversion in coals of the middle stage of metamorphism, reflecting changes in the structure of organic matter. Luster, reflectivity of vitrinite, bulk density of coals and other properties change according to a linear law. Other important physical properties (porosity, density, caking, heat of combustion, elastic properties, etc.) change either distinctly according to a parabolic law, or according to a mixed one, when the change in properties occurs only when coal passes to the lean stage (microhardness, electrical conductivity, etc.) .

As an optical criterion for the degree of metamorphism of coals, the indicator of the reflectivity of vitrinite is used; this indicator is also used in petroleum geology to establish the stage of catagenic transformation of the sedimentary strata containing organic matter. The density of hard coals depends on the petrographic composition, the quantitative content and nature of mineral impurities and the degree of metamorphism. highest density(1300-1500 kg / m 3) the components of the fusinite group are characterized, the smallest (1280-1300 kg / m 3) - the vitrinite group. The change in density with an increase in the degree of metamorphism occurs according to a parabolic law with inversion in the zone of transition to the fatty group; in low-ash varieties, it decreases from coal grade D to grade Zh on average from 1370 to 1280 kg/m 3 and then sequentially increases to coal grade T up to 1340 kg/m 3 . The total porosity of coals, determined by the heat of wetting, also changes according to a parabolic law; for Donetsk coal grade D it is 22-14%, coal grade K - 4-8% and increases (apparently as a result of decompaction) up to 10-15% coal grade T. Endogenous (developed in the process of coal formation) fracturing, estimated by the number of cracks for every 5 cm of shiny coal, controlled by the stage of coal metamorphism; it increases to 12 cracks at the transition of brown coals to long-flame ones, has a maximum of 35-60 for coke coals and successively decreases to 12-15 cracks at the transition to anthracites. Changes in the elastic properties of coals - Young's modulus, Poisson's ratio, shear (shear) modulus, ultrasound velocity - are subject to the same regularity. Main technological properties, which determine the value of coal, - sintering and coking.

World geological reserves (resources) of hard coals are taken into account by several international organizations on the basis of various, in many respects, difficult to compare parameters, as a result of which they lead to different results, ranging from 8 to 16 trillion rubles. tons. Of the 14.8 trillion. tons of world geological reserves (resources) of natural fuels, coal accounts for 9.4 trillion. tons.

Officially, these are layers of biomass accumulation from forests and plants, coked under other layers. Or it was powerful ancient peat bogs (lower thickest layer).

This pattern of coal layers is ubiquitous:

Nazarovsky coal mine. Two thin layers close to the surface

The main layer with brown coal does not look like a random mass with petrified trunks of ancient trees chaotically laid. The reservoir has clear strata - many layers. Those official version not suitable for old trees. And it is not suitable yet because of the high sulfur content in brown coal seams.

Table of contents of some chemical elements in coals, peat, wood and oil.

In order not to think about the meaning of the table, I will write the conclusions from it.
1. Carbon. In wood, it is the least of the listed fuel sources. And it is not clear (if we take into account the traditional version of coal formation) why the amount of carbon increases with the accumulation of organic matter (wood or peat) in the layers. A contradiction that no one explains.
2. Nitrogen and oxygen. Nitrogen compounds are one of the building blocks of wood and vegetation. And why the amount of nitrogen decreased after the transformation of wood or peat into brown coal is again not clear. Again a contradiction.
3. Sulfur. In wood there is no amount sufficient for the accumulation of this chemical element. Even in peat, sulfur is negligible compared to the layers of brown and hard coal. Where does sulfur get into the layers? The only assumption is that there was sulfur in the layers from the very beginning. Mixed with organic? But somehow, the concentration of sulfur in coals coincides with the sulfur content in oil.

Usually sulfur is pyrite, sulfate and organic. As a rule, pyrite sulfur prevails. The sulfur contained in coals is usually in the form of magnesium, calcium and iron sulfates, iron pyrite (pyritic sulfur) and in the form of organic sulfur-containing compounds. Separately determine, as a rule, only sulfate and sulfide sulfur; organic is defined as the difference between the amount total sulfur in coal and the sum of sulfate and sulfide sulfur.

Sulfur pyrites - almost constant companion coal and, moreover, sometimes in such quantity that it makes it unfit for consumption (for example, coal from the Moscow basin).

According to these data, it turns out that the accumulation of organic matter (wood or peat) is not related to coal. The formation of brown coal is an abiogenic process. But what? Why are brown coals located relatively shallow, while coal can be located at depths of up to two kilometers?

The next question is: where are all the fossils of flora and fauna in brown coal seams. They must be massive! Trunks, plants, skeletons and bones of dead animals - where are they?

Leave imprints are found only in overburden rocks:

Petrified fern. Such petrified plants come across during coal mining. This specimen was mined while working at the Rodinskaya mine in the Donbass. But we will return to these alleged fossils below.

This refers to the waste rock of coal mines. I didn't find anything on brown coal.

Areas of coal formation. Most of coal is found in the northern hemisphere, absent at the equator and the tropics. But there is the most acceptable climate for the accumulation of organic matter in antiquity. There are also no areas (in latitudinal form) of accumulation on the old equators. This distribution is clearly related to another reason.

One more question. Why was this useful fossil fuel not used in antiquity? There are no mass descriptions of the extraction and use of brown coal. The first mention of coal refers only to the time of Peter I. It is not at all difficult to get (get to the bottom of the seam). It's done in an artisanal way. locals in Ukraine:

There are also more large-scale open pit coal mining:

Coal under 8-10 meters of clay. For the formation of coal, geologists say you need a lot of pressure and temperature. It was clearly not here.

Coal is soft and crumbles.

When digging wells, they had to stumble upon the layers and find out that they were burning. But history tells us about the beginning of mass coal mining only in the 19th century.

Or maybe these layers did not exist until the 19th century? As it was not in the middle of the 19th century. trees! See the desert landscapes of the Crimea and photographs of Stolypin settlers who climbed into the remote corners of Siberia in wagon trains. And now there is an impenetrable taiga. This is me about the 19th century version of the flood. Its mechanism is not clear (if it did exist). But back to brown coals.

What breed do you think it is? Brown coal? Looks like it, but guess not. These are bituminous sands.

Large-scale oil production from tar sands in Canada. Before the fall in oil prices, it was profitable, even profitable business. On average, out of four tons of bitumen, only one barrel of oil is produced.

If you do not know, then you will not think that oil is being produced here. It looks like a brown cut.

Another example from Ukraine:

In the village of Starunya (Ivano-Frankivsk region), oil comes to the surface by itself, creating small volcanoes. Some oil volcanoes are on fire!

Then it will all petrify and there will be a coal seam.

So what am I getting at? To the fact that oil during the cataclysm, the break of the earth came out, spilled. But not petrified in the sands. And brown coal, perhaps, is the same, but in Cretaceous or other deposits. There, the fraction before oil was less than sand. The stony state of the coals says that it is involved in the chalk layers. Perhaps some reactions took place and the layers turned into stone.

Even Wikipedia says:
Fossil coal is a mineral, a type of fuel, formed both from parts of ancient plants, and to a large extent from bituminous masses that poured onto the surface of the planet, metamorphosed due to sinking to great depths underground at high temperatures and without oxygen.
But version abiogenic origin brown coal from oil spills is not developed anywhere else.

Some write that this version does not explain the many layers of brown coal. If we take into account that not only masses of oil, but also water-mud sources came to the surface, then alternation is quite possible. Oil and bitumen are lighter than water - they floated on the surface and were deposited and adsorbed on the rock in the form of thin layers. Here is an example in seismically active zone, in Japan:

Water comes out of cracks. It, of course, is not deep, but what prevents the waters of artesian sources from leaving during larger processes or underground oceans and at the exit, throw to the surface masses of rocks, ground into clay, sand, lime, salt, etc. Set aside strata in a short period, not millions of years. I am more and more inclined that in some places in certain times the flood could be caused not by the passage of a wave from the ocean, but by the release of water and mud masses from the bowels of the Earth.

Sources:
http://sibved.livejournal.com/200768.html
https://new.vk.com/feed?w=wall178628732_2011
http://forum.gp.dn.ua/viewtopic.php?f=33&t=2210
http://chispa1707.livejournal.com/1698628.html

A separate issue is the formation of coal

Commentary in one of the articles from jonny3747 :
Coal in the Donbass is most likely the displacement of plates one under the other, along with all the forests, ferns, etc. He himself worked at depths of more than 1 km. The layers lie at an angle, as if one plate crawled under another. Between the layer of coal and the rock, there are very often imprints of plants, quite a lot caught my eye. And what is interesting between solid rock and coal there is a thin layer, as it were, not of rock, but still not of coal, crumbles in the hands, unlike rock, it has dark color and that's it in it often prints were.

This observation fits very well with the process of pyrographite growth in these layers. Most likely, the author saw such:

Remembering the fern fossils in the photos above

Here are excerpts from the monograph "Unknown Hydrogen" and the work "History of the Earth without the Carboniferous Period":

Based on our own research and whole line works of other scientists, the authors state:
“Given the recognized role of deep gases, … genetic connection natural carbonaceous substances with juvenile hydrogen-methane fluid can be described as follows.
1. From gas phase C-O-H systems(methane, hydrogen, carbon dioxide) can be synthesized ... carbonaceous substances - as in artificial conditions as well as in nature...
5. Pyrolysis of methane diluted with carbon dioxide under artificial conditions leads to the synthesis of liquid ... hydrocarbons, and in nature - to the formation of everything genetic series bituminous substances.

CH4 → Sgraphite + 2H2

In the process of methane decomposition in depth, the formation of complex hydrocarbons occurs in a completely natural way! It happens because it turns out to be energetically favorable! And not only gaseous or liquid hydrocarbons, but also solid ones!
Methane and now constantly "oozes" in places of extraction of coal. It may be residual. Or it may be evidence of the continuation of the process of hydrocarbon vapors coming from the bowels.

Well, now it's time to deal with the "trump card" of the version organic origin brown and black coal - the presence of "carbonized plant residues" in them.
Such "carbonized plant remains" are found in coal deposits in huge quantities. Paleobotanists "confidently identify plant species" in these "remains".
It is on the basis of the abundance of these "remnants" that it was concluded that almost tropical conditions in the vast regions of our planet and the conclusion about the wild flourishing flora during the Carboniferous period.
But! When obtaining pyrolytic graphite by pyrolysis of methane diluted with hydrogen, it was found that away from the gas flow in stagnant zones dendritic forms are formed, very similar to "plant residues".

Samples of pyrolytic graphite with "plant patterns" (from the monograph "Unknown Hydrogen")

The simplest conclusion that follows from the above photographs of "carbonized vegetable forms”, which in fact are only forms of pyrolytic graphite, will be like this: paleobotanists now need to think hard! ..

BUT academia keeps writing dissertations on the origin of coals based on the biological accumulation of layers

1. Hydride compounds in the bowels of our planet decompose when heated (see the author’s article “Does the fate of Phaeton await the Earth? ..”), releasing hydrogen, which, in full accordance with the law of Archimedes, rushes up - to the surface of the Earth.
2. Hydrogen is on its way, thanks to the high chemical activity, interacts with the substance of the interior, forming various connections. Including such gaseous substances such as methane CH4, hydrogen sulfide H2S, ammonia NH3, steam H2O and the like.
3. Under conditions of high temperatures and in the presence of other gases that are part of the fluids of the subsurface, there is a step-by-step decomposition of methane, which is in full accordance with the laws physical chemistry leads to the formation of gaseous hydrocarbons - including complex ones.
4. Rising both along the existing cracks and faults in the earth's crust, and forming new ones under pressure, these hydrocarbons fill all the cavities available to them in geological rocks. And due to contact with these colder rocks, gaseous hydrocarbons pass into another phase state and (depending on the composition and environmental conditions) form deposits of liquid and solid minerals - oil, brown and coal, anthracite, graphite and even diamonds.
5. In the process of the formation of solid deposits, in accordance with the laws of self-organization of matter that are far from being studied, under appropriate conditions, the formation of ordered forms occurs, including those reminiscent of the forms of the living world.

And another very curious detail: before the "Carboniferous period" - at the end of Devon - the climate is rather cool and arid, and after - at the beginning of Perm - the climate is also cool and arid. Before the "Carboniferous period" we have a "red continent", and after we have the same "red continent" ...
The following logical question arises: was there a warm "Carboniferous period" at all ?!.

Not a million-year age of the Carboniferous and brown coal seams explains a number of strange artifacts found in coals:

Iron mug found in coal 300 million years old.

Toothed rack in hard coal

Coal- this is a solid, exhaustible, non-renewable mineral that a person uses to obtain heat by burning it. According to the classification, it belongs to sedimentary rocks.

What it is?

Coal as a source of energy, people began to use in antiquity along with firewood. The “flammable stone” was found on the surface of the earth, later it was purposefully mined from under it.

Coal appeared on Earth about 300-350 million years ago, when tree-like ferns flourished in primeval swamps and the first gymnosperms. Huge trunks fell into the water, gradually forming thick layers of undecomposed organic mass. Wood with limited access to oxygen did not rot, but gradually sank deeper and deeper under its weight. Over time, due to the displacement of the layers of the earth's crust, these layers sank to a considerable depth, and there, under the influence of great pressure and elevated temperature, a qualitative change took place in wood into coal.

Types of coal

Today, various types of coal are mined.

• Anthracites are the hardest grades with great depth and maximum combustion temperature.
• Coal - many varieties mined in mines and open pit. It is widely used in many areas of human activity.
• Brown coal - formed from the remains of peat, the youngest type of coal. Has the most low temperature combustion.

All types of coal lie in layers and their locations are called coal basins.

Coal mining

At first, coal was simply collected at the places where the seam came to the surface. This could have happened as a result of the displacement of the layers of the earth's crust.

Often after collapses in highlands such exits of the deposit were exposed, and people got the opportunity to get to the pieces of "combustible stone".

Later, when primitive technology appeared, coal began to be developed in an open way. Some coal mines plunged to a depth of more than 300 meters.

Today, thanks to the complex modern technology, people descend underground into mines, more than a kilometer deep. From these horizons, the highest quality and valuable coal is mined.

Where is coal used?

All types of coal can be used to generate heat. When burned, it is released into more than you can get it from firewood or other solid fuels. The hottest grades of coal are used in metallurgy, where high temperatures are needed.

In addition, coal is a valuable raw material for the chemical industry. A lot of necessary and useful substances are extracted from it.

If this message was useful to you, I would be glad to see you

– this is a mineral that is formed as a result of the decomposition of dead plants without air access. There is a process of formation of this mineral under the influence of pressure and high temperatures.
How is coal formed?
The first stage is the appearance of peat. Peat- it is a relatively solid mass that consists of decaying plant remains. These residues rot and are compressed. Peat is used as a fertilizer, fuel, raw material for various kinds industry. Coal is formed from peat. Coal is a source of thermal energy. It burns well and gives off a lot of heat.

Types of coal
Coal is divided into several types. The least heat is obtained by burning coal, which is called lignite and brown coal. There is a lot of moisture in such types of coal, i.e. water, so they cannot burn well. The best way to heat a room is with coal, which is called anthracite. It is the most dense, compared to other types, and contains less moisture.

AT coal composition, which is considered low quality, includes carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and also not a large number of various chemical elements, such as sulfur. The percentage of other components depends on the type of coal. In other words, good coal must be dry, i.e. contain no water.
How and where is coal mined?
There are a lot of developed coal basins in Russia. These include Karaganda, Pechora, Tunguska, Kansk-Achinsk, Kuznetsk and others. Our country ranks first in the world in terms of known reserves of this mineral.

“The bowels of the Earth are hidden in themselves: blue lapis lazuli, green malachite, pink rhodonite, lilac charoite ... In the colorful range of these and many other minerals fossil coal looks, of course, modestly.
So writes Edward Martin in his work "The History of a Piece of Coal", and one cannot but agree with him. But given the benefits that coal has brought to people since time immemorial, you look at this statement with a completely different look.

Coal is a mineral that people use as fuel. It is a dense stony black (sometimes gray-black) color with a shiny, semi-matte or matte surface.
There are two main points of view on the origin of coal. The first argues that coal was created by the decay of plants over many millions of years. But this process did not always lead to deposits of coal. The fact is that the access of oxygen must be limited so that rotting plants cannot release carbon into the atmosphere. A suitable environment for this process is a swamp. Still water with a minimum oxygen content does not allow bacteria to completely destroy plants. And in certain moment acids are released that completely stop the work of bacteria. Thus, peat is formed, which is transformed first into brown coal, then into hard coal, and finally into anthracite. But the formation of coal is due to another important point - due to the movement of the earth's crust, the peat layer must be covered with other layers of soil. So under pressure elevated temperatures, remaining without water and gases, coal is formed.

There is also a second version. It assumes that coal is the result of the transition of carbon from a gaseous state to a crystalline one. It is based on the fact that the Earth's interior may contain a large amount of carbon in gaseous state. During the cooling process, it precipitates in the form of coal.

Russia holds 5.5% of the world's coal reserves, on the this stage it is 6421 billion tons, of which 2/3 are hard coal reserves. Deposits across the country are unevenly distributed: 95% are located in eastern regions, and more than 60% of them belong to Siberia. The main coal basins: Kuznetsk, Kansk-Achinsk, Pechora, Donetsk. In terms of coal production, Russia ranks 5th in the world.

Protozoa fossil coal mining known since ancient times and recorded in China and Greece. In Russia, for the first time, Peter I saw coal in 1696 in the area of ​​​​the present city of Shakhty. And since 1722, expeditions began to be equipped with the aim of reconnaissance of coal deposits across the territory of Russia. At this time, coal began to be used in salt production, in blacksmithing and for heating houses.
There are two main ways of extracting hard coal: open and closed. The method of extraction depends on the depth of the rock. If the deposits are located at a depth of up to 100 meters, then the mining method is open (the top layer of soil is removed above the deposit, that is, a quarry or section is formed). If the depth of occurrence is greater, then mines are created, and in them special underground passages. By the way, coal is usually formed at a depth of 3 or more kilometers. But as a result of shifts in the earth layers, the layers are raised closer to the surface or lowered to a lower level. Coal occurs in the form of seams and lenticular deposits. The structure is layered or granular. And the average thickness of the coal seam is about 2 meters.

Coal is not just a mineral, but is a collection of macromolecular compounds with a high carbon content, as well as water and volatile substances with a small amount of mineral impurities.

Specific heat of combustion (calorie content) - 6500 - 8600 kcal / kg.

Figures are given in percentage, the exact composition depends on the location of the deposits and climatic conditions. To understand the quality of coal, several important points. Firstly, the degree of its working humidity (less moisture - better energy properties). Its content in coal is 4-14%, which gives a calorific value of 10-30 MJ/kg. Secondly, it is the ash content of coal. Ash is formed due to the presence of mineral impurities in coal and is determined by the output of the residue after combustion at a temperature of 800°C. Coal is considered suitable for use if after combustion the ash is 30% or less.
Unlike brown coal, coal does not contain humic acids; in it they are converted into carboids (compacted carbon compounds). Accordingly, its density and carbon content is greater than that of brown coal.

Speaking about the properties, the following types of coal are distinguished: shiny (vitren), semi-shiny (claren), matte (dgoren) and wavy (fusen).

According to the degree of enrichment, coals are divided into concentrates, intermediate products and sludge. The concentrates are used in the boiler house and for generating electricity. Industrial products go to the needs of metallurgy. The sludge is suitable for making briquettes and selling retail to the public.

There is also a classification of coal according to the size of the pieces:

Coal classification	Designation	The size
slab	P	over 100 mm
Large	To	50..100 mm
Nut	O	25..50 mm
Small	M	13..25 mm
polka dots	G	5..25 mm
seed	With	6..13 mm
Shtyb	W	less than 6 mm
Private	R	not limited in size

The main technological properties of coal are caking and coking properties. Caking is the ability of coal to form a fused residue when heated (without air). Coal acquires this property at the stages of its formation. Coking capacity is the ability of coal under certain conditions and high temperature form a lumpy porous material - coke. This property gives coal additional value.
During the formation of coal, changes occur regarding the content of carbon in it and a decrease in the amount of oxygen, hydrogen and volatile substances, as well as changes in the heat of combustion. From this comes the classification of coal grades:

Classification of coal by grade:	Designation
	D
	G
	GJ
The area of ​​application of coal is very extensive, while at the beginning of mining in Russia it was used mainly for heating houses and in blacksmithing. On the this moment There are many areas that use hard coal. For example, metallurgical industry. Here, for the smelting of metal, a high temperature is needed, and, consequently, such a type of coal as coke. Chemical industry uses coal for coking and further production of coke oven gas, from which hydrocarbons are obtained. In the process of processing hydrocarbons, it receives toluene, benzene, and other substances, thanks to which linoleum, varnishes, paints, etc. are produced. Coal is also used as a heat source. Both for the population and for energy production at thermal power plants. Also, a certain amount of soot is formed from coal during heating (high-quality soot is obtained from gas and fat coals), from which rubber, printing inks, ink, plastic, etc. are produced. Thus, returning to the statement of Edward Martin, we can safely say, that the modest appearance of coal does not in the least detract from its properties and useful qualities.