In chemistry, the concept of "molecular weight" is extremely important. Molecular weight is often confused with molar mass. How do these values differ, and what properties do they have?
Molecular mass
Atoms and molecules - tiny particles any chemicals. If you try to express their mass in grams, you get a number in which there will be about 20 zeros before the decimal point. Therefore, it is inconvenient to measure mass in units such as grams. To get out of this situation, some very small mass should be taken as unity, and all other masses should be expressed in relation to it. This unit is 1/12 of the mass of a carbon atom.
Relative molecular weight is the mass of a molecule of a substance, which is measured in atomic mass units. The molecular weight is equal to the ratio of the mass of a molecule of a substance to 1/12 of the mass of a carbon atom. It shows how many times the mass of a molecule of a certain substance is greater than 1/12 of the mass of a carbon atom.
Rice. 1. Table of molecular weights organic matter.
atomic unit mass (a.m.u.) is equal to 1.66 * 10 to -24 degrees and represents 1/12 of the mass of a carbon atom, that is, an isotope atom of an element of carbon whose mass number is 12. A chemical element in nature can have several stable isotopes, therefore, when talking about the relative atomic mass of an element or, as is often said, about the atomic mass of element A, then the atomic mass of all stable nuclides is necessarily taken into account.
Molecular mass is often confused with molar mass, the unit of which is g/mol. And indeed, numerically, these two quantities are absolutely identical, but their dimensions are absolutely different.
Relative molecular mass can be found by adding together the atomic masses
To calculate the molecular weight of simple and complex substances, it is necessary to find the sum of the relative atomic masses of the atoms that make up the molecule. For example, the relative molecular weight of water Mr (H 2 O), which is known to consist of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom, is 1*2+16=18.
This means that the mass of a water molecule is 18 times greater than 1/12 of the mass of a carbon atom. And the molecular weight of air is 29.
Rice. 2. Formula relative molecular weight.
Atomic mass
The atomic mass of a chemical element is also one of the most important designations in chemistry. Atomic mass is average value from the atomic masses of stable natural isotopes of this element, taking into account their relative abundance in nature (their natural distribution). So, in nature there are two stable isotopes of the element chlorine Cl with mass numbers 35 and 37:
Ar(Cl)=(34.97*0.7553)+(36.95*0.2447)=35.45 - this is the value adopted for the element chlorine as its relative atomic mass.
First time calculation atomic weights were made by D. Dalton. He attributed the atomic weights of the elements to the atomic weight of hydrogen, taking it as a unit. However, calculated in accordance with his principle " greatest simplicity» the weight of the oxygen atom and some other elements turned out to be incorrect.
Rice. 3. D. Dalton.
True atomic masses are minuscule. A hydrogen atom weighs 1.674*10 to -24 grams, oxygen 26.67*10 to -24 grams, and carbon 19.993*10 to -24 grams.
transcript
1 E.V. Savinkina G.P. Loginova CHEMISTRY IN TABLES AND SCHEMES Reference manual classes Publishing house AST Moscow
2 UDC 373:54 BBC 24ya721 С13 С13 Savinkina, Elena Vladimirovna. Chemistry in tables and diagrams: reference guide: classes / E.V. Savinkina, G.P. Loginova. Moscow: AST Publishing House, (1) p. ISBN (LLC AST Publishing House) (New school program) ISBN (LLC "Publishing house AST") (Preparation for the unified state exam) In the reference book, in the form of accessible diagrams and tables, a school chemistry course is presented. Visual, simple and convenient presentation of the material contributes to its better assimilation and memorization. The book will effective help in the study of new and repetition of topics covered, as well as in preparation for the unified state exam in the course of chemistry. Chemistry teachers can use it in class as a reference circuits. UDC 373:54 LBC 24ya721 ISBN (LLC "AST Publishing House") (New school curriculum) ISBN (LLC "AST Publishing House") (Preparation for the unified state exam) Savinkina E.V., Loginova G.P. AST Publishing House LLC
3 CONTENTS Preface THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHEMISTRY The structure of the atom Table 1. Atom Table 2. Basic provisions quantum theory atom structure Table 3. Energy levels and sublevels Electronic configurations neutral atoms in the ground state for the elements of the first four periods Periodic Law DI. Mendeleev Table 7. Numbers of periods and groups Table 8. Patterns of changes in properties in groups Table 9. Patterns of changes in properties in periods Table 10. Changes in the composition and properties of hydrogen compounds, higher oxides and hydroxides of elements of the 3rd period of the periodic system
4 4 Chemical bonding Table 11. Types of chemical bonding Table 12. Description covalent bond Table 13. Covalent bond formation mechanisms Table 14. Multiple bonds Scheme 3. Orbital overlap Table 15. Molecule formulas Table 16. Chemical bond parameters Table 17. Valency. Oxidation state Table 18. Determination of the oxidation state Table 19. Types of crystal lattices Classification chemical reactions Table 20. Classification by change in the composition of substances Table 21. Classification by state of aggregation substances Table 22. Classification on the basis of reversibility Table 23. Classification on the basis of thermal effect Chemical reaction rate Table 24. Basic quantities Table 25. Dependence of the reaction rate on concentration Table 26. Change in the rate of a chemical reaction Chemical equilibrium Table 27. Le Chatelier's principle Table 28. Displacement chemical equilibrium Electrolytic dissociation Table 29. Dissociation products
5 Table 30. Some strong acids and bases Table 31. Degree of dissociation exchange reactions in solution Table 32. Berthollet rules Table 33. Molecular and ionic equations Hydrolysis Table 34. Hydrolysis of inorganic substances Table 35. Reversible hydrolysis of salts Table 36. Medium in solutions acid salts redox reactions electronic balance Table 44. Corrosion retardation Electrolysis Table 45. Electrodes Table 46. Electrolysis of melts Table 47. Electrolysis of solutions Reaction mechanisms in organic chemistry Table 48. Main reaction mechanisms
6 Table 49. Substitution reaction mechanism Table 50. Markovnikov's rule INORGANIC CHEMISTRY Classes of inorganic substances Table 51. Inorganic substances Table 52. Simple substances Table 53. The position of non-metals in the periodic system of elements Table 54. Compound substances Table 55. Ortho- and metaforms of hydroxides Table 56. Trivial names some oxygen-containing acids and their anions Table 57. Classification of hydroxides and oxides Table 58. Classification of salts Scheme 4. General classification inorganic substances Metals Table 59. Reactions of metals Non-metals Table 60. Reactions of non-metals Oxides Table 61. Reactions of basic oxides Table 62. Reactions acid oxides Table 63. Reactions of amphoteric oxides Bases and amphoteric hydroxides Table 64. Reactions of bases Table 65. Reactions amphoteric hydroxides
7 acids complex salts (hydroxocomplexes) Table 72. Decomposition of nitrates (depending on the position of metals in a series of voltages) Table 73. Decomposition of ammonium salts Interrelation of classes of inorganic substances Table 74. Transformations of inorganic substances ORGANIC CHEMISTRY Structure of organic substances Table 75. Theory of the structure of organic substances A. M. Butlerov Table 76. Types organic compounds Table 77. Carbon-carbon bonds Table 78. Carbon atom Table 79. Types of hybridization Table 80. Composition organic molecules Table 81. Classes of organic compounds .. 73 Table 82. Isomers Table 83. Mutual influence of atoms in molecules
8 8 Nomenclature of organic substances Table 84. Components of the names of organic compounds Table 85. Names of carbon chains Table 86. Designation of the degree of saturation of bonds Table 87. Names of characteristic groups of organic compounds Table 88. Names of some aromatic compounds Table 89. Names of some hydrocarbon radicals Table 90 Numeric prefixes (indicate the number of identical structural elements) Table 91. Composition of the name of the substance Hydrocarbons Table 92. Classification of hydrocarbons Table 93. Reactions of saturated hydrocarbons Table 94. Reactions unsaturated hydrocarbons Table 95 aromatic hydrocarbons Table 96. Reactions of haloalkanes Oxygen-containing organic compounds Table 97. Alcohols and phenols Table 98. Reactions of alcohols and phenols Table 99. Carbonyl compounds Table 100. Reactions of aldehydes and ketones Table 101. Carboxylic acids Table 102. Reactions of carboxylic acids Nitrogen-containing organic compounds Table 103. Amines Table 104. Reactions of amines
9 Table 105. Names of some natural amino acids Table 106. Properties of amino acids Biologically important substances Scheme 5. Fats Table 107. Carboxylic acids that make up fats Table 108. Carbohydrates Table 109. Structure levels of protein molecules Table 110. Chemical properties of proteins Table 111. Color reactions of proteins Relationship of organic compounds Table 112. Catalysts used in organic chemistry Scheme 6. genetic connection organic compounds METHODS OF KNOWLEDGE IN CHEMISTRY Work with substances and chemical equipment Table 113 chemical laboratory Table 114. Chemical glassware and equipment Table 115. Basic methods of work in a chemical laboratory Table 116. Rules for the use of substances in everyday life scientific methods studies of chemicals and transformations Table 117. Research methods Table 118. Methods for separating mixtures
10 Table 119. Indicator colors Table 120. Qualitative reactions for cations Table 121. Qualitative reactions for anions Table 122. Detection of gases Table 123. Recognition of organic compounds Methods for obtaining substances Table 124. Methods for obtaining simple substances Table 125. Methods for the production of oxides Table 126. Methods for the production of bases and amphoteric hydroxides Table 127. Methods for the production of acids Table 128. Methods for the production of salts Table 129. Methods for the production of saturated hydrocarbons Table 130. Methods for the production of alkenes Table 131. Methods for the production of alkynes (acetylene) Table 132. Methods for obtaining arenes (benzene) Table 133. Methods for obtaining monohydric alcohols Table 134 polyhydric alcohols Table 135. Methods for the production of phenols Table 136. Methods for the production of aldehydes and ketones Table 137. Methods for the production of carboxylic acids Industrial production of substances Table 138. Methods for the production of metals Table 139. Metallurgical methods Scheme 7. Domain process
11 Table 140. Some industrial processes Table 141. Products of fractional distillation of oil Table 142. Chemical processing of oil Table 143. Obtaining macromolecular compounds (polymers) Table 144. Classification of polymers chemical formulas and reaction equations physical conditions Table 150. Stoichiometric laws Table 151. Reaction equation calculations Table 152. Finding molecular formula substances APPENDICES Table 1. Periodic system elements D.I. Mendeleev Table 2. Chemical elements: serial number, atomic mass(rounded), electronegativity Table 3. Solubility inorganic compounds in water
12 FOREWORD To help schoolchildren and teachers, a manual is offered, which is a generalized presentation in visual tables and diagrams of all the basic rules, laws, formulas and calculations in the course of organic and inorganic chemistry. All major sections of chemistry studied in the classroom are included. This is the structure of the atom, the periodic law of D. I. Mendeleev, the structure of the periodic system chemical elements, types of chemical bonds, substances and mixtures, classes of inorganic compounds, classification of chemical reactions, chemical reaction rates and chemical equilibrium, reaction mechanisms in organic chemistry, metals and non-metals and their properties, Chemical properties complex substances, the relationship of classes of inorganic substances, organic substances and their structure, the composition of organic molecules, isomers, the nomenclature of organic substances, hydrocarbons, their classification and properties, nitrogen-containing organic compounds, biologically important substances, the structure and properties of protein molecules, carbohydrates, the relationship of organic compounds . In addition, the manual describes the basic rules and methods of work in a chemical laboratory, gives the characteristics of chemical
13 courts and equipment, examples of calculations based on formulas and equations of reactions, as well as examples of qualitative reactions are offered. The appendix to the manual contains the periodic table of elements of D. I. Mendeleev, a table of the solubility of inorganic compounds in water. A brief and concise presentation of the material will help students independently or with the help of a teacher to repeat the school chemistry course and successfully prepare for the unified state exam in grade 11. The structure of the manual corresponds to the structure of the codifier of content elements in chemistry for compiling control measurements USE materials and corresponds to the logic of study and repetition school course chemistry. Accepted in the manual the following abbreviations: conc. concentrated solution, n. y. at normal conditions, oh. razb. very dilute solution, pract. practical, razb. dilute solution, theor. theoretical.
14 THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHEMISTRY STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM Atom Table 1 Electrons (e) Nucleus protons (p +) neutrons (n 0) Mass number(BUT) total number protons and neutrons in an atomic nucleus The charge of the nucleus of an atom (Z) is equal to the number protons in the nucleus and the number of electrons in the atom A \u003d N (n 0) + N (p +) Z \u003d N (p +) \u003d N (e) impossibility of determining the electron trajectory (uncertainty principle) 14
15 Energy levels and sublevels Table 3 Energy levels (EL) Energy sublevels(EPU) Number of electrons 1 1s 2 2 2s 2p 3 3s 3p 3d 4 4s 4p 4d 4f atomic orbital(AO) characterizes the area of space in which the probability of the stay of an electron having a certain energy is the greatest. Orbital shapes Scheme 1 s-orbital p-orbital 15
Unified state exam in CHEMISTRY qualifier of content elements and requirements for the level of training of graduates educational organizations for a unified state exam in chemistry
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1. THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHEMISTRY
1.1. Chemical element 8
1.1.1. Modern ideas about the structure of the atom. The structure of the electron shells of atoms
elements of the first four periods: s-, p- and d-elements. The electronic configuration of the atom. Basic and excited state atoms 8
1.1.2. Periodic law and Periodic system of chemical elements of D. I. Mendeleev.
Radii of atoms, their periodic changes in the system of chemical elements. Patterns of changes in the chemical properties of elements and their compounds by periods and groups 30
1.2. Chemical bond and structure of matter 33
1.2.1. covalent chemical bond, its varieties (polar and non-polar), formation mechanisms. Characteristics of a covalent bond (bond length and energy). Ionic bond. metal connection. hydrogen bond 33
1.2.2. Electronegativity. The degree of oxidation and valence of chemical elements 40
1.2.3. Substances of molecular and non-molecular structure. The dependence of the properties of substances on their features crystal lattice 41
1.3. Not organic chemistry 45
1.3.1. Classification and nomenclature of inorganic substances 45
1.3.2. general characteristics metals of the main subgroups of groups I-III in connection with their position in the Periodic system of chemical elements of D. I. Mendeleev and the features of the structure of their atoms 46
1.3.3. Characteristic transition elements- copper, zinc, chromium, iron - according to their position in the Periodic system of chemical elements of D.I. Mendeleev and the features of the structure of their atoms 47
1.3.4. General characteristics of non-metals of the main subgroups of IV-VII groups in connection with their position in the Periodic system of chemical elements of D.I. Mendeleev and structural features of their atoms 49
1.3.5. Characteristic chemical properties of simple substances - metals: alkali, alkaline earth, aluminum, transition metals(copper, zinc, chromium, iron) 53
1.3.6. Characteristic chemical properties of simple substances - non-metals: hydrogen, halogens, oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen, phosphorus, carbon, silicon 71
1.3.7. Characteristic chemical properties of oxides: basic, amphoteric, acidic 106
1.3.8. Characteristic chemical properties of bases and amphoteric hydroxides 109
1.3.9. Characteristic chemical properties of acids 113
1.3.10. Characteristic chemical properties of salts: medium, acidic, basic; complex (by the example of aluminum and zinc compounds). . . 118
1.4. Organic chemistry 128
1.4.1. Theory of the structure of organic compounds. Isomerism - structural and spatial. Homologs and homologous series 128
1.4.2. Types of bonds in molecules of organic substances. Hybridization of atomic orbitals of carbon. Radical. Functional group 133
1.4.3. Classification and nomenclature of organic compounds 135
1.4.4. Characteristic chemical properties of hydrocarbons: alkanes, cycloalkanes, alkenes, dienes, alkynes 138
1.4.5. Characteristic chemical properties of aromatic hydrocarbons: benzene and toluene 148
1.4.6. Characteristic chemical properties of saturated monohydric and polyhydric alcohols; phenol 152
1.4.7. Characteristic chemical properties of aldehydes, saturated carboxylic acids, esters 157
1.4.8. Characteristic chemical properties of nitrogen-containing organic compounds: amines and amino acids 163
1.4.9. Biologically important substances: fats, proteins, carbohydrates (monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides) 166
1.5. Chemical reaction 172
1.5.1. Classification of chemical reactions in inorganic and organic chemistry 172
1.5.2. Thermal effect of a chemical reaction. Thermochemical equations 174
1.5.3. The reaction rate, its dependence on various factors 175
1.5.4. Reversible and irreversible chemical reactions. chemical balance. Displacement of chemical equilibrium under the influence of various factors 177
1.5.5. Electrolytic dissociation of electrolytes in aqueous solutions. Strong and weak electrolytes 179
1.5.6. Ion exchange reactions 182
1.5.7. Salt hydrolysis. Wednesday aqueous solutions: acidic, neutral, alkaline 183
1.5.8. Redox reactions. Corrosion of metals and methods of protection against it. . 185
1.5.9. Electrolysis of melts and solutions (salts, alkalis, acids) 188
1.5.10. Mechanisms of substitution and addition reactions in organic chemistry. Rule V. V. Markovnikov 189
1.5.11. Reactions confirming the relationship various classes 191
2. METHODS OF KNOWLEDGE OF SUBSTANCES AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS
2.1. Experimental Foundations chemistry 193
2.1.1. Rules for working in the laboratory. Safety rules for working with caustic, flammable and toxic substances, household chemicals 193
2.1.2. Scientific methods for the study of chemicals and transformations. Methods for separating mixtures and purifying substances 195
2.1.3. Determination of the nature of the environment of aqueous solutions of substances. Indicators 196
2.1.4. quality responses to inorganic substances and ions. Identification of organic compounds 196
2.2. General methods obtaining substances 203
2.2.1. General methods for obtaining metals. General scientific principles chemical production (for example industrial production ammonia, sulfuric acid, methanol) 204
2.2.2. natural springs and processing of hydrocarbons 207
2.2.3. Macromolecular compounds. Reactions of polymerization and polycondensation. Polymers. Plastics, fibers, rubbers 209
2.2.4. Reactions characterizing the main properties and methods of obtaining 212
2.3. Calculations by chemical formulas and reaction equations 217
2.3.1. Calculation of the mass of a solute contained in a certain mass of a solution with a known mass fraction 224
2.3.2. Calculations: volumetric relations gases in chemical reactions 225
2.3.3. Calculation of the mass of a substance or volume of gases from a known amount of a substance, mass or volume of one of the substances participating in the reaction 226
2.3.4. Calculation thermal effect reactions 229
2.3.5. Calculation of the mass (volume, amount of substance) of the reaction products, if one of the substances is given in excess (has impurities) 231
2.3.6. Calculation of the mass (volume, amount of substance) of the reaction product, if one of the substances is given as a solution with a certain mass fraction of the dissolved substance 233
2.3.7. Finding the molecular formula of a substance. 234
2.3.8. Calculation of mass or volume fraction yield of the reaction product from the theoretically possible 236
2.3.9. Calculation of the mass fraction (mass) chemical compound mixed 238
This reference guide contains superimposed in a concise and accessible form the main material of the school chemistry course: general chemistry, inorganic chemistry, organic chemistry. The manual is designed in the form of tables and diagrams. Recommended for schoolchildren, applicants and school teachers.
Periodic law.
The properties of chemical elements, as well as the forms and properties of compounds of elements, are in a periodic dependence on the charge of the nuclei of their atoms.
1. Serial number of the element - equal to the charge nucleus and the number of electrons.
2. Period number - the number of levels.
3. Group number - valency (maximum positive degree oxidation).
4. Metal properties elements increase from top to bottom and from right to left. These properties are exhibited by elements with a small number of valence electrons.
GENERAL CHEMISTRY
Basic concepts and laws of chemistry.
Atomic-molecular doctrine.
Moth. Molar mass substances.
Chemical reactions.,
The law of conservation of mass of matter.
The law of the constancy of the composition of matter.
gas laws.
Periodic law of D.I. Mendeleev.
The structure of the atom.
Model of the state of an electron in an atom.
Periodic law.
Chemical bond.
covalent bond.
Ionic bond.
polar molecules. non-polar molecules.
Metal connection.
Hydrogen bond.
Crystal cell. Types of crystal lattices.
Structural formulas.
The degree of oxidation.
Valence.
The rate of chemical reactions, chemical equilibrium.
Activation energy.
The concept of catalysis and catalysts.
Reversible and irreversible reactions.
chemical balance. Le Chatelier's principle.
Solutions. Theory electrolytic dissociation.
Numerical expression of the composition of solutions.
Solubility of substances in water.
Thermal phenomena during dissolution.
Electrolytes and non-electrolytes.
Theory of electrolytic dissociation. Mechanism.
Dissociation of acids, bases and salts in aqueous solutions.
Degree of dissociation. Ion exchange reactions.
dissociation of water.
The most important classes of inorganic compounds.
Oxides.
Acids.
Hydroxides.
Salt.
Redox reactions.
Theory of redox reactions.
Drawing up equations of redox reactions.
Influence of the environment on the nature of the reactions.
Classification.
Electrolysis.
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY.
Hydrogen.
Hydrogen compounds.
alkali metals. I group. Main subgroup.
alkaline earth metals. IIA group. (Calcium).
Group III A elements (Aluminum).
Group IV A elements (Carbon, silicon).
Elements of the UA group (nitrogen, phosphorus).
Elements VIA group. Chalcogens (oxygen, sulfur).
Elements of group VIIA. Halogens (Chlorine).
Elements of secondary subgroups.
Chromium subgroup.
subgroup of iron.
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.
Hydrocarbons.
Limit hydrocarbons.
unsaturated hydrocarbons.
aromatic hydrocarbons.
Oxygen-containing organic compounds.
Alcohols.
Phenols.
Aldehydes.g.
Polycondensation.
Ketones.
carboxylic acids.
Complex ethers.
Nitrogen-containing organic compounds.
Amines.
Aniline.
Amino acids.
Squirrels.
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