INTERDISCIPLINARITY- a term expressing the integrative nature of the modern stage scientific knowledge. At various stages of the history of science, its changes are essentially determined by the complex interaction of differentiation processes (the disintegration of a homogeneous, “single and integral” system into a series of relatively autonomous regions) and integration (combining previously independent subject areas, the emergence of "synthetic" disciplines: biophysics, psycholinguistics, etc.). In various historical conditions, one or another specific stage of the functioning of cognition can be determined by the temporary dominance of one of these processes. However, this does not mean the complete displacement of the opposite trend. Essentially, both etilines mutually presuppose and complement each other.
The development of new areas of reality and the formation of previously non-existent cognitive means and methods causes a more visual manifestation of differentiation phenomena in science, contributes to the formation of more and more specialized disciplinary areas. Awareness of the need to reliably substantiate the constructed knowledge systems leads to the identification of all kinds of connections between them, which contributes to the unification of previously heterogeneous problematic approaches and the theories developed into broader conceptual structures. This is perceived as increased integration in cognition.
The formation of classical natural science took place in the hope of the possibility of a clear separation of scientific research from those types of knowledge that are not science. And although the efforts of several generations of methodologists to unequivocally solve the "problem of demarcation" did not lead to the expected success, some of the original ideological principles of classical science still persist. In particular, this refers to the desire of many scientists to find some universal laws of world reality at any level of its organization.
However crisis phenomena, which science encountered at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, led to the understanding of the impossibility of either merging various disciplines into a single field of knowledge, or their unification within the framework of a certain “meta-universal” concept, in the role of which they saw either traditional philosophy, cybernetics, or “ general theory systems." The division of classical science into the realm of "sciences of nature" and "sciences of the spirit" (covering everything that concerned cultural activities man), which V. Windelband, G. Rickert and V. Dilthey insisted on, demonstrated the radical dissimilarity of various spheres of reality. At the same time, the development of natural science knowledge revealed a deep dependence of the ways of its organization on the characteristics of human activity. Describe natural world“how to eat on its own”, without taking into account its perceptions by people, turned out to be impossible.
Methodological principles such as the “principle of complementarity” (introduced by N. Bohr first into the field of physical research, and then turned into one of the fundamental regulators of general scientific knowledge) or the “anthropic principle” testify, firstly, to the fundamental impossibility of reducing the content of one field of knowledge to etc. (or deduce one of the others), and, secondly, they serve as proof of the internal connection of various sections of science with each other.
In modern science, the processes of knowledge integration dominate, but they manifest themselves in a special form, being due to the specifics of existing historical realities. The interdisciplinary nature of cognitive activity expresses this specificity most clearly. One of its manifestations is the fairly common in modern science transfer of ideas, means and methods of research that have arisen within the framework of one discipline to others, sometimes quite far from each other. The introduction of physical methods into the practice of chemistry or biology has already become customary. But in recent times the influence of linguistic and literary approaches on the field of historical disciplines is clearly revealed (for example, the historiographic concept of "narrative"), a significant intersection of psychological, linguistic and formal-logical models (until recently maximally distanced from each other), the mutual exchange of tasks and methods of solving them between the spheres of scientific and engineering research.
It is most often possible today to resolve the difficulties that a particular specialist faces when this specialist is able to go beyond the narrow framework of his usual canons and norms. The interdisciplinary nature of modern knowledge is largely due to the fact that science is turning from a “disciplinary” field of activity into “ problem oriented. For example, supertasks related to the problem " artificial intelligence”, mathematicians, engineers, psychologists, philosophers, linguists, etc. work. This allows us to pose the relevant problems deeper and wider and find original and promising solutions.
HUMAN ECOLOGY AS AN INTEGRATED
LECTURE 1
Plan:
Introduction
1. The history of the development and formation of human ecology.
2. The subject and tasks of human ecology:
2.1. Human ecology as a science. Its connection with other sciences.
2.3. Goals and objectives of human ecology.
3. Research methods in human ecology.
Mankind is just a small part of living Nature, which cannot yet exist without Nature. The cumulative activity of mankind on Earth has acquired such a global scale, so noticeably transformed the conditions for the existence of other living organisms and even the appearance and properties of the Earth's surface, that there are already formidable signs of deviations from the pre-existing definite balance between living and inanimate Nature. These deviations threaten most of the life on Earth, and, as a consequence of this, the self-destruction of mankind. Therefore, there was an urgent need to study the basic patterns of human interaction with environment from the point of view of preserving human life.
The right to live in an ecologically clean, healthy and safe environment is one of the most important human rights. Therefore, all over the world and primarily in the economic developed countries In the past two decades, the problems associated with the state of the environment have become so aggravated. They acquired economic, social and political significance. This process is also observed in modern science. There is a "greening" of social disciplines. Economists, lawyers, sociologists, philosophers, historians, journalists began to deal with environmental issues. Human ecology, or anthropoecology, occupies a special position in the ecologization of science and social consciousness.
Human ecology is new scientific direction studying the environment and the mechanisms of human adaptation to its various conditions, physiological basis norms and pathologies of the functional systems of the human body, people's health and the peculiarities of the influence of natural, anthropogenic factors on the health of the population, criteria and methods for its assessment.
1. As a scientific discipline, human ecology did not appear from scratch. She absorbed the ideas of many researchers. Today, scientists talk about the development of ecological thinking, linking it with the threat of global ecological disaster. But we must not forget that already our distant ancestor in the full sense of the word was a "spontaneous anthropoecologist." Paleolithic man, choosing a cave for housing or a place for building a piled settlement, solved many problems that can undoubtedly be classified as environmental. After all, housing should be comfortable for life, protect from animals and enemies, have nearby water for drinking, firewood for the hearth and hunting grounds, fishing, collecting edible plants. It was necessary to choose a dwelling protected from floods and other natural disasters. For a successful hunt, one had to know the habits of animals and birds, to predict weather changes. It is especially important to anticipate the dangers that threaten the tribe, to distinguish edible plants from poisonous ones, to understand which foods can cause illness. As mankind developed, many of these knowledge and skills, previously enshrined as taboos and religious prohibitions, were recorded in writing in the form of laws.
Ancient scientists sought to comprehend the role and place of man in the world around him, to understand how natural and household conditions affect him. On the dependence of development paths human society and nature were written by the ancient Greek historian Herodotus (484-425 BC).
Plato (427 - 347 BC) believed that the character of people and political events depend on natural conditions. Aristotle (384-322 BC) believed that a person has general functions both with plants and animals. Man himself, in his understanding, is a “social animal”, whose sphere of life includes the family, society, and the state. An analysis of the scientific knowledge of ancient times shows that public thought formed ideas about the dependence of the development of society and man on natural conditions.
The relationship between a person and his environment has been studied especially deeply in connection with the danger of various diseases. The great physician of antiquity, the founder of scientific medicine, Hippocrates (460-370 BC) devoted the work “On Airs, Waters and Localities” to the consideration of this problem. This work, which contains advice to doctors, says in particular: “Therefore, whoever comes to an unfamiliar city, he should pay attention to its position in order to know how it is located to the winds or the sunrise, for not the same properties has a city lying to the north and lying to the south, and also located on the sunrise or on the west.<...>what is the situation with respect to the waters, whether they use swampy and soft waters or hard ones,<...>or salty and inconvenient for boiling”, etc. Continuing the characteristics of the natural conditions of cities, Hippocrates tells what physique and what diseases should be expected in people, depending on the prevailing winds, water, topography and seasons. physical constitution and mental features the peoples described, according to Hippocrates, are the result of natural conditions and the geographical location of their habitats.
Almost four hundred years after Hippocrates wrote about this in the 1st century. BC e. Roman philosopher Lucretius Carus in his brilliant book "On the Nature of Things"
During the Renaissance, Roger Bacon (1214-1292) showed that living and non-living bodies are built from the same material particles and living beings are closely dependent on the environment.
Religious dogmatism and scholasticism of the Middle Ages significantly slowed down the development of ecological knowledge. However, even in those days, the works of the German chemist and physician T. Paracelsus (1493 - 1541) contain judgments about the influence natural factors on the human body.
Great geographical discoveries, the colonization of countries contributed to the further development of the natural sciences. The development of new territories was unthinkable without knowledge of their nature. This knowledge allowed a person to survive in unusual conditions. Europeans, advancing in recent open lands, paid great attention to the description of the flora and fauna, the influence of climate and weather phenomena on the human body.
Urban growth and expansion manufacturing production led to increasing pollution of the environment of people's livelihoods, which forced the authorities and specialists to take a close look at this problem. It arose with the advent of medieval settlements, polluted with sewage and various household waste on the streets.
Russian emperor Peter I, along with numerous state affairs, considered the issues of improvement, cleanliness of streets and markets, as well as regulation of the descent Wastewater in St. Petersburg and Moscow.
Human ecology at the present stage. Tracing the roots of human ecology in ancient times While evaluating the positive contribution of many scientists of the 19th and the first half of the 20th century, it must be recognized that human ecology began to develop in a truly only way in the second half of the 20th century. The impetus for this was the realization by many researchers catastrophic consequences for mankind, the growth in the number of people on Earth, the intense impact economic activity on nature, on the human environment, on the person himself, on his work, life, rest, state of health. A huge influence on the creation of authentic scientific approach to understanding and solving environmental problems were the views of V.I. Vernadsky (1863-1945), who formulated the idea of noosphere(the realm of the mind), i.e. about such a stage in the development of mankind when it will consciously protect the environment.
The deterioration of the quality of the human environment, which has become more and more obvious since the middle of the 20th century, could not but worry scientists and the public. As a result of this concern, foreign big number publications: W. Vogt "The Way to Survival" (1948), W. L. Thomas "The Role of Man in Changing the Face of the Earth" (1956), R. Carson "Silent Spring" (1962), Donella and Denis Meadows with co-authors "Limits growth" (1972).
The first article in Russian literature devoted to human ecology was written by N. P. Sokolov, it appeared in 1964. In the same period, D. A. Biryukov’s works on the ecological physiology of man were published, in which the role of natural factors as constant conditions for development is studied. and improvement of the functions of the human body. Of fundamental importance for the development of human ecology was the book by V.P. Kaznacheev “Essays on the theory and practice of human ecology” (1983).
Of great importance for the theory of human ecology were the works and direct activity V.B. Sochava (1905-1978), S.S. Schwartz (1919-1976), V.P. Alekseev (1928-1991) and A.L. Yanshin (1911 - 1996). In domestic science, human ecology received "citizenship rights" in 1974, when a meeting "Theory and methods of geographical research Human Ecology” and published a collection of materials from this meeting. The collection contains reports by A.P. Avtsyn, V.P. Alekseev, T.I. Alekseeva, V.S. Preobrazhensky, B.B. Prokhorov, N.F. Reimers and others.
N.F. Reimers (1931 - 1993) made a great contribution to the development of domestic ecology and anthropoecology. He believed that an important place among the disciplines that together make up the "big ecology" belongs to human ecology, which serves as a bridge connecting the biological sections of ecology with its socio-demographic and economic and technological sections. To improve the theory and practice of human ecology, the importance of the work of T.I. Alekseeva on the adaptation of the population, adaptive types of people in various natural zones, V.S. Preobrazhensky - on theoretical problems of human ecology.
In the development of human ecology as a science, 3 stages can be conventionally distinguished:
Stage I (from the 19th century to the 20-30s of the 20th century) - formation of ecological outlook. Among the scientific papers that dealt with the problems of interaction between man and the environment, it should be noted the works of T.G Huxley "Man's Place in Nature" (1863), J.P. March “Man and Nature. Physical geography and its change under the influence of man "(1864), G. Spencer" The study of sociology "(1870), E. Reclus" Earth and people "(1876) and others.
It was at this stage that the term "human ecology" was introduced. According to some reports, it was proposed by American researchers R. Parks E. Burgess in his work "Human Ecology" (1921). True, they did sociological research of the population of Chicago, therefore, under "human ecology" in more understand "social ecology".
The most complete ecological approach was developed in the works of the French geographers P. Vidal de la Blache "Principles of Human Geography" (1922) and Brun's "Geography of Human" (1925).
In addition to the formation of an ecological outlook, at the first stage, much attention was paid to the study of various influences of geographical patterns and territories on the state of people's health.
Stage II (40-60s of the XX century) - period of formation.
One of major works this stage is the 3-volume edition of "Fundamentals of Human Geography" (1943-1952) by the French researcher M. Sorre, because. in the first volume, entitled "Essays on Human Ecology" (1943), the main task of ecology was formulated - "the study of man as a living organism that is affected by certain conditions of existence and reacts to irritation from its natural environment."
Since the middle of the 20th century, there has been a deterioration in the quality of the human environment, which caused concern among scientists and the appearance abroad of such publications as “Way to Survival” by W. Fokt (1948), “The Role of Man in Changing the Face of the Earth” by W.L. Thomas (1956), Silent Spring (1962) and others.
The first articles in Russian literature devoted to the problems of human ecology were written by N.P. Sokolov and D.A. Biryukov in the early 60s. the last century.
The main studies of this period are the issues of the emergence and spread of endemic (from the Greek endemos - local) diseases.
Stage III(from the 70s of the twentieth century to the present) - modern period. A significant event of this period is the First International Conference on the Human Environment, held in Stockholm in 3972, where human ecology was proclaimed as the most important direction. In our country
first scientific meeting on geographical issues human ecology was carried out in 1974. The book by V.P. Kaznacheeva "Essays on the theory and practice of human ecology" (1983) and the scientific activities of such scientists as B.V. Sochavy, S.S. Schwartz, V.P. Alekseeva, N.F. Reimers, T.I. Alekseeva and B.C. Preobrazhensky.
The activity of people in the use of natural resources has caused and is causing great damage to the flora and fauna of the planet, its bowels, waters and soils, but the person himself becomes a victim of his activity. This idea became obvious to thinkers of the past long before the very concepts of "ecology" and "human ecology" appeared.
N.F. Reimers, in Hopes for the Survival of Mankind: A Conceptual Ecology (1992), emphasizes that human ecology has an important place among the disciplines that together make up the "big ecology". In the "Environmental Manifesto" N.F. Reimers wrote: “Reckless technology crushes nature, shreds the biosphere, crushes humanity, poisons the earth. This path is over. Smog that suffocates people ozone holes over the poles and the plague of the 20th century - HIV (AIDS) - sufficient proof of this. In dealing with the planet, with man himself, deep knowledge and wise caution. They are a symbol of ecology. The age of reckless exploitation is over: both man by man, and nature by man. Nature requires reproduction. Man needs special care. The economy has ceased to be the only social goal. It is not the untimely death of the rich, but to live, using the benefits of nature and civilization, is the task of people.
The subject and tasks of human ecology
2.1 . Human ecology as a science. Its connection with other sciences.
Human ecology as a problem or as a special science is spoken and written by experts from the most different areas knowledge, so there is still no generally accepted definition this scientific direction. More S.S. Schwartz (1974) wrote that "human ecology- a science that has not yet received citizenship rights, has not determined its subject and method of research - has already become one of the most popular branches of knowledge. Naturally, therefore, in human ecology different authors invest different content.
B.B. Prokhorov (1979) defined this problem in this way; "Probably the best way to look at human ecology like new, folding synthetic science(more precisely, the association of sciences), which should summarize the data of industry disciplines. “... human ecology- association of biomedical, geographical, historical and social sciences, which, within the framework of human ecology, study the interaction of population groups with the environment and its geographical divisions and in connection with this morphological features, potential and actual pathology, number, everyday and economic skills of the population, due to the influence from the external environment.
N.V. Kaznacheev (1983) believed that human ecology - is a complex interdisciplinary scientific direction that explores
Patterns of interaction of human populations with the environment;
Problems of population development in the process of this interaction;
Problems of targeted management of the preservation and development of public health;
Improvement of Homo sapiens.
N.F. Reimers (1990) considered this scientific direction as
*human ecology , which is a complex discipline that studies the general laws of the relationship between the biosphere (its subdivisions) and the anthroposystem (its structural levels of humanity, its groups (populations) and individuals), the influence of the natural (in some cases, social) environment on a person and groups of people. The anthroposystem is humanity as a developing whole, including man as species, its material and spiritual culture, production forces and production relations.
* Ecology of the human person.
* Ecology of human populations, including ethnic groups.
AT recent times formed the following definition human ecology - this is a science that studies the patterns of impact on the population of specific regions of natural, social, production factors, including culture, customs, religion, in order to find out the direction and consequences of environmental, socio-demographic (anthropo-ecological) processes, as well as the causes of their occurrence.
Thus, human ecology is a complex ecological-socio-economic branch of knowledge, where all social, economic and natural conditions are considered as equally important components of the human life environment.
If we talk about the sciences, whose representatives actively participated in the development of problems of human ecology, then one of the first should be called medicine and biology. Within the medical sciences, issues of human ecology are considered to one degree or another by hygiene, toxicology, epidemiology and other areas of this industry. Among the biological block of sciences that contributed huge contribution in the formation and development of human ecology, physiology, genetics, anthropology, psychology and general ecology should be noted.
Rice. 1. The structure of human ecology (according to V.N. Movchan, 2004).
Besides, important role in human ecology played by representatives geographical sciences: geography, landscape science and others.
On fig. 1 shows a simplified diagram of the structure of human ecology. Although this scheme does not reflect the numerous interdisciplinary connections that are essential for this science.
2.2. Directions in human ecology.
Conditionally human ecology can be divided into two directions:
2.3. Goals and objectives of human ecology.
Target human ecology, like any science, - provide society with relevant information, contributing to the optimization of the human living environment and the processes occurring in human communities.
object studying human ecology is a system "man - environment", in which a person acts both on the organismic and on population level, and the concept of "environment" covers the natural, man-made, socio-cultural environment (Fig. 2).
At the same time, it is important:
1. Health of an individual - a dynamic process of preservation and development of biological, physiological and mental functions that ensure optimal working capacity and social activity, improvement of a person's psychophysiological capabilities;
2. Health of a territorial community of people - a dynamic process of preserving and developing the biological, physiological, psychosocial viability of the population in a number of generations;
3. Occupational preference and occupational diseases;
4. Cultural and educational level;
5. Demographic indicators.
Rice. 2. The structure of the system "man - environment"
The elements of the external environment for the human community, in turn, interact with each other, making up a large dynamic system. Changes in individual elements of this mobile system affect the main characteristics of the community of people: the level of health of the individual, demographic indicators, etc.
Based on the above tasks, human ecology are diverse.
There are 3 main approaches in the development theoretical tasks:
Creation at various state levels of a unified system for monitoring the quality of the environment and assessing the consequences for public health;
Creation of socio-economic, physical conditions supporting a healthy environment and correcting adverse changes in human health and society caused by anthropogenic and extreme factors;
Development and implementation of technical, technological and environmental programs aimed at minimizing the risk to public health associated with priority anthropogenic environmental factors.
Among applied adach can be identified:
Study of the impact of city conditions on human health and community;
Creating a favorable environment (improving the quality atmospheric air, water, noise reduction, etc.);
Stabilization and improvement of the socio-economic situation of the population (improvement medical care, ensuring employment of the population, etc.);
Formation healthy lifestyle life;
Monitoring for ecological state cities and public health;
Formation of ecological thinking and culture.
3. Research methods
In the course of the development of human ecology, its theoretical basis, methodological provisions and specific methodological techniques for solving scientific and applied problems. The theory and practice of anthropoecological research are based on understanding, processing and improving the methods of other disciplines.
For the formation methodological foundations human ecology, it is important to understand it as a science about the laws of development of space-time systems (anthropoecosystems), including the study of the health of the population and its demographic behavior, due to the process of interaction between human communities and natural complexes, as well as methods for regulating and managing these systems.
In the process of studying certain anthropoecosystems on the basis of information various sciences it is necessary to interpret the information received in a purely anthropoecological aspect, using the ideas and techniques inherent in human ecology.
To solve scientific and applied problems in human ecology, research is carried out at various spatial levels, which can be divided into three main ones - local, regional and global. Each of them has its own specifics of research and is peculiar only to this level the breadth and depth of the revealed processes. Each level has its own cartographic scale, both of the cartographic sources used and of the cartographic design of the final results of the study.
The solution of research anthropoecological problems is carried out using the methods and techniques of collecting information that have developed in the sciences that have served as the basis for the formation of human ecology.
Among these methods are observation, experiment, estimation, modeling, mapping, zoning and forecasting. This work can be carried out both by anthropoecologists themselves and by researchers of the relevant profile. Specialists in human ecology directly carry out the analysis and synthesis of the collected information and its verification (verification of the results). Of great importance right choice forms of presentation of the obtained results.
The basic knowledge gained in ecology, as well as in other sciences, is based primarily on observation. So method direct observations of the studied system (including a living organism) or its certain components in natural conditions implies non-intervention (or the minimum possible intervention) of the observer and is one of the most important, in historical terms, the first method of ecological research. AT modern conditions the method of observation is carried out with the help of the latest electronic, acoustic, photographic and other equipment. In the course of verification or confirmation, observations become scientific fact. To explain the cause of the observed phenomenon, various assumptions (hypotheses) are put forward, which are tested during the experiment.
experimental method widely used in ecology. Its fundamental difference from passive observation is that the task of observation is to obtain information about the behavior of an organism or population (ecosystem) in undisturbed natural conditions, while in an experiment the researcher monitors an object in which he deliberately produced certain, maybe quite strong, changes. The variety of experiments is determined by the degree of human control over the conditions of the experiment and the number of consciously varied factors. At one end, there are practically uncontrolled experiments (for example, conducted in the field), and at the other opposite end, experiments are grouped in which the researcher has full control over everything that interests him. environmental factors throughout the experiment (most often this type of experiment is carried out in laboratory conditions). An intermediate position is occupied by experiments in which only some factors are controlled.
At state of the art statistical materials and the degree of study of the territory, a large role in research on human ecology belongs to the method of evaluation. Assessment of the habitat of the population is one of the most common research methods in human ecology. Evaluation is an important way to obtain the necessary information. If objective data, expressed in a clear quantitative form, are not available or they are not enough, researchers use the method of estimates. Estimation is a comparison of the unknown with the known. The method of evaluation involves the analysis of the state of an object or process at a given time. However, the evaluation is aimed at predicting the development of a process or phenomenon and, ultimately, at managing it, i.e. for purposeful change.
In addition, in ecology they use population approach in research. Most often, within the framework of this direction, questions are studied to identify factors that limit the distribution of certain populations and the growth of their numbers.
Methods for studying populations include quantitative method, which is based on mathematical statistics using various indicators. The simplest statistical indicators that characterize the population according to any one quantitatively evaluating attribute are the mean value and the variance. Variance quantifies the scatter of data, its mean squared deviation from the mean. High values of the dispersion correspond to a greater heterogeneity of the studied population for the given trait, and low values correspond to a small one.
When describing a population, indicators are used that characterize its state in certain moment time (for example, population size and density) or over a certain period of time (birth rate, death rate, etc.).
Modern achievements information technologies have made it possible to actively apply in ecology modeling method. The essence of this method is that, along with the system (original), its model is considered, which is some other system, which is an image (likeness) of the original. Model- a simplified representation of a real system, which is characterized by infinite number connections with the environment. Simplification allows you to limit the number of relationships and select those that are most important. Then carry out computer simulation (research) of the dynamics of the system behavior in various situations and predict its behavior in the future.
Modeling allows you to determine the main properties of the ecological system model, the laws of development and interaction with the outside world, learn how to control the behavior of the model and determine the best ways to manage the ecological system to achieve the goals, predict the direct and indirect consequences of implementation various forms and ways of influencing the ecological object.
A striking example of computer simulation is a model of the possible consequences of a nuclear conflict between the US and the USSR. The model was developed by scientists of the Computing Center of the USSR Academy of Sciences (Computer Center of the USSR Academy of Sciences, now it is the Computing Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences) under the guidance of Academician N.N. Moiseev. According to the predictions made on the basis of this model, global consequences were predicted: a "nuclear night" lasting three years, and as its result - a "nuclear winter" on the entire planet. Effects " nuclear winter could lead to a fatal end to the existence of mankind. Scientists have made their model available to the scientific international community, as well as governments. Apparently, thanks to this circumstance, humanity was able to avoid the fatal "global test".
The results of studying the model are then transferred to the original. The reverse transition from the model to the original is called interpretation models. Depending on the characteristics of the original and the objectives of the research, a variety of models are used. By their nature, models are divided into real and ideal (sign). real models close to the original (for example, an aquarium is a model of an aquatic ecosystem), and iconic represent a conditional description of the original system using symbols and operations on symbols.
Highest value for ecology have two types of iconic models: conceptual and mathematical. conceptual model consists of a scientific text, accompanied by a block diagram of the system, tables, graphs and other illustrative material. When quantitatively studying the dynamics of ecosystems, it is more effective to mathematical modeling method, in which the behavior of the system is described by the corresponding mathematical functions.
Method mathematical modeling includes the creation of the following types of models: dynamic- for their creation use ordinary
differential or matrix equations, and they do not contain
random parameters; stochastic- they to some extent take into account the random parameters available in real systems.
Recently, in order to search for the optimal strategy of human behavior or its impact on ecological systems have been actively used gaming and optimization models.
For the anthropoecological study of the territory, the analysis of problem situations arising from the impact of risk factors on the population, and the subsequent ordering of the information obtained, anthropoecological taxonization (zoning) is used, i.e. division of the territory into smaller taxa.
When solving anthropoecological problems, remote methods and methods of research (aerial photography, space photography, direct visual observations from space) can be used very productively. With the help of remote information (in combination with ground-based research), nature, economy, the structure of the territorial organization of society, natural foci of a number of dangerous diseases, human habitat disturbances and, which is very important, dynamic trends in the development of these phenomena and processes, can be studied. The use of space information about the territory, together with other methods, makes it possible to predict changes in the human environment.
General provisions
The need to expand scientific worldview contributed greatly to the scientific and technological revolution of the 60s - 70s of the XX century, requiring from science a deeper and more intensive insight into the essence of the laws nature and societies than it was possible to do with the help of disciplinary and interdisciplinary approaches. The term "transdisciplinarity" and the proposal to discuss the topic of "transdisciplinarity in science", it was proposed Jean Piaget in 1970. He also owns the first definition of transdisciplinarity. “After a phase of interdisciplinary research,” he wrote, one should expect more high stage- transdisciplinary, which will not be limited to interdisciplinary relations, but will place these relations within the global systems, without strict boundaries between disciplines". It is important to note that one of the main issues of this discussion was the discussion of the essence of transdisciplinarity. Jean Piaget believed that transdisciplinarity should be seen as a new field of knowledge, distinct from multidisciplinarity and interdisciplinarity. Erich Jantsch, Austrian astrophysicist, researcher of the problem of self-organization in the Universe, one of the founders of the Club of Rome, supported the opinion of Jean Piaget. He was sure that transdisciplinarity, as "a new space without stable boundaries between disciplines", as new area knowledge, must necessarily be a super- or hyper-discipline. Such transdisciplinarity, he wrote, should be "the coordinator of all disciplinary and interdisciplinary systems of learning and innovation based on a common axiomatic approach" . In this interpretation, a new (transdisciplinary) field of knowledge required its own (transdisciplinary) approach. In turn, look Andre Lichnerovich on transdisciplinarity was radically mathematical. He perceived transdisciplinarity as some kind of "cross games" capable of describing "the homogeneity of theoretical activity in various fields of science and technology, regardless of the field where this activity is carried out." And, of course, this theoretical activity could be formulated, he believed, only in mathematical language.
An active discussion of transdisciplinarity in world science has continued since the mid-1980s. However, due to its semantic potential, the term "transdisciplinarity" has not yet received an unambiguous definition. There are several, most frequently used, meanings of this term, as well as established types of transdisciplinarity.
Frequently used meanings of the term "transdisciplinarity"
Main types of transdisciplinarity
According to the research results of the Belgian scientist E. Judge (Judge, A) , there are four types of transdisciplinarity in modern science.
The most common type is transdisciplinarity-1. This kind of transdisciplinarity is based on the efforts of the formal interconnection of the understandings of individual disciplines. It provides a logical meta-framework through which their knowledge can be integrated at a higher level of abstraction than is the case in interdisciplinarity. Transdisciplinarity-1 is often used in the work of various expert systems and expert groups.
Transdisciplinarity-2 has a closer internal connection with personal experience researcher, including meditation. Transdisciplinarity-2 and transdisciplinarity-1 contrast with two other types of transdisciplinarity. For example, the illustrative use of metaphor and figurative language can be considered as the original form of transdisciplinarity (transdisciplinarity-0). This is its difference from another type of transdisciplinarity (transdisciplinarity-3), associated with the use of general metaphors that have a fundamental cognitive value.
Prospects for the development of transdisciplinarity
Each form of transdisciplinarity has its advantages and disadvantages. However, the obvious expediency of using transdisciplinarity made it possible to consider it one of the main ways to solve complex multifactorial problems of the 21st century. This is evidenced by the text of the "World Declaration on higher education for the 21st century: approaches and practical measures”. The Declaration was adopted by the participants of the International Conference on Higher Education, held in October 1998 in Paris, at UNESCO Headquarters. Article 5 and Article 6 of the Declaration contain recommendations - to encourage the transdisciplinarity of educational process programs and to teach future specialists to use a transdisciplinary approach to solve complex problems of nature and society.
On the eve of this conference, in May 1998, a symposium on transdisciplinarity was held under the auspices of UNESCO at Royaumont Abbey (Paris, France). The final documents of the symposium consolidated the understanding of the essence of transdisciplinarity. “Multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary approaches are not means effective protection from the currently ongoing fragmentation of knowledge because, through the mere juxtaposition or assembly of disciplinary approaches, they do not achieve that depth of "integration" of the fundamental unity underlying all forms of knowledge. Their conceptual and methodological tools need to be rethought. Transdisciplinarity was originally conceived as a meta-methodology, so the transdisciplinary approach takes as an object precisely those different methods of various disciplines, only to "transform" and "transcend" them.
An example of the development of transdisciplinarity in the direction of searching for a formal relationship between individual disciplines (transdisciplinarity-1) are American school transdisciplinarity, as well as the Swiss School of Transdisciplinarity and the Chinese School of Transdisciplinarity. The French school of transdisciplinarity prefers a closer internal connection with the personal experience of the researcher, as well as the use of general metaphors that have a fundamental cognitive value Transdisciplinarity-2,3. The following fact testifies to the prospects for the development of transdisciplinarity in world science. In 2013, the ARISE-2 (Advancing Research in Science and Engineering) Report was published in the United States under the auspices of the American Academy of Science and Culture. Among the main goals outlined in the report, the goal stands out - to implement in American science"transition from interdisciplinarity to transdisciplinarity". Interdisciplinarity implies a simple “borrowing” of techniques and methods from other areas of science, while transdisciplinarity involves a “functional synthesis of methodologies”, the creation of completely new research concepts on their basis.
see also
Notes
- https://www.science-education.ru/ru/article/view?id=14526 Journal "Modern problems of science and education". – 2014. – № 5 - 12.09.2014 - UDC 378.1 - TRANSDISCIPLINARITY IN HIGHER EDUCATION: EXPERT ASSESSMENTS, PROBLEMS AND PRACTICAL SOLUTIONS.
- Piaget Jean. "L'épistémologie des relations interdisciplinaires", in Léo Apostel et al., 1972. - P. 144.
- Basarab Nicolescu. TRANSDISCIPLINARITY - PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE. Published in Moving Worldviews - Reshapingsciences, policies and practices for endogenous sustainable development, COMPAS Editions, Holland, 2006, edited by Bertus Haverkort and Coen Reijntjes, p. 142-166. Available: http://basarab-nicolescu.fr/Docs_articles/Worldviews2006.htm#_ftn1
- Erich Jantsch. Vers l'interdisciplinarité et la transdisciplinarité dans l'enseignement et l'innovation, in Léo Apostel et al, 1972
- Andre Lichnerowicz. Mathématique et transdisciplinarité, in Léo Apostel et al, 1972
- 1st World Congress of Trandisciplinarity (1994), Preamble. Convento da Arrábida, Portugal, November 2-6. available: http://perso.club-internet.fr/nicol/ciret/english/charten.htm
- DeMello, M. (2001) The School of the Future, University of São Paulo, Center for Transdisciplinary Education (CETRANS)
- Judge, A. (1994) Conference Paper. 1st World Congress of Transdisciplinarity, Union of International Associations. Available: http://www.uia.org/uiadocs/aadocnd4.htm)
- UNESCO on the World Conference on Higher Education(1998). Higher Education in the Twenty-First Century: Vision and Action. Available: http://perso.club-internet.fr/nicol/ciret/english/charten.htm
- Transdisciplinarity: Stimulating Synergies, Integrating Knowledge Division of Philosophy and Ethics UNESCO, 1998, pp. 37–38. Available: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0011/001146/114694eo.pdf
- Santa Fe Institute for Complex Problems (USA, NM) Available: http://www.santafe.edu/
- Network for Transdisciplinary in sciences and humanities Available: http://www.transdisciplinarity.ch/d/index.php
- State programs for the development of science and technology (Beijing 2008). available: Archived copy (indefinite) . Retrieved June 7, 2007.
40. Interdisciplinary and integrated approaches in modern scientific research.
A feature of the interdisciplinary approach is that it allows a direct transfer of research methods from one scientific discipline to another. The transfer of methods, in this case, is due to the discovery of similarities in the studied subject areas. For example, the circulatory system of an organism is similar to the piping system of a technical object. This circumstance allows the biologist to study the circulatory system of the body, a method that is used in physics to describe the movement of fluid through pipes. The result is an "interdisciplinary discipline" - biophysics, using an interdisciplinary approach. Other binary (double) interdisciplinary disciplines are organized according to this principle. Continuing the example of biology, we can continue the list of such interdisciplinary disciplines - biochemistry, biomechanics, sociobiology, bionics, and many others. However, the use of "foreign" disciplinary methodology rarely leads to a change in the disciplinary image of the subject of research. In other words, despite the fact that the work of the circulatory system was well described using the methods of physics, for a biologist, a person has remained one of the biological species, consisting of cells, tissues and organs. The biological image of a person has not turned into an image of a cyborg with an extensive system of pipelines in its body. It should be noted that, in order to preserve the boundaries of disciplinary boxes, there are always “leading” and “slave” disciplines in interdisciplinary research. All results, even those obtained using the methodology of the "slave" discipline, as was the case in the above example, are interpreted from the standpoint of the disciplinary approach of the "leading" discipline. Therefore, an interdisciplinary approach is intended, first of all, to solve specific disciplinary problems, in the solution of which any particular discipline experiences conceptual and methodological difficulties.
A systematic approach is a universal tool for cognitive activity: any phenomenon can be considered as a system, although, of course, not every object of scientific analysis needs it. The system method is indispensable in the cognition and construction of complex dynamic wholes. As early as 1972, philosophers noted: “A system-structural approach to the objects under study is currently acquiring (if not yet acquired) the status general scientific principle: in all special sciences, to the extent of their development and internal needs, a systematic approach is used. "At the present stage of the development of science, the theoretical developments of the systematic approach and its use as a method are already so wide that we can talk about a general scientific "systemic movement" that has a number of directions.
The increased attention to the problems of the systems approach is currently explained by its correspondence as a method to the more complicated tasks of social practice, the tasks of cognition and design of large, super-complex systems. But not only this. The phenomenon of a systematic approach reflects, first of all, a certain regularity in the development of science itself. One of the prerequisites that determined the modern role of the systems approach in science is the rapid growth in the amount of information - the "information explosion". "Overcoming of the contradiction between the growth of the amount of information and the limited possibilities of its assimilation can be achieved with the help of a systemic reorganization of knowledge."
An integrated approach, in our opinion, makes sense to single out as a special kind of systemic method. The systems approach takes on the form of an integrated one when we are talking about the study of systems, which include elements that simultaneously function in other systems, and others by their nature, with which complex systems on this basis, they are connected by complex functional and other dependencies. From this we can conclude that the integrated approach is generated by the need to study complexes as special systems. However, this does not mean that every study of a complex is a complex study. Just as not every study of a system can be called systemic: systems can also be studied in a non-systemic way. In order for research to be complex, a complex-object is not enough: the research itself must be a complex, that is, it must be built, organized on certain principles, namely, on the principles of systemicity. After all, the complex, as noted, is a special system. This leads to the second and more important conclusion: an integrated approach is such only if it is systematic.
System- an object whose functioning, necessary and sufficient to achieve its goal, is provided (under certain environmental conditions) by a combination of its constituent elements that are in expedient relationships with each other.
