It is not for nothing that today we formulated the topic of our article in this way - not where it is, but whether it exists at all. And already on this issue, one can guess that everything is not so simple here, although is it any wonder when it comes to such an unusual country as Switzerland. In order for all the disparate, multilingual parts of this country to remain united, sometimes it is necessary to find extremely non-standard solutions, as happened in the case of the choice of the capital of the Confederation.

History reference

Until the end of the 18th century, in the history of Switzerland, when the capital was mentioned, the most different names cities, from the well-known Zurich to the less popular Baden. This was explained by the fact that the capital was called the place of worship - the city in which the government and parliament were located. Every year they changed their place, trying not to deprive any region of the country of their attention, which is quite suitable for the general concept of solidarity of citizens.

During the short period of Napoleon's reign, the country changed three capitals, after which it returned to its previous practice, but by that time, the authorities were increasingly thinking about creating one place where government bodies would be located. The reason is clear - the process of moving, which, at first, took place every year, and then a year later, is quite difficult and costly. After spending 45 years in this regime, Parliament finally decided to abolish the principle of a transferable capital.

Is it really necessary, the capital of Switzerland?

On the topic of where the parliament will be located and what city will have proud title, the debate began. Opinions diverged between several options, each of which instantly found a lot of questions. So, it was hotly debated:

• Can the capital of a canton also become the capital of a country?
• If you choose a large city, won't its strengthening cause a protest from the rest?
• If you choose a small locality- wouldn't it distort life too much for the local population?
• Is it advisable to create the planned capital, and if so, where to locate it and how much money and time will be required to create the necessary infrastructure?

Trying to find the correct answers to all questions, the government eventually decided to choose one of several cities that are the most adapted, respectively, requiring the least effort and cost to transform into the capital. It remained only to choose the candidates, among whom in the end there were three: Zurich, Bern, Lucerne.

Each of the candidates had significant pluses and minuses that prevented them from making a choice. Zurich could be called ideal option- the city had sufficient infrastructure and it itself was developed, but it was the latter that turned out to be negative factor. And without that strong city would have developed even more, which would have caused protests from other cantons. Lucerne was favorable because of its central location, but because it is Catholic, there was little chance that other cantons would support it.

Location of federal agencies

The third candidate, Bern, was conveniently located in a central location, but did not have the necessary infrastructure, which meant significant costs. As a result, the choice fell on Bern - the majority of the members of the national council and the council of cantons voted for him. The second stage was a vote at the community level - whether it agrees to host the parliament and the government, since this will entail large expenses that will fall, among other things, on the shoulders of the residents.

With a slight margin, the result of the vote was positive, the place of presence was established, but the question remained - is it legally necessary? There were many doubts, but the result was the decision to elevate Bern to the status of "seat of the federal government." This was the answer to the question - since the word capital does not appear in the documents - Bern is it only in a general sense, but not legally.

Capitals by all parameters

Since the situation with the capital is not yet complicated enough, the Swiss decided to add fuel to the fire. So, Bern, one might say, political and most capital of the world, since the governing bodies are located there, but according to the same principle, the locals attributed a couple more capitals to their country. Thus, Zurich was named the economic center of the Confederation, and Geneva was named the diplomatic center. And, in fact, the way it is - the Swiss have not in vain marked these two cities with such a status.

Posted in
Tagged ,

Many people hesitate when answering the question of which is the capital in a country like Switzerland: Bern or Geneva. The first of the mentioned cities is the main administrative, political and diplomatic center of the state. In addition, based on the provisions of UNESCO, since the end of the twentieth century, its ancient part has been included in the list of the largest world cultural heritage. Geneva is one of the largest diplomatic centers international activities. Many conferences, meetings and meetings are held here all year round, in which leaders of almost all countries of the planet take part. This is where the confusion comes from. Be that as it may, the correct answer to the question of which capital is in Switzerland is only one - this is Bern.

Brief history of foundation

The city is one of the most beautiful and oldest in Europe. It retained a large number architectural monuments middle ages. Bern was founded in 1191 by Duke Berthold V. Ancient chronicles indicate that during the hunt he liked the picturesque view that opened onto steep slopes overgrown with mighty oaks, pines and firs. It was then that the duke came up with the idea to found a city here and name it after the beast that would become the first prey. The bear turned out to be such an animal, and the future capital of Switzerland (photos are below) was named Bern (translated from German, “baeren” means “bears”). Related to this is the fact that the sculptures of this beast are installed everywhere, and the central square is named after him. Moreover, his image is also on the city symbols.

big fire

Initially, during the construction of the city, mainly oak forest was used. In 1405, there was a strong fire that destroyed more than 550 houses. Moreover, the disaster claimed the lives of almost a hundred people. In this regard, in the future, the buildings were built of stone. In a short period of time, Bern has become big shopping mall and conquered many territories. For a very long time it was the center of one of the cantons, a member of the Confederation and the residence of the local ruler. Since 1638, the local landscape has not changed much. After the formation of Switzerland as a single state in 1848, the city was proclaimed the administrative center of the country.

Flag and coat of arms

Like all other cities, the capital of Switzerland has its own symbolism. Its flag is a red square panel. From the shaft from top to bottom to the tip, it is intersected by a wide golden stripe. In the center is the image of a black bear, borrowed from the official coat of arms of Bern, which will be discussed later. This symbol is made in the form of a heraldic shield of the Spanish traditional form. Its main field is red. The shield is crossed diagonally by a golden stripe, thus in general terms repeating the design of the flag mentioned above. Moreover, there is also a stylized black bearish profile on the coat of arms. The animal itself stands on all its paws, and its tongue and claws are red.

general description

The city of Bern (Switzerland) is located in the southern part of the Swiss plateau, on the banks of the Aare River. If you look at the map of the state, then the administrative center can be seen in the central part. The local relief is uneven, and the historical part of the city lies on a hill, at an altitude of 542 meters above sea level. The population of Bern is just over 134 thousand people. Its total area is 51.6 square kilometers. The city is very green, but the vegetation is mostly artificial. Indeed, local residents pay quite a lot of attention to street gardening, installing flower baskets, garlands and pots on balconies, in windows and next to houses.

Climate

The capital of Switzerland is located in the intermediate zone between the continental temperate and maritime humid climate. This explains the fact that there is neither debilitating heat nor severe frosts here. The most comfortable time to stay in Bern is the period that starts in mid-April and ends at the end of September. The fact is that at this time the air temperature is in the range from 18 to 27 degrees above zero. Moreover, during this period, the sun almost constantly shines brightly, and rains, if they happen, are of a short duration. In winter, the city is quite cold and overcast, and the air temperature ranges from 1 to 5 degrees Celsius.

Urban transport

Walking around the central part of the city is very pleasant on foot. At the same time, you can use the services of public transport. The capital of Switzerland has a fairly developed network of bus and tram routes. You can buy tickets from vending machines at bus stops. The fare for six stops is US$1.9. If you need to travel a lot, it is recommended to buy a ticket for the whole day, for which you need to pay twelve dollars. Night buses also run in Bern, the fare for which is five dollars. Quite popular in last years there is a bike rental. It should be noted that the first four hours of this service are free. After the expiration of this time, you will have to pay one dollar for each additional hour. The only caveat is that for rent you must leave a passport and twenty dollars as a deposit.

Accommodation

In Bern there are a large number of hotels, hotels and hostels of various levels of comfort. Along with this, it should be noted that the capital of Switzerland (like the whole country) is quite expensive in terms of living. Indeed, for an overnight stay in the simplest two-star hotel, you will have to pay at least fifty dollars. Such payment is considered very high even by European standards. In general, the city is dominated by hotels whose degree of comfort is rated at three or four stars. The cost of rooms in them ranges from 100 to 800 dollars per day.

Main attractions

The capital of Switzerland, Bern, is convenient for tourists because most of the local attractions are concentrated in its historical center. It, in turn, is located in close proximity to the railway station. One of the most popular places among tourists is the Bear Pit, which is an open enclosure with animal symbols of the city. In addition, there is also a park with these animals and a large number of their sculptures. Nearby is a baroque church, whose history dates back to the Middle Ages. Directly on the Bear Square rises a massive tower called "Kefigturm".

Separate words deserve a fountain, which at the same time frightens and attracts with its original name - "Child Eater". Several centuries ago, it was built to frighten little sinners in case of their bad behavior. The belfry of the Zytgloggeturm, which dates from the twelfth century, has become iconic place for Bern. It has a large clock that shows not only the time, but also the days of the week, the month and even the phases of the moon with the signs of the zodiac. One of the most beautiful streets in all of Switzerland is Kramgasse. There are many old houses here, in one of which Albert Einstein once lived. It should also be noted the building of the Federal Parliament, the Cathedral, the Clock Museum, as well as the Alpine, Postal and Historical Museums.

SWITZERLAND
Swiss Confederation, state in Central Europe. By state structure - federal Republic. The area of ​​the country is 41.3 thousand square meters. km. In the north it borders with Germany, in the west with France, in the south with Italy, in the east with Austria and Liechtenstein. northern border partly runs along Lake Constance and the Rhine, which begins in the center of the Swiss Alps and forms part of the eastern border. The western border runs along the Jura mountains, the southern - along the Italian Alps and Lake Geneva. The capital of Switzerland is Bern.

Switzerland. The capital is Bern. Population - 7100 thousand people (1997). Population density: 172 people per 1 sq. km. Urban population - 61%, rural - 39% (1996). Area - 41.3 thousand square meters. km. The highest point is Dufour Peak (4634 m above sea level). The lowest point is 192 m above sea level. National languages ​​- German, French, Italian, Romansh. The main religions are Catholicism, Protestantism. Administrative-territorial division - 20 cantons and 6 semi-cantons. Monetary unit: Swiss franc = 100 rappenam (centimes). National holiday: Founding Day of the Confederation ("Oath of Rütli") - 1 August. National Anthem: "Swiss Psalm"

NATURE
Surface structure. Three natural regions are distinguishable on the territory of Switzerland: the Jura mountain range in the northwest, the Swiss plateau (plateau) in the center and the Alps in the southeast. The Jura Mountains, separating Switzerland and France, stretch from Geneva to Basel and Schaffhausen. They alternate mountain folds with a predominance of limestone and valleys; folds in places cut through small rivers, forming valleys with steep slopes (clouses). Agriculture is possible only in the valleys; the gentle slopes of the mountains are covered with forests or used as pastures. The Swiss plateau was formed on the site of a trough between the Jura and the Alps, which was filled with loose glacial deposits in the Pleistocene and is currently cut by numerous rivers. The surface of the plateau is hilly, agriculture is developed in wide valleys, and the interfluves are covered with forests. Most of the country's population is concentrated here, big cities and industrial centers. The most fertile agricultural lands and pastures are concentrated in the same region. Almost all southern half Switzerland is occupied by the Alps. These high, uneven, snow-covered mountains are dissected by deep gorges. In the ridge zone there are firn fields and glaciers (10% of the country's territory). The wide bottom of the main valleys is used for fields and arable land. The area is sparsely populated. The Alps serve as the main source of income, since the picturesque nature of the highlands attracts many tourists and climbers. The highest peaks are Dufour peak (4634 m) in the Monte Rosa massif on the border with Italy, Dom (4545 m), Weisshorn (4505 m), Matterhorn (4477 m), Grand Combin (4314 m), Finsterarhorn (4274 m ) and Jungfrau (4158 m).

Rivers and lakes. Most of Switzerland is irrigated by the Rhine and its tributary Aare (the most important of its tributaries are the Reuss and the Limmat). The southwestern regions belong to the drainage basin of the Rhone, the southern regions to the Ticino basin and the southeastern regions to the basin of the Inn River (a tributary of the Danube). The rivers of Switzerland have no navigable value. On the Rhine, navigation is supported only as far as Basel. Switzerland is famous for its lakes, the most picturesque of them are located along the edges of the Swiss plateau - Geneva, Thun in the south, Firwaldstet, Zurich in the east, Neuchâtel and Biel in the north. Most of these lakes are of glacial origin: they were formed during an era when large glaciers descended from the mountains to the Swiss plateau. South of the axis of the Alps in the canton of Ticino are the lakes of Lugano and Lago Maggiore.

Climate. In Switzerland, there are pronounced climatic differences due to altitude and exposure to the sun and winds. The climate is humid, on the plateau - moderately warm, in the mountains - cold. Daily temperatures in the lowlands fluctuate on average during the year from 10 to 16°C, in summer they rise to 27°C or more. The hottest month is July, the coldest month is January. The highest peaks of the Alps are covered with eternal snows. The snow line rises to 2700 m on the western slopes and up to 3200 m on the eastern slopes. In winter, the temperature drops below 0 ° C throughout the country, with the exception of the northern shore of Lake Geneva and the shores of lakes Lugano and Lago Maggiore, part of which belongs to Italy. The climate there is as mild as in northern Italy, because the mountains protect against the intrusion of cold northern winds (bizet). In January-February, under conditions of high pressure over the Alps, clear cold weather sets in, favorable for winter sports. The southern slopes at this time receive a lot of solar heat. In Switzerland, sharp strong winds are frequent, accompanied by rain and snowfalls. Foehns prevail in spring, summer and autumn - warm dry winds blowing from the east and southeast. Since the currents of moist air from the side mediterranean sea rise up the slopes of the Alps, and then descend to the Swiss plateau, on the southern slopes of precipitation almost twice as much as on the northern ones. The average annual precipitation in Basel (277 m above sea level) is 810 mm, in Lausanne (375 m) on the northern shore of Lake Geneva - 1040 mm, and in Davos (1580 m) in the southeast of the country - 970 mm.
Flora and fauna. The Swiss Plateau is located in the zone of European broadleaf forests. The predominant species are oak and beech, sometimes pine is mixed with them. On the southern slope of the Alps, the chestnut tree is typical. Higher up the slopes of the mountains, coniferous forests grow, forming a transitional belt between broad-leaved forests and alpine meadows (at high altitudes). There are many bright colors in the mountains. In spring, crocuses and daffodils bloom, in summer - rhododendrons, saxifrage, gentian and edelweiss. The animal world has experienced a strong influence of human economic activity. While the snow partridge and mountain hare are still quite common, such characteristic animals of the upper tiers as roe deer, marmot and chamois are much less common. Great efforts are being made to protect wildlife. In the Swiss National Park, located near the border with Austria, roe deer and chamois live, less often - alpine ibex and fox; there are also white partridge and several species of birds of prey.
POPULATION
ethnic groups. The Swiss constitute a close-knit national community, although the population consists of ethnic groups speaking different languages ​​​​(German, French, Italian and Romansh) and often differing in religion. However, mutual tolerance and goodwill allow them to live and work in one country. A typical national image of the Swiss was formed - a short, stocky brown-haired or blond with brown or gray eyes, having a reputation as an enterprising, hardworking person with business acumen. Many Swiss hold key positions in the economy of other countries. There are many foreigners living in Switzerland. In 1997, foreign workers and other foreigners made up 19.4% of the country's population. Most of the unskilled work in Switzerland is done by foreign workers, who come mainly from Italy and other countries in southern and eastern Europe.
Languages. The official languages ​​of Switzerland are German, French and Italian. Romansh, which is derived from Latin and also has national status, is spoken by approximately 1% of the country's population. The most common German language: its local dialect - Alemannic (Schwitzerduch) - is used by 73% of Swiss citizens and 64% of the country's population. French is spoken approx. 19% of the population, predominantly in the cantons of Geneva, Vaud, Neuchâtel, Friborg and Valais. On the Italian says ok. 4% of Swiss citizens (mainly in the canton of Ticino), and taking into account foreign workers - 8% of the country's population. Romansh is spoken only in the mountainous canton of Graubünden.
Religion. In the late 1990s, 46% of the Swiss population were Catholics, 40% were Protestants. The proportion of Protestants declined after World War II due to the influx of foreign workers, predominantly Catholics. As a result of a national referendum in 1973, two articles of the constitution were repealed, which prohibited the activities of the Jesuit order and the formation of religious orders. Confessional differences in Switzerland do not always coincide with linguistic boundaries. Among the Protestants one can find both French-speaking Calvinists and German-speaking followers of Zwingli. The centers of German-speaking Protestantism are Zurich, Bern and Appenzell. The majority of French-speaking Protestants live in the canton of Geneva and the neighboring cantons of Vaud and Neuchâtel. Catholics predominate in central Switzerland around the city of Lucerne, in most of the French-speaking cantons of Friborg and Valais, and in the Italian-speaking canton of Ticino. There are small Jewish communities in Zurich, Basel and Geneva.
Population. In 1997, the population of Switzerland was 7097 thousand people and was concentrated mainly in the lowland areas. highest density The population is distinguished by large industrial centers - Zurich, Basel and Geneva. The largest cities in the country (population in thousands in 1997): Zurich (339), Geneva (173), Basel (171), Bern (124), Lausanne (114), Winterthur (87), St. Gallen (71) and Lucerne (58).

STATE AND POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
Federalism and Democracy. The basic principles of the Swiss constitution of 1874 are federalism and democracy. Article 3 of the constitution guarantees to the 20 cantons and 6 half-cantons into which Switzerland is divided all the rights of self-government, with the exception of those that are the prerogative of the federal government. These include the declaration of war and the conclusion of peace, the signing international treaties and entry into unions, training, material support and management of the armed forces, regulation of foreign trade. The federal government and the cantons have the right to impose taxes. In addition, the federal government exercises control over communications, higher education, and labor. The adoption of the principle of federalism played a significant role in uniting the very heterogeneous canton states into the first all-Swiss union state in 1848. Over time, the federal government became more active in influencing all aspects of the life of the country. Nevertheless, the Swiss still feel a strong attachment to their native cantons and their traditions. Until 1971, Switzerland was one of the few countries in the world where women did not have the right to vote at the national level. In February 1971, the male electorate approved a constitutional amendment that gave the country's women the right to vote and be elected in federal elections. At the cantonal level voting rights women were delayed: in the German-speaking semi-canton of Appenzell-Innerrhoden, women finally gained the right to vote only in 1991. In the electoral rights, the Swiss constitution includes mandatory referenda on all constitutional amendments, popular initiatives to put forward such amendments, and legislative referendums on certain laws and contracts. The same rights, often in conjunction with legislative initiative, apply at the cantonal and local levels. In addition, some cantons retained direct democracy in the form of general meeting residents (Landsgemeinde): this is a system of direct participation of all the voters of a canton or locality in the approval of certain laws and the election of officials. Following a referendum held in March 1991, the voting age for federal elections was lowered from 20 to 18.
Political system. The main organs of the Swiss Confederation are the federal council, the federal assembly and the federal court. The executive body is the federal council of seven members elected by parliament for a term of four years. The only formal limitation on the composition of this body is that only one deputy can be elected from each canton. However, in fact, the composition of the council is strictly limited by tradition: for example, it must necessarily represent the main geographical areas countries and two of the language groups (French and Italian). Since 1959, the composition of the council has, as far as possible, reflected the influence of the main political parties. Each year, one of the members of the council is elected President of Switzerland, but this position is not vested with special powers. The legislative body of Switzerland - the federal assembly - consists of two chambers: the council of cantons, to which two representatives are elected from each canton and one from each half-canton, and a national council of 200 deputies, elected in proportion to the population of the cantons. The Assembly is elected for a term of four years. It has the usual legislative powers, but some laws must be approved by popular referendum. The Federal Court of Switzerland is located in Lausanne, the other main government bodies are in Bern. The federal court functions as the country's supreme court, although it cannot declare federal laws unconstitutional. There are no lower federal courts, since the cantonal courts are responsible for the application of federal laws at the lower levels. The federal court is composed of 26-28 judges and 11-13 jurors, sitting in separate rooms, depending on the nature of the case. The members of the court are elected by the federal assembly for a term of six years. At the cantonal level, executive power is exercised by a state or government council, which consists of 5 to 11 members, headed by the president (Landmann). Council members are elected by the people of the cantons for a term of 4 years (except Friborg, Appenzell-Ausserrhoden and Appenzell-Innerrhoden) and in some smaller cantons work on a voluntary basis. Most cantons have a single legislature - a grand council, land council, or canton council, also elected for a four-year term. The legal bodies of the canton are represented by courts of two or three levels, depending on the size of the canton. Most of the local features of Swiss justice were eliminated with the introduction of a unified national code of civil, commercial and criminal law in 1942.
Political parties. Switzerland has a multi-party system. On the right wing is the Christian Democratic People's Party (formerly the Conservative Social Christian or Conservative Catholic). She sees her main task in defending the teachings and institutions of the Roman Catholic Church and in upholding the rights of the cantons. On the left is the Social Democratic (or Socialist) Party, which advocates broad social reforms, including greater state participation in the country's economic life, but respecting the partnership between the state and private enterprise. At the center of the political spectrum is the Radical Democratic Party of Switzerland. She was truly radical by the standards of the 19th century when she set the policy of the country. AT modern conditions this party has become relatively conservative. Each of the three parties holds about a fifth of all seats in the national council. This balance of power is maintained from election to election, which provides Switzerland with political harmony and stability. Since 1959, each of these parties has had two of the seven seats in the Federal Council, and the remaining seat is occupied by a representative of the largest of the other parties, the Swiss People's Party (formerly the Party of Peasants, Craftsmen and Burghers). Other smaller parties include the Greens, the Union of Independents, Liberal Party and the Freedom Party former Party motorists). The latter, formed in 1985, defends the rights of car drivers and advocates for the restriction of immigration. The Swiss Armed Forces are based on the National Militia system. Military service- universal and compulsory for all men between the ages of 20 and 50, with periodic fees. In the mid-1990s, in the event of full mobilization, the Swiss army would have numbered 625 thousand people. The country's air force consists of 250 combat units. There are no soldiers among the professional military personnel: there are 1,600 officers and sergeants who serve as instructors.
Switzerland as an international center. Switzerland adheres to the traditional policy of neutrality and therefore does not join the UN. However, it takes part in the work of all specialized organizations of the UN; Geneva is home to the headquarters of the World Trade Organization, the International Labor Organization, the World Health Organization, International Union telecommunications, the World Meteorological Organization and the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. Other organizations based in Switzerland are the World Council of Churches and the International Red Cross founded by the Swiss Henri Dunant.
ECONOMY
General characteristics. Switzerland is poor in natural resources, except for hydropower. Nevertheless, it is a prosperous country, in many respects the richest in Europe, primarily due to the high development of manufacturing and services (tourism is especially important). During the period 1950-1990, the economy developed steadily, unemployment was kept low, inflation was kept in check by the Swiss National Bank, and the downturns in business activity were short-lived. The economic recession that engulfed most of Europe in the early 1990s also affected Switzerland: unemployment reached its highest level since 1939, and inflation rose. Nevertheless, the standard of living in the country remained still very high. In 1997, the gross domestic product (GDP) of Switzerland was nominally estimated at 365 billion Swiss francs, in reality - at 316 billion. In per capita terms - 51.4 thousand Swiss francs (nominally) and 44.5 thousand (real).
Labor resources. In 1996, approximately 28% of the working population of Switzerland was employed in industry (in 1996 it was estimated at 3.8 million people) in rural and forestry- 5% and 6% - in the service sector. Of these last ca. 23% worked in hotels, restaurants, wholesale and retail trade, approx. 11% - in banking and credit, insurance and entrepreneurship, approx. 6% in the transport and communications system. The unemployment rate in Switzerland in 1997 was 5.2%. In the same year, there were 936 thousand foreign workers who had a temporary residence permit in the country, of which 30% were Italians and 15% were Yugoslavs. In the early 1960s, the share of foreigners in the labor resources reached 30%, but at the end of the same decade was reduced to 15% as a result of restrictions imposed by the Swiss government. During the 1990s, foreign workers accounted for over 25% of all employed. They perform most of the work that does not require qualifications, many of them are employed in construction, metallurgy and engineering.
Industry. The high standard of living of the Swiss population was achieved thanks to the large-scale development of various industries. The Swiss watch industry has won world fame, concentrated mainly in the western part of the country (La Chaux-de-Fonds, Neuchâtel, Geneva) and Schaffhausen, Thun, Bern and Olten. In the 1970s, due to competition from East Asian countries, this sector of the Swiss economy was in a severe crisis, but in the 1980s it was overcome by issuing inexpensive electronic clock. The textile industry, the oldest in the country, was for many years the most important industry. However, during the Second World War there was a shift in favor of metallurgy and the chemical industry, and throughout the 1980s the production of machinery and equipment developed rapidly. In the 1990s, the production of chemical products and medicines, scientific and measuring instruments, optical instruments, machine tools and foodstuffs, especially cheese and chocolate, played a large role. Footwear, paper, leather and rubber products stood out among other industrial products.
International trade. Switzerland's highly developed foreign trade is based on the export of industrial products such as machinery, watches, medicines, electronic equipment, chemicals and clothing. In 1991, the share of manufacturing products accounted for approx. 90% of the country's export earnings. Export structure in 1997: 20% - machinery and equipment; 9% - electrical machinery and equipment; 9% - products organic chemistry; 9% - pharmaceutical products; 6% - precision instruments and watches, 6% - precious metals, 4% - artificial materials. The Swiss foreign trade balance usually had a deficit, which was traditionally covered by the import of foreign capital, income from the export of capital, income from foreign tourism, insurance and transportation. In the mid-1990s, thanks to an improvement in imports, a small positive balance of foreign trade was achieved for the first time: in 1997, the value of exports amounted to 105.1 billion Swiss francs, and imports - 103.1 billion. Leading foreign trade partners of Switzerland are the Federal Republic of Germany, the USA, Italy, France and UK. Switzerland was one of the founding countries of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) in 1959, in 1972 Swiss voters approved a free trade agreement with the European Economic Community (now the European Union, EU), in 1977 all duties on manufactured goods were abolished. In 1992, Switzerland applied for EU membership, but later that year, Swiss voters voted against the country's entry into the European Economic Area (EEA). This project was aimed at facilitating the free movement of labor, goods, services and capital in 7 EFTA countries and 12 EU countries. After that, Switzerland concluded an agreement with the EU on limited participation in the EEA; as a result, Switzerland has reduced duties on goods transported through its territory by EU member states.
Agriculture. About 12% of the area of ​​Switzerland is used for arable land and another 28% for extensive cattle breeding and dairy production. Approximately one third of the country's territory is occupied by unproductive lands (according to at least unsuitable for agriculture), especially in the cantons of Uri, Valais and Grisons, and a quarter is covered with forests. Not surprisingly, 40% of food products have to be imported. At the same time, Switzerland provides itself with wheat, meat and dairy products are produced in excess. The main centers of agriculture are concentrated in the cantons of Bern, Vaud, Zurich, Friborg and Aargau. The main crops are wheat, potatoes and sugar beets. In 1996, there were 1,772,000 cattle in the country (of which about 40% were dairy cows), 1,580,000 pigs, 442,000 sheep, and 52,000 goats. A large timber processing industry works for the domestic and foreign markets. In recent years, however, Switzerland's forests have been hit hard by air pollution, forcing the government to impose strict controls on car exhaust emissions.
Energy. In 1996, 54% of energy in Switzerland was generated by hydroelectric power plants built on numerous mountain rivers. Five nuclear power plants meet most of the country's energy needs. Nevertheless, the use of nuclear energy remains in question: in 1990, Swiss voters approved a ten-year moratorium on the construction of new nuclear power plants. Switzerland long time remained a major oil importer, but natural gas imports beginning in 1974 and energy conservation measures led to a reduction in oil imports. In 1991, crude oil came to Switzerland mainly from Libya and Great Britain, while refined products came from Germany, the Benelux countries and France. The main suppliers of natural gas are Germany and the Netherlands.
Transport and communication. Switzerland has a highly developed transport system. The Rhine, the largest navigable water artery, is navigable within Switzerland only on the Basel-Rheinfelden section, 19 km long. A large river port was put into operation in Basel. In the 1990s, its annual cargo turnover was 9 million tons. The Rhine-Rhone Canal is also of great importance for the transportation of industrial goods. The length of the railway network in Switzerland in 1995 was 5719 km. The railways are almost completely nationalized and electrified and are among the best in Europe. Since they were laid in conditions of highly rugged terrain, the construction of numerous bridges and tunnels was required. In 1995 there were over 71,380 km of first-class highways in Switzerland. The park cars in 1996 reached almost 3.3 million, i.e. There was one car for every two people in the country. In 1964, the Grand Saint Bernard tunnel was opened, the first road tunnel in the Alps. Built in 1980, the Gotthard Tunnel is currently the longest road tunnel in the world (16.4 km). Switzerland is the only landlocked country with a significant navy. In 1941, she purchased several ocean-going ships to carry important goods during World War II, and continued to expand her fleet after the war. In 1985, the cargo turnover of its merchant fleet was estimated at 225.4 million registered tons. The fleet includes many modern ships designed to carry from 6 thousand to 10 thousand tons of cargo, as well as several tankers. The federal government owns all telephone and telegraph lines, as well as the radio and television network. In the 1980s, a major modernization program for telecommunications systems was implemented.
Money circulation and banking activity. Switzerland is one of the most important financial centers peace. Its banking system far exceeds the volume required for domestic transactions. There are two interconnected banking systems: state system, including the Swiss National Bank and cantonal banks, and a system of private banks. The Swiss National Bank, founded in 1907, is the only financial institution issuing the national currency. The main monetary unit - the Swiss franc - is one of the most stable currencies in the world. The National Bank is controlled by the federal authorities and has a great influence on the economic policy of the confederation. The Swiss private banking system in the 1990s consisted of several large commercial banks that were part of the "big four": Schweizerischer Bankverein (SBF), Schweizerische Bankgesellschaft (SBG), Schweizerische Creditanstalt and Schweizerische Volskbank. In 1997, the "big four" became the "big three" after the merger of the SBG with the SBF. There are also 28 cantonal banks, hundreds of regional and savings banks, financial companies and other banks, 20 of which are owned by foreigners. The role of foreign banks is increasing: in the late 1990s, they owned more than 10% of Swiss bank holdings. Depositors have long been attracted to Swiss banks: in accordance with the Swiss banking law of 1934, banks are prohibited from providing information about their customers without their consent. Under pressure from other governments, especially the United States, regulations have been passed to allow disclosure of secrecy of deposits, especially when depositors are under investigation for currency crimes such as counterfeiting and trade in confidential information. After much debate, the Swiss government in the late 1990s also allowed the secrecy of deposits in connection with the search for funds belonging to the victims of the Nazi genocide. The Swiss Stock Exchange is one of the most active international stock and bond markets. The stock exchange in Zurich is the largest in continental Europe. Switzerland also plays an important role in the global insurance market, especially in the commercial insurance sector. Some of the leading Swiss insurance companies derive more than half of their income from operations on the foreign market.
Tourism. The tourism industry is one of Switzerland's vital sources of income. In 1996, more than 18 million people stayed in Switzerland for holidays, mainly from Germany, Great Britain, France, the USA, the Benelux countries and Scandinavia.
Public finances. The Swiss budget is usually more or less balanced, but in the early 1990s, due to the recession of the economy, the expenditure part of the budget increased. In 1997, expenditures were estimated at 44.1 billion Swiss francs and revenues at 38.9 billion. The main sources of income were income taxes, turnover taxes and import duties.
SOCIETY AND CULTURE
Education. Universal primary and secondary education is administered by the cantonal authorities, so the age limit for compulsory education fluctuates. Most children attend school between the ages of 7 and 15 or 16. Almost all public schools are free. There are practically no illiterates in the country. Switzerland has many private schools that accept students from all over the world. There are 9 universities in the country - in Basel, Zurich, Bern, Geneva, Lausanne, Friborg, Neuchâtel, Lugano and St. Gallen. All of them are under the control of the cantons. There are many foreign students studying at universities. There are several other higher education institutions. The total number of students in 1997/1998 was 93,000.
The development of culture. Switzerland is a country with a rich cultural heritage. She gave the world many outstanding artists, writers and scientists. These are Nikolaus Manuel (1484-1530), a talented Renaissance artist, and the physician Paracelsus (c. 1493-1541), who is considered the first natural scientist of the Modern Age. The theologian Nikolai Fluessky (1417-1487), who was canonized in 1947, received wide recognition. Switzerland is associated with the activities of the great religious reformers - Huldrych Zwingli (1484-1531) and John Calvin (1509-1564), as well as prominent psychologists Carl Gustav Jung (1895-1961) and Jean Piaget (1896-1980). Renowned Swiss artists include Heinrich Fussli (1742-1825), Ferdinand Hodler (1853-1918) and Paul Klee (1879-1940). Philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), sculptor Alberto Giacometti (1901-1966), architect Le Corbusier (1887-1965), educator Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746-1827) were also natives of Switzerland.
Music and dancing. Swiss musical folklore includes song and instrumental music. A specific song genre of the Alpine highlanders is yodel, characterized by rapid transitions from the chest low voice register to the high head register (falsetto) and vice versa. Famous Swiss composers are Otmar Scheck (1886-1957), Frank Martin (1890-1974) and Willy Burckhard (1900-1955). Arthur Honegger (1892-1955), who belonged to the modern French school, had Swiss parents and began his music studies in Zurich. In some cities of Switzerland, primarily in Zurich, Basel and Geneva, there are ballet troupes. In 1989 the innovative choreographer Maurice Béjart moved with his dance company from Brussels to Lausanne. Expressive traditional folk dances are shown at national and regional festivals held annually in Switzerland.
Literature. Swiss literature has a rich tradition. Johann Bodmer (1698-1783) and Johann Brettinger (1701-1776) influenced German literature. The famous writer Germaine de Stael (1766-1817) had Swiss parents. The writer and educator Johann Rudolf Wies (1781-1830) is best known as the publisher who published The Swiss Robinson, a book written by his father, Johann David Wies (1743-1818). Johanna Spiri (1827-1901) became famous as the author of the classic children's book Heidi.
Other famous Swiss writers include Jeremiah Gotthelf, Gottfried Keller, Konrad Ferdinand Meyer, Rodolphe Tepffer and Karl Spitteler. Swiss writers of the 20th century Albert Steffen and Charles Ferdinand Ramyu (1878-1947), Max Frisch and Friedrich Dürrenmatt created many wonderful works. Peider Lancel, writing in Romansh, gained a reputation as an outstanding poet. The Swiss historian Jakob Burckhardt is known for his work The Culture of Italy in the Renaissance, and Johann von Müller (1752-1809, he earned the honorific nickname "Swiss Tacitus") for his work Swiss History.
STORY
Creation of the Swiss Confederation. Among the Celtic tribes that inhabited the territory of Switzerland in prehistoric times, the Helvetians stood out, who became allies of the Romans after they were defeated by Julius Caesar at the Battle of Bibractus in 58 BC. e. In 15 BC Rets were also conquered by Rome. In the next three centuries, Roman influence contributed to the development of the culture of the population and its Romanization. In the 4th-5th centuries. AD the territory of present-day Switzerland was captured Germanic tribes Alemanni and Burgundians. In the 6th-7th centuries. it became part of the kingdom of the Franks and in the 8th-9th centuries. was ruled by Charlemagne and his successors. The subsequent fate of these lands is closely connected with the history of the Holy Roman Empire. After the collapse of the Carolingian empire, they were captured by the Swabian dukes in the 10th century, but they could not keep them under their rule, and the region broke up into separate fiefs. In the 12th-13th centuries. attempts were made to unite them under the rule of large feudal lords, such as the Zähringens, the founders of Bern and Friborg, and the Habsburgs. In 1264 the Habsburgs won a dominant position in eastern Switzerland. The Counts of Savoy were entrenched in the west. The Habsburgs encountered strong opposition when they tried to consolidate their holdings by abolishing the privileges of some local communities. At the center of this resistance were the peasants who lived in the mountain valleys of Schwyz (hence the name of the country Switzerland), Uri and Unterwalden. These forested cantons, located along the strategically important road through the St. Gotthard Pass, benefited from the struggle between the Hohenstaufen emperors and the papacy. In 1231 Uri and in 1240 Schwyz received the rights of the imperial territories of the Holy Roman Empire, freeing themselves from dependence on petty feudal lords. After the death of Emperor Frederick II in 1250, a period of decline began in the empire, marked by civil war during the Great Interregnum of 1250-1273. The Habsburgs, who did not recognize the rights of Uri and Schwyz, tried to conquer Schwyz in 1245-1252. Uri and Unterwalden, who entered into a temporary alliance, came to his aid. In August 1291, the Swiss communities entered into a permanent defensive alliance among themselves and signed a treaty known as the "Eternal Alliance" - the first documented evidence of cooperation between the forest cantons. This year starts official history Swiss state. Part of the traditional legend about these events, associated with the name of William Tell, is not confirmed in historical documents.

Growth and expansion of the confederation. The first proof of the strength of the confederation was given in 1315, when the highlanders of the forested cantons of Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden faced the superior forces of the Habsburgs and their allies. At the Battle of Morgarten they won what is considered one of the most important victories in Swiss history. This victory encouraged other communities to join the confederation as well. In 1332-1353 the cities of Lucerne, Zurich and Bern, rural communities Glarus and Zug made separate agreements with the three united cantons, forming a series of confederations. Although these agreements did not have a common basis, they were able to ensure the main thing - the independence of each of the participants. Having been defeated in the battles of Sempach in 1386 and Nefels in 1388, the Habsburgs were finally forced to recognize the independence of the cantons, united in a confederation. At the beginning of the 15th century the members of the confederation felt strong enough to go on the offensive. During numerous wars and campaigns against Austrian Habsburgs and the Holy Roman Empire, the Dukes of Savoy, Burgundy and Milan, and the French King Francis I, the Swiss gained a reputation as magnificent warriors. They were feared by enemies and respected by allies. During the "heroic age" Swiss history(1415-1513) the territory of the confederation expanded due to the addition of new lands in Aargau, Thurgau, Vaud, as well as south of the Alps. 5 new cantons were created. In 1513-1798 Switzerland became a confederation of 13 cantons. In addition to them, the confederation included lands that entered into an alliance with one or more cantons. There was no permanent central body: All-Union Diets were periodically convened, where only full-fledged cantons had the right to vote. There was no all-union administration, army and finance, and this situation remained until the French Revolution.
From the Reformation to the French Revolution. In 1523 Huldrych Zwingli openly challenged the Roman Catholic Church and led a religious reform movement in Zurich. He was supported by the inhabitants of a number of other cities in northern Switzerland, but in rural areas he met resistance. In addition, there were differences with the radical Anabaptist wing of his followers in Zurich itself. The Zwinglian current of Protestantism subsequently merged with the current of John Calvin from Geneva into the Swiss Reformed Church. Since the cantons of central Switzerland remained Catholic, a split along religious lines was inevitable. After short religious clashes, an approximate balance was established between the two religions. In 1648 Switzerland's independence from the Holy Roman Empire was officially recognized by the Treaty of Westphalia. Political life of Switzerland in the 18th century. was calm. The Bernese naturalist and poet Albrecht von Haller (1708-1777), the historian I. von Müller, and also the philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau, born in Geneva, and the great pedagogue and humanist from Zurich, I. G. Pestalozzi, became famous in the "age of Enlightenment". At this time, a stream of foreign guests rushed to Switzerland, among them - Voltaire, Gibbon and Goethe.
Revolution and restoration of the Confederation. French revolution had a profound influence on Switzerland, both politically and philosophically. In 1798 French troops invaded the country and occupied it. The French granted the conquered cantons a constitution that replaced the loose federation with the "one and indivisible Helvetic Republic". The revolutionary ideas of democracy, civil liberties and centralized power led to the creation of a strong central government for the first time in Swiss history. The constitution of 1798, created on the basis of the constitution of the first French Republic, granted all Swiss equal rights before the law and a code of civil liberties. However, it encroached on traditional federalism, and many Swiss did not want to recognize it. The struggle between the federalists, opponents new system, and the centralists who supported it, temporarily subsided when Napoleon Bonaparte in 1802 granted the republic a constitution known as the "Mediation Act". She restored many of the former privileges of the cantons and expanded the number of cantons from 13 to 19. After the defeat of Napoleon, the cantons dissociated themselves from the regime imposed by the French and tried to revive the old confederation. After lengthy negotiations, a union treaty, signed in September 1814. He proclaimed the union of 22 sovereign cantons, but did not indicate that they constitute one state. In the declaration Congress of Vienna(March 1815) and the Treaty of Paris (November 1815), the great powers recognized the eternal neutrality of Switzerland.
Civil War and a new constitution. Over the next three decades, liberal sentiment grew in Switzerland. In response to the actions of the radicals in the Union Sejm and in some cantons (the closing of the monasteries in Aargau, the expulsion of the Jesuits), seven conservative Catholic cantons formed the defensive alliance of the Sonderbund. In 1847, the Sejm by a small majority announced the dissolution of this association. The federal army under the leadership of General Guillaume Dufour won the civil war before the European powers could intervene in the conflict. As a result of the victory over the Sonderbund, a new constitution was adopted (1848). A balance was struck between the aspirations of the radical centralists and the conservative federalists. From a fragile union of canton states, Switzerland has become a single union state. A permanent body of executive power was created in the form of a federal council of seven members elected by legislature from two chambers - the national council and the council of cantons. The federal government was empowered to issue money, regulate customs regulations and, most importantly, determine foreign policy. Bern was chosen as the federal capital. The revised constitution of 1874, with subsequent amendments, further strengthened the power of the federal government without jeopardizing the federal foundation of the Swiss state. In the last decades of the 19th century Swiss industry developed, construction began railways. Imported raw materials were processed into high-quality products, which then entered the world market.
Switzerland in World Wars. With the outbreak of the First World War, there was a threat to the national unity of Switzerland: the French-speaking Swiss were mainly sympathetic to France, and the German-speaking people to Germany. The four-year mobilization laid a heavy burden on the country's economy, there was a shortage of industrial raw materials, unemployment was growing, and there was not enough food. General discontent culminated in mass strikes in November 1918. In 1919 Geneva was chosen as the headquarters of the League of Nations. Switzerland became a member of this organization only after heated internal debates and after receiving guarantees of respect for its neutrality. The outbreak of World War II found the population of the country more united: few people in Switzerland welcomed Nazism. However, strategically, the position of the confederation was much more vulnerable, since it was surrounded by totalitarian powers.
Foreign policy. With the end of World War II, the League of Nations ceased to exist. Switzerland decided not to join the newly created United Nations (UN) and acquired observer status, which allowed the European headquarters and several UN specialized organizations to be located in Geneva, including international organization labor and the World Health Organization. Switzerland felt that not joining the UN was the best way to maintain its independent position as a neutral country in the ever-changing balance of power on the world stage. This decision strengthened the position of Switzerland in international politics. This country is a member of several UN organizations: the International Court of Justice, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. Switzerland provides significant assistance to developing countries. Following a traditional policy of neutrality, Switzerland in the 1950s and early 1960s faced great difficulty in participating in various European integration plans. In 1948, she joined the Organization for European Economic Cooperation, but refrained from joining the European Economic Community (subsequently - European Union, EU). The obvious political aims of this organization were unacceptable to Switzerland. However, it became one of the founding members of the European Free Trade Association in 1959, and in 1963 joined the Council of Europe, again demonstrating its interest in European cooperation. In 1972, a national referendum ratified a free trade agreement with the EU, according to which, by 1977, duties on all industrial products were gradually removed. In 1983, Switzerland became a full member of the Group of Ten, an association of the largest contributors to the International Monetary Fund (IMF).
Political and social changes. In the 1960s, Switzerland faced a severe internal problem. Several French-speaking districts located in the Jura mountains in the canton of Bern demanded the formation of a new canton. This met with resistance from the German-speaking population of the region. Federal troops were sent there to prevent clashes. In the early 1970s, voters in the canton of Bern approved a referendum in the French-speaking districts on secession. As a result of a series of plebiscites held over a number of years, three of the seven districts and several border communities voted in favor of the creation of a new canton. This new canton was named Jura. The decision was then approved in a national referendum in 1978, and the new canton joined the confederation in 1979. In the 1960s, there was marked tension over the issue of the large number of workers from countries Southern Europe who came to work in Switzerland. Despite the traditional international character of the country and the need for the participation of foreigners in its economic life, many Swiss showed a hostile attitude towards migrants from southern Europe and considered them guilty of internal problems countries such as housing shortages. Accordingly, the government introduced restrictions that drastically reduced the proportion of foreigners in the work force. The political movement, which demanded a further reduction in the number of foreign workers, did not achieve much support in the elections, but was able to organize referendums in 1970, 1974 and 1977 on constitutional amendments to limit the proportion of foreigners in the Swiss population. These proposals were not approved, but attempts to limit the presence of foreigners in Switzerland continued into the 1980s and 1990s. In 1982 voters rejected a government proposal to liberalize the rules governing the stay of foreign workers and their families, and in 1987 immigration was even more restricted. In 1994, referendum participants approved a tightening of the law on the stay of foreigners. Nevertheless, the contingent of foreign workers remains large - 25% of the total number of employees. At the same time, the number of foreign nationals living in Switzerland has risen to around 1.4 million. Many of them are refugees from Bosnia and Herzegovina and developing countries. In the mid-1980s, the Swiss government made attempts to end the isolation of the country and conclude a number of bilateral and multilateral agreements with the EU countries. In a referendum in 1986, Swiss voters overwhelmingly rejected the government's proposal to join the UN, but six years later they voted for Switzerland's participation in the IMF and the World Bank. In December 1992, seven months after the government announced its intention to join the EU, the population rejected the proposal to join the European Economic Area, which since January 1994 included the countries of the European Free Trade Association with the EU in a single free trade area. Switzerland's attitude towards the gradually strengthening EU remained a stumbling block for the country's foreign policy in the late 1990s. The 1995 elections revealed a growing polarization of voters on this issue. The greatest success was achieved, on the one hand, by the Social Democrats, who actively support integration, and on the other, by the right-wing Swiss People's Party, which opposes not only EU accession, but also participation in the European Economic Area and Switzerland's cooperation with other trading and political alliances. The decision in 1996 to allow the Swiss military to participate in the maneuvers and technological programs of the Partnership for Peace organization provoked violent protests in the country. The controversy over the monetary contributions of the victims of the Nazi genocide. In the late 1990s, the Swiss government was involved in an international dispute over the return by private Swiss banks of gold and other valuable property confiscated by Nazi Germany during World War II from victims of the genocide. Also discussed were the deposits and valuables placed by European Jews in Swiss banks before and during the war to keep them from being captured by the Nazis. Immediately after the war, Switzerland agreed to return the stolen deposits to the victims and their heirs. However, in the course of litigation involving great attention public in the mid-1990s, private plaintiffs and Jewish lawyer groups argued that Switzerland had failed to fulfill its obligations and accused Swiss banks of preventing heirs from accessing "frozen" accounts of deceased depositors. Since 1996, American local and federal politicians and organizations have launched a campaign for the return of the so-called. Nazi gold, and many US municipalities, including New York City, threatened to impose economic sanctions on Swiss banks if the latter refused to bail out the plaintiffs. In August 1998, the Schweizerische Creditanstalt banking group and the SBF agreed to pay $1.25 billion in compensation to the victims of the genocide and their heirs. After that, the threats of sanctions were stopped. The controversy damaged the international prestige of Switzerland and caused a wave of indignation in that country. Facilities mass media The United States and European states often presented Swiss bankers and diplomats as extremely unsympathetic people who showed indifference to the claims of genocide victims. Public attention was also drawn to the aid that came to Nazi Germany from Switzerland. Despite the neutrality of the country, Swiss industrialists supplied raw materials and industrial products to Nazi Germany. Many Swiss politicians felt they were being portrayed as villains by US officials; the Swiss were of the opinion that the agreement reached was a surrender to outside pressure, humiliating for the nation as a whole.
Fight for women's rights. The women's suffrage movement, which first succeeded in the French-speaking cantons in the late 1950s, reached its main goal it wasn't until 1971 when women gained the right to vote and be elected in federal elections. However, in a number of cantons, women were prevented for a long time from exercising their voting rights in local elections. In 1991, in the German-speaking semi-canton of Appenzell-Innerrhoden, the last territory in Switzerland to oppose the emancipation of women, they received the right to participate in the annual meetings of voters. The next step was the adoption in 1981 of a constitutional amendment guaranteeing equal rights for women. In 1984, Elisabeth Kopp became the first woman to be elected to the federal council. In 1985, women were given equal rights in the family (before that, the husband was considered the head of the family, which allowed him to unilaterally manage family finances and not allow his wife to work). In 1991, the council of the city of Bern decided that its composition should not be more than 60% of the same sex.
Measures to protect the environment. The transit position of Switzerland in the system of meridional European transport carried out by heavy vehicles has complicated ecological situation on the mountain roads of the country. In addition, exhaust fumes contributed to the destruction of forests that protect the mountain villages of Switzerland from avalanches and mudflows. To reduce exhaust emissions from motor vehicles, the Swiss government introduced road tolls in 1985, a weight limit for cars was set (28 tons), traffic was limited at night and on weekends. In a referendum in 1994 voters approved the decision that by 2004 foreign commercial goods would have to be transported through Switzerland only by rail.
Economic development. Until the end of the 1980s, Switzerland had a positive budget balance. Its economy was characterized by low inflation, low unemployment and low interest rates. In 1988 and 1989 the budgets were reduced with an excess of the revenue side of 900 million and 300 million dollars, respectively, unemployment in 1987 reached a record low of 0.7%. However, rising inflation (6% in 1991) prompted the Swiss National Bank to raise interest rates and limit the issue of money. In the early 1990s, there was a recession in the country's economy. Although in 1991-1993 the gross domestic product declined by less than 1%, the unemployment rate reached 3.6% in 1992 and 4.5% at the end of 1993, mainly due to a reduction in the number of jobs in construction and engineering. In 1994, there were signs of an economic recovery, especially in the field of international financial services However, unemployment in manufacturing and other industries continued to rise. In 1997, the situation improved due to increased exports, demand revived, investment increased, but investment in construction continued to decline.
LITERATURE
Sabelnikov L.V. Switzerland. Economy and foreign trade. M., 1962 Mogutin V.B. Switzerland: big business in a small country. M., 1975 Dragunov G.P. Switzerland: history and modernity. M., 1978 Handbook on Democracy: The Functioning of a Democratic State on the Example of Switzerland. M., 1994 Schaffhauser R. Fundamentals of Swiss community law on the example of the community law of the canton of St. Gallen. St. Petersburg, 1996

Collier Encyclopedia. - Open Society. 2000 .

Bern is often called the capital of Switzerland, although this is not entirely true. The fact is that in the constitution of the Alpine Republic there is no such thing as a "capital" at all, but there is a city federal significance where the main authorities are located. Moreover, this city is not fixed in the country's basic law, and the obligation to determine the actual capital (and at the same time the place of their work) is assigned to members of the bicameral parliament. And now, for more than a hundred and fifty years, people's deputies prefer Bern - a German-speaking city located in the very center of the country. AT mid-nineteenth century, when the constitution was adopted, among its competitors were Zurich and Lucerne. I won’t say anything about Lucerne, and Zurich () seemed to me a sterile, sugary boring city. Bern is more interesting. So the choice of the Swiss parliamentarians is clear to me. Although, perhaps, the relative "gaiety" of Berne is not a cause, but a consequence of his capital status.

Despite the special status, the airfield where they could land big planes, not in Bern. We flew via Zurich. Road by car took an hour and a half

The city is located on the banks of the Aare river.

The Bundeshaus, where both houses of parliament sit: the National Council (lower) and the Council of Cantons (upper). The building was built shortly after it was decided that Bern would become the political center of the country, that is, in the middle of the 19th century.

In front of the Bundenhaus there is a modern fountain. On the site, indistinguishable from the pedestrian part, either one or a dozen jets of water burst out at once. Passers-by need to be on the lookout.

But Bern is famous not for modern, but for ancient fountains, wells, from which you can drink water.

According to legend, the first such springs began to be built as early as the 13th century - first wooden, later stone.

We walk around the historical center, which is listed world heritage UNESCO

In the 40s of the 16th century, the fountains were decorated with stone statues. Pictured is the statue of Justitia (1543)

At the feet of Themis are figures of the most august persons

Episodes from the film "17 Moments of Spring", which took place in Bern, were filmed, as you know, in the Baltic States. But this did not prevent to convey the atmosphere of the city. It seems that somewhere here Professor Pleischner was intoxicated with the air of freedom ...

But now the flowers are in place, you can move on ...

One of the main symbols of the city is the Gothic Bern Cathedral.

The Protestant Cathedral was founded in 1421, and the spire was completed in 1893. As you can see, now the building, which was erected for four centuries, is being reconstructed.

City view from the Kirchenfeldbrücke bridge

Another stone fountain in the Marktgasse lane

Bicycle parking. By the way, in Bern there are also those where bicycles are left for everyone to use. The fact is that it will cost more to throw it away - you will have to pay something like a recycling fee ..

The street leading to another symbol of Bern - the Zytglogge (Clock Tower)

Market in the Bundeshaus

Swiss cheese

brief information

More than 16 million tourists visit Switzerland every year. For most of them, Switzerland is initially associated with watches, chocolate, Swiss cheese and ski resorts. However, tourists very quickly realize that this country has unique medieval architectural buildings, amazingly beautiful nature, a large number of attractions, the annual international automobile show in Geneva, as well as excellent thermal resorts.

Geography of Switzerland

The Swiss Confederation is located in the center of Europe, it has no access to the sea. Switzerland borders France to the west, Italy to the south, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. The total area of ​​this country is 30,528 sq. km., and the total length of the border is 1,850 km.

Switzerland is divided into three main geographic region- The Alps (occupy 60% of the country), the Swiss Plateau (30% of the country) and the Jura Mountains in the north of the country (about 10% of the territory). The country's highest peak is Dufour Peak in the Alps (4,634 m).

Several rivers flow through Switzerland - Rhone, Limmat, Rhine, etc. But tourists are more interested in Swiss lakes - Zurich in the east, Geneva, Thun, Firwaldstet in the south, Neuchâtel and Biel in the north of the country.

Capital

Since 1848, the capital of Switzerland has been the city of Bern, which is now home to about 135 thousand people. Bern was formed in 1191 by order of Duke Berthold the Rich.

Official language

Switzerland speaks four languages. The most common of them is German (more than 67%). Next come French (more than 20%), Italian (6.5%) and Romansh (0.5%) languages.

Religion

More than 38% of the inhabitants of Switzerland belong to the Roman Catholic Church. Protestants (31% of the population) and Muslims (4.5%) also live in this country.

State structure of Switzerland

Switzerland, according to the 1999 Constitution, is a federal parliamentary republic. The head of state is the President, elected from 7 members of the Federal Council for 1 year. It is the Federal Council that has the executive power in the country.

Legislative power for many centuries has belonged to the bicameral parliament - the Federal Council, consisting of the Council of Cantons (46 representatives, two from each canton) and the National Council (200 deputies).

Administratively, the Swiss Confederation consists of 26 cantons.

Climate and weather

In general, the climate in Switzerland is temperate, continental, but it has regional differences. In the west of Switzerland, climate is strongly influenced by Atlantic Ocean, in the Alps the climate is mountainous, alpine. South of the Alps, the climate is almost Mediterranean. The average annual temperature is +8.6C. In winter, there is a lot of snow in Switzerland, which guarantees a long ski season.

Average air temperature in Bern:

January - -1С
- February - 0С
- March - +5C
- April - +10С
- May - +14C
- June - +17С
- July - +18C
- August - +17С
- September - +13C
- October - +8C
- November - +4С
- December - 0C

Rivers and lakes

Switzerland has several large rivers - the Rhone, Limmat, Rhine, as well as the most beautiful lakes - Zurich in the east, Geneva, Thun, Firwaldstet in the south, Neuchâtel and Biel in the north of the country.

History of Switzerland

People on the territory of modern Switzerland lived 5 thousand years ago. In 58 B.C. Roman legions led by Gaius Julius Caesar defeated the troops of the Helvetian tribe living in Switzerland. In 15 B.C. the Roman emperor Tiberius conquers the tribes in the Swiss Alps, and from that time Switzerland becomes part of Ancient Rome.

In the early Middle Ages, Switzerland was under the rule of the Franks, and was divided into two parts - Middle Francia and East Francia. Only in 1000 AD. the Swiss territories were reunited under the Holy Roman Empire.

In 1291, the three Swiss cantons of Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden united to resist external enemies, and by 1513 this confederation included 13 cantons. The first half of the 16th century in Switzerland was marked by religious wars.

Only in 1648, according to Peace of Westphalia, European countries recognized the independence of Switzerland from the Holy Roman Empire.

In 1798, revolutionary French troops conquered Switzerland and gave it a new constitution.

In 1815, the independence of Switzerland was again recognized by other states. Switzerland has since become a neutral country.

In 1847, some Swiss Catholic cantons tried to create their own union by separating from the rest of Switzerland, but they did not succeed. The civil war in 1847 in Switzerland lasted less than a month and killed about 100 people.

In the 20th century, during two world wars, Switzerland remained a neutral country. However, during the Second World War in Switzerland, the mobilization of men into the army was announced, because. there was a strong threat of invasion German troops. Important role during the Second World War played the International Red Cross, whose main office was in Geneva.

The first Swiss cantons granted women the right to vote in elections in 1959. On the federal level Swiss women gained the right to vote in 1971.

In 2002, Switzerland became a full member of the UN.

Culture of Switzerland

Swiss culture has been greatly influenced by neighbouring countries– France, Germany, Austria and Italy. However, Swiss culture is now very distinct and unique.

Until now, the Swiss zealously preserve their ancient traditions, the “soul” of which is expressed in music, dances, songs, embroidery and woodcarving. Even small Swiss villages have several musical folklore ensembles or dance groups.

AT mountainous areas yodeling is popular in switzerland folk singing(as in Austria). Every three years Interlaken hosts the International Yodeling Festival. A typical Swiss folk instrument is the accordion.

1 Art Basel
2 Geneva Auto Show
3 Montreux Jazz Festival
4. Omega European Masters
5. White Turf Events
6 Lucerne Festival
7. Locarno International Film Festival
8. Ascona Music Festival

Kitchen

Swiss cuisine is characterized by precision and accuracy in the preparation of dishes. Swiss cuisine uses a lot of vegetables and herbs. In general, Swiss cuisine is formed on the basis of numerous regional traditions. However, in every canton of Switzerland, cheese is often used in cooking. In general, dairy products are very popular among the Swiss.

About 450 types of cheese are produced in Switzerland. Each Swiss eats an average of 2.1 kilograms of cheese annually.

The national Swiss dishes are “rösti” (“roshti”), which is grated potatoes fried in a pan (i.e. a kind of potato pancakes, they are served with herring, scrambled eggs or cheese), and “fondues” (“fondue” ), prepared from cheese and meat.

The Swiss are very fond of chocolate. Each Swiss eats more than 11.6 kilograms of chocolate every year. Now Swiss chocolate is famous all over the world.

Landmarks of Switzerland

Switzerland has not been at war with anyone for a long time, and given that the Swiss are very thrifty and economical, it becomes clear why a large number of various historical and architectural monuments have been preserved there. The top ten attractions in Switzerland, in our opinion, include the following:

Chillon Castle on the shores of Lake Geneva

The famous Chillon Castle was built in 1160 and belonged to the Dukes of Savoy for a long time. The famous English poet George Byron, after a trip to Chillon Castle in 1816, wrote his famous poem "The Prisoner of Chillon"

Swiss national park

The Swiss National Park was formed in 1914. It covers an area of ​​169 sq. km. In this reserve, deer, chamois and mountain goats are found in large numbers.

Jet d "Eau fountain in Geneva

The Jet d "Eau fountain was built in 1881. It hits from Lake Geneva to a height of 140 meters. Now the Jet d" Eau fountain is considered one of the symbols of Geneva.

Medieval villages in the canton of Graubünden

There are many old villages in the canton of Graubünden with houses dating back to the 13th century.

Monument to the Duke of Brunswick

A monument to the Duke of Brunswick was built in Geneva in 1879. Not far from this monument is the Jet d "Eau fountain.

Cathedral of St. Peter in Geneva

The construction of the Gothic St. Peter's Cathedral in Geneva lasted from 1160 to 1310. It is in this cathedral that the chair of the famous reformer of the Catholic Church, Han Calvin, is located.

Museum of ceramics and glass "Ariana"

The Ariana Museum is located near the Palais des Nations, in the Ariana Park in Geneva. The museum displays works of art in ceramics, porcelain and glass from the most different countries peace.

Bastion park in Geneva

Parc de Bastion is the oldest botanical park in Switzerland (it was founded in 1817). The magnificent building of the University of Geneva is located in this park.

Russian Orthodox Church in Geneva

This church was built in 1866. Now she is one of the decorations of Geneva.

Rhine Falls

In the canton of Schaffhausen, on the border with Germany, there is the famous Rhine Falls (i.e. this is a waterfall on the Rhine River).

Cities and resorts

The largest Swiss cities are Geneva, Basel, Zurich, Lausanne, and, of course, Bern.

Switzerland is, apparently, the classic country of ski resorts. The skiing season in Switzerland starts in November and lasts until April inclusive. The most popular Swiss ski resorts are Zermatt, Saas-Fee, St. Moritz, Interlaken, Verbier, Crans-Montana, Leukerbad, Villars/Grillon.

For many tourists, Switzerland is associated with ski resorts. However, in this country there are a lot of balneological resorts on thermal waters. The most popular Swiss balneological resorts are Leukerbad, Bad Ragaz, Yverdon-les-Bains, Baden, Ovronna, etc.

Souvenirs/Shopping

We advise you to bring Swiss chocolate (the most famous brands are Toblerone, Cailler, and Lindt), cheese, Swiss watches, cuckoo clocks, Swiss army knives, small cow bells, handicrafts, towels, etc. from Switzerland as souvenirs.

Office Hours