from lat. adapto - adapt), the process and result of adaptation (establishment and maintenance of optimal parameters) of self-organizing systems to the impact of new factors environment or changing business conditions. Serves as one of important mechanisms preservation and development of individuals, social communities and institutions that support their security. In the process of A., the dominant values ​​and norms are assimilated ( social group, class, state, society, international community) and changing the environment in accordance with new goals and objectives. There are a large number of types, methods and forms of A. By their nature, voluntary and forced, positive and negative A are distinguished. Depending on the sphere of life, economic, political, labor, professional, socio-psychological and other adaptations are distinguished. The main types of human A. are biological, physiological, psychological, and social. AT last case we are talking about the socialization of the individual. Depending on the degree and quality, stable and unstable, deep and shallow, complete and incomplete, high or low A. Forms of social A. accommodation (passive adaptation to the environment), acculturation (mutual influence of subjects and mutual assimilation of values ​​and patterns of behavior in the course of them direct contact), amalgamation (unification of disparate parts into a single social whole - individuals, groups, masses), assimilation (mutual or unilateral absorption by subjects of social relations of each other). The positive effect of A. is the relative correspondence of the state and behavior to the new conditions. There are 3 levels of A.: partial, sufficient and complete. In sociology, several types of A. are distinguished: conformism, or the passive acceptance by a person of the norms and rules prevailing in a given social environment, in which there is an exaggerated dependence of the subject on the social group to which he belongs; conscious and active inclusion in the emerging new system of social relations; deviant A., which is characterized by a categorical rejection of social norms, which is expressed in one case in a criminal or deviant behavior, in another - in various forms of protest actions, up to rebel actions or revolutionary struggle; forced A., in which under pressure mass culture, funds mass media and other institutions social communication there is an indiscriminate assimilation of low-grade samples of culture, asocial groups of homeless children, homeless people, drug addicts, etc. appear. political system. The clearest type of A. society or its individual aspects, reflected in targeted measures to modernize the organization and life of society, is reform. For a transitional society, such as Russia, economic A. is of particular importance - the active adaptation of man to market conditions of management. The specific side of A. is the change in the systems of national security and international security, their institutions in relation to new conditions and tasks. At the same time, not only procedures and mechanisms for ensuring security are changing, but also new principles and norms are being developed. So, at the beginning of the 21st century, on the one hand, the question of creating global system security. On the other hand, in this system the center of gravity is transferred from military security and military methods of ensuring security on political, diplomatic, information and other non-military means. Lit .: Petrovsky A.V. Psychology of non-adaptive activity. M., 1992; Shabanova M.A. Social adaptation in the context of freedom // Socio. 1995. No. 9; Korel L.V. Sociology of adaptation: etudes of apology. Novosibirsk, 1997; Balabanova E.S. Socio-economic dependence and social parasitism: strategies of "negative" adaptation // Socio. 1999. No. 4; Sviridov N.A. Adaptation processes among youth (Far Eastern situation) // Socio. 2002. No. 3. Adaptation of migrants, adaptation of new settlers to the new socio-demographic and natural-geographical environment of the settlement area. A. m. is associated with the weakening of old and the establishment of new family, compatriot, property, labor and other relations, and in certain cases with the need to adapt to natural environment(acclimatization, natural immunization) and geographic location places of new residence. It becomes more difficult when the migrant gets into locality with a different socioeconomic status, for example, when relocating from countryside to urban or from urban-type settlements to middle and big cities. The process of adaptation is most difficult when migrants find themselves in a different socio-political, socio-demographic and socio-ethnic environment. Political adaptation, 1) the adaptation of an individual, a group to the existing political regime, which is expressed either in the servile acceptance of the order and rules established by it, or in active attempts to change their socio-political roles and transform the environment of their functioning as a political actor; 2) change political system society or its individual elements under the influence of natural, environmental, technological, social, international and other factors. It is expressed in a change in the functions and rules of the existing or the formation of new political institutions and regulations. Psychological adaptation, restructuring dynamic stereotype personality in accordance with the new requirements of the environment, the assimilation by the individual of the norms and traditions of the group, entry into its role structure, the development by an individual or group of a behavior model that best meets the real emerging conditions of their life. Social adaptation, adaptation of an individual, group to the social environment. The result is ensuring sustainability, traditionality, repeatability of social experience, as well as its change on the basis of innovative enrichment. In the process of A. s., on the one hand, individuals develop ways and means of their inclusion in social connections and activities; on the other hand, society maintains and develops material and socio-cultural conditions that determine and facilitate the process of their socialization. Socio-psychological adaptation, optimization of the relationship between the individual and the social group, convergence of the goals of their activities, value orientations. Labor adaptation, adaptation of an individual to new working conditions arising from a change in place of work, profession, nature of labor legislation or industrial relations. AT normal conditions A. t. takes, according to experts, from 1 to 3 months, which is provided labor law and is taken into account when determining the probationary period for newly hired employees.

Grand inventions human mind never cease to amaze, there is no limit to imagination. But what nature has been creating for many centuries surpasses the most creative ideas and designs. Nature has created more than one and a half million species of living individuals, each of which is individual and unique in its forms, physiology, adaptability to life. Examples of organisms adapting to constantly changing living conditions on the planet are examples of the wisdom of the creator and a constant source of problems for biologists to solve.

Adaptation means adaptability or habituation. This is a process of gradual rebirth of the physiological, morphological or psychological functions of a creature in a changed environment. Both individual individuals and entire populations undergo changes.

A vivid example of direct and indirect adaptation is the survival of flora and fauna in the zone of increased radiation around the Chernobyl nuclear power plant. Direct adaptability is characteristic of those individuals who managed to survive, get used to it and begin to reproduce, some did not stand the test and died (indirect adaptation).

Since the conditions of existence on Earth are constantly changing, the processes of evolution and fitness in living nature are also a continuous process.

A recent example of adaptation is changing the habitat of a colony of green Mexican arating parrots. Recently, they have changed their habitual habitat and settled in the very mouth of the Masaya volcano, in an environment constantly saturated with high concentration sulfuric gas. Scientists have not yet given an explanation for this phenomenon.

Types of adaptation

A change in the whole form of an organism's existence is a functional adaptation. An example of adaptation, when changing conditions lead to mutual adaptation of living organisms to each other, is a correlative adaptation or co-adaptation.

Adaptation can be passive, when the functions or structure of the subject occur without his participation, or active, when he consciously changes his habits to match the environment (examples of people adapting to natural conditions or society). There are cases when the subject adapts the environment to his needs - this is an objective adaptation.

Biologists divide the types of adaptation according to three criteria:

• Morphological.
• Physiological.
• behavioral or psychological.

Examples of adaptation of animals or plants in pure form rare, most cases of getting used to new conditions occur in mixed forms.

Morphological adaptations: examples

Morphological changes are changes in the shape of the body, individual organs or the entire structure of a living organism that have occurred in the process of evolution.

Below are morphological adaptations, examples from animal and flora, which we take for granted:

• The transformation of leaves into spines in cacti and other plants of arid regions.
• Turtle shell.
• Streamlined body shapes of inhabitants of reservoirs.

Physiological adaptations: examples

Physiological adaptation is a change in a number of chemical processes occurring inside the body.

• The release of a strong scent by flowers to attract insects contributes to dusting.
• The state of anabiosis, which the simplest organisms are able to enter, allows them to maintain their vital activity after many years. The oldest bacterium capable of reproduction is 250 years old.
• The accumulation of subcutaneous fat, which is converted into water, in camels.

Behavioral (psychological) adaptations

With psychological factor more related examples of human adaptation. Behavioral characteristics characteristic of flora and fauna. So, in the process of evolution, change temperature regime causes some animals to hibernate, birds to fly south to return in spring, trees to shed their leaves and slow down the flow of juices. The instinct to choose the most suitable partner for procreation drives the behavior of animals during the mating season. Some northern frogs and turtles freeze completely for the winter and thaw, reviving with the onset of heat.

Factors causing the need for change

Any adaptation processes are a response to environmental factors that lead to a change in the environment. Such factors are divided into biotic, abiotic and anthropogenic.

Biotic factors are the influence of living organisms on each other, when, for example, one species disappears, which serves as food for another.

Abiotic factors are changes in the environment inanimate nature when climate changes, soil composition, water supply, cycles solar activity. Physiological adaptations, examples of influence abiotic factors- equatorial fish that can breathe both in water and on land. They are well adapted to the conditions when the drying up of rivers is a frequent occurrence.

Anthropogenic factors - influence human activity that changes the environment.

Habitat adaptations

• illumination. In plants, this individual groups, which differ in the need for sunlight. Light-loving heliophytes live well in open spaces. In contrast, they are sciophytes: plants of forest thickets feel good in shaded places. Among the animals there are also individuals whose design is for an active lifestyle at night or underground.
• Air temperature. On average, for all living things, including humans, the optimal temperature environment is considered to be the range from 0 to 50 ° C. However, life exists in almost all climatic regions of the Earth.

Opposite examples of adaptation to abnormal temperatures are described below.

Arctic fish do not freeze due to the production of a unique anti-freeze protein in the blood, which prevents the blood from freezing.

The simplest microorganisms are found in hydrothermal springs, the water temperature in which exceeds the boiling point.

Hydrophyte plants, that is, those that live in or near water, die even with a slight loss of moisture. Xerophytes, on the contrary, are adapted to live in arid regions, and die in high humidity. Among animals, nature has also worked on adapting to aquatic and non-aquatic environments.

Human adaptation

Man's ability to adapt is truly enormous. The secrets of human thinking are far from being fully revealed, and the secrets of the adaptive ability of people will remain a mysterious topic for scientists for a long time to come. The superiority of Homo sapiens over other living beings lies in the ability to consciously change their behavior to meet the requirements of the environment or, conversely, the world around them to suit their needs.

The flexibility of human behavior is manifested daily. If you give the task: "give examples of people's adaptation", the majority begins to remember exceptional cases survival in it rare cases, and in new circumstances is characteristic of a person every day. We try on ourselves new environment at the time of birth, in kindergarten, school, in a team, when moving to another country. It is this state of accepting new sensations by the body that is called stress. Stress is a psychological factor, but nevertheless, many physiological functions change under its influence. When a person takes new environment as positive for itself, the new state becomes habitual, otherwise stress threatens to become protracted and lead to a number of serious diseases.

Human adaptation mechanisms

There are three types of human adaptation:

• Physiological. Most simple examples- acclimatization and adaptability to change of time zones or daily mode of operation. In the course of evolution, Various types people, depending on where they live. Arctic, alpine, continental, desert, equatorial types differ significantly in physiological parameters.
• Psychological adaptation. This is the ability of a person to find moments of understanding with people of different psychotypes, in a country with a different level of mentality. It is common for a reasonable person to change his established stereotypes under the influence of new information, special occasions, stress.
• Social adaptation. A type of addiction that is unique to humans.

All adaptive types are closely related to each other, as a rule, any change in habitual existence causes a need in a person for social and psychological adaptation. Under their influence, the mechanisms of physiological changes come into action, which also adapt to new conditions.

Such a mobilization of all body reactions is called an adaptation syndrome. New body reactions appear in response to sudden changes in the environment. At the first stage - anxiety - there is a change in physiological functions, changes in the work of metabolism and systems. Further, protective functions and organs (including the brain) are connected, they begin to turn on their protective functions and hidden opportunities. The third stage of adaptation depends on individual characteristics: person or included in new life and enters the usual course (in medicine, recovery occurs during this period), or the body does not take stress, and the consequences are already taking a negative form.

Phenomena of the human body

In man, nature has a huge margin of safety, which is used in everyday life only to a small extent. It appears in extreme situations and is seen as a miracle. In fact, the miracle is inherent in ourselves. An example of adaptation: the ability of people to adapt to normal life after the removal of a significant part of the internal organs.

Natural innate immunity throughout life can be strengthened by a number of factors or, conversely, weakened by the wrong way life. Unfortunately, passion bad habits This is also the difference between humans and other living organisms.

ADAPTATION- 1. Adaptation of the structure and functions of the body, its organs and cells to environmental conditions, aimed at maintaining homeostasis. One of central concepts biology; is widely used in theoretical concepts that interpret the relationship between the individual and the environment as processes of homeostatic equilibrium - for example, Gestalt psychology, the theory of development of the intellectual J. Piaget. The study of physiological regulatory mechanisms of adaptation has great importance to solve applied problems of psychophysiology, medical psychology, ergonomics and other psychological disciplines (=> adaptation syndrome).
2. Adaptation of the sense organs to the characteristics of the influencing stimuli for their optimal perception and protection of receptors from overload (=> readaptation). Sometimes different phases of the process of adaptation to unusual extreme conditions are distinguished: the phase of initial decompensation and subsequent phases of partial, and then complete compensation. Changes accompanying adaptation affect all levels of the body - from molecular to psychological regulation of activity. A decisive role in the success of adaptation to extreme conditions is played by training, as well as the functional, mental and moral state of the individual.
ADAPTATION PSYCHOLOGICAL- Adaptation of a person to the requirements and evaluation criteria existing in society through the appropriation of norms and values this society.
ADAPTATION SENSOR- Changing the sensitivity of the analyzer, which serves to adjust it to the intensity of the stimulus; in general, an adaptive change in sensitivity to the intensity of the stimulus. It also manifests itself in a variety of subjective effects (> a consistent image). Can be achieved by increasing or decreasing the overall sensitivity. It is characterized by a range of changes in sensitivity, the speed of this change and the selectivity (selectivity) of changes relative to the adaptive effect. With the help of sensory adaptation, an increase in the sensitivity of the difference in the zone bordering on the magnitude of the stimulus is achieved. This process includes both peripheral and central links analyzer. The patterns of adaptation show how the thresholds of sensitivity change with prolonged action of the stimulus.
Physiological changes, underlying adaptation, affect both peripheral and central parts of the analyzer. For studies of the mechanisms of sensory adaptation and perception processes in general, a combination of neurophysiological and psychophysical methods (> psychophysics) is of great importance.
SOCIAL ADAPTATION- The constant process of integration of the individual into society, the process of active adaptation of the individual to the conditions of the social environment, as well as the result of this process. The ratio of these components, which determines the nature of behavior, depends on the goals and orientation of the individual's value and on the possibilities of achieving them in the social environment. As a result, the formation of self-awareness and role-playing behavior, the ability to self-control and self-service, the ability to adequately connect with others (=> social readaptation) is achieved. Although social adaptation is continuous, this concept is usually associated with periods of fundamental changes in the activity of the individual and his environment. The main types of the adaptation process are formed depending on the structure of the needs and motives of the individual:
1) active type - characterized by the predominance of active influence on the social environment;
2) passive type - is determined by passive, conformal acceptance of goals and orientation of value groups. An important aspect of social adaptation is the individual's acceptance of a social role. This determines the attribution of social adaptation to one of the main socio-psychological mechanisms of personality socialization. The effectiveness of adaptation significantly depends on how adequately the individual perceives himself and his social ties: distorted or insufficiently developed view about itself leads to disorders of adaptation, the extreme expression of which is autism.
In psychology western problem social adaptation is being developed within the framework of the direction that arose on the basis of neobehaviorism and branches of psychoanalysis associated with cultural anthropology and psychosomatic medicine. The main attention is paid to adaptation disorders - neurotic and psychosomatic disorders, alcoholism, drug addiction and others - and ways to correct them.

(Golovin S.Yu. Dictionary practical psychologist- Minsk, 1998)

ADAPTATION(from lat. adaptare - adapt) - in a broad sense - adaptation to changing external and internal conditions. A. human has two aspects: biological and psychological.

Biological aspect A. - common to humans and animals - includes the adaptation of an organism (biological being) to stable and changing environmental conditions: temperature, atmospheric pressure, humidity, illumination, and other physical conditions, as well as to changes in the body: illness, loss of energy. -l. body or limit its functions (see also acclimation). A number of psychophysiological processes belong to the manifestations of biological A., for example. light adaptation (see BUT.sensory). In animals, A. to such conditions is carried out only within the limits internal funds and the possibilities of regulating the functions of the body, while a person uses a variety of auxiliary means that are products of his activity (housing, clothing, vehicles, optical and acoustic equipment, etc.). At the same time, a person has the ability to voluntary mental regulation of some biological processes and states, which expands its adaptive capabilities.

The study of the physiological regulatory mechanisms of A. is of great importance for solving applied problems. psychophysiology,medical psychology,ergonomics and others. Of particular interest to these sciences are the adaptive responses of the body to adverse effects of significant intensity (extreme conditions), which often occur in various types professional activities, and sometimes in the daily life of people; a set of such reactions is called adaptation syndrome.

Psychological aspect A. (partially overlapped by the concept Social adaptation) - human adaptation as personalities to exist in society in accordance with the requirements of this society and with its own needs,motives and interests. The process of actively adapting an individual to conditions social environment called social adaptation.The latter is carried out by assimilating ideas about norms and values ​​of a given society (both in a broad sense and in relation to the immediate social environment- public group, workforce, family). The main manifestations of social A. are the interaction (including communication) of a person with other people and his vigorous activity. The most important means Achievements of successful social A. are general education and education, as well as labor and professional training.

Persons with mental and physical disabilities (defects in hearing, vision, speech, etc.) experience special difficulties in social A.. In these cases, adaptation is facilitated by the use in the learning process and in everyday life of various special means correction of impaired and compensation of missing functions (see. Special psychology ).

The range of A. processes studied in psychology is very wide. In addition to the noted sensory A., social A., A. to extreme conditions of life and activity, processes of A. to inverted and shifted vision, named perceptual, or sensorimotor A. The last name reflects the meaning that has physical activity subject to restore the adequacy of perception in these conditions.

There is an opinion that in recent decades a new and independent industry entitled "extreme psychology", which explores psychological aspects A. a person in supernormal conditions of existence (under water, underground, in the Arctic and Antarctic, in deserts, highlands and, of course, in space). (E. V. Filippova, V. I. Lubovsky.)

Addendum: The psychological aspect of the A. processes of living beings lies, first of all, in the adaptive interpretation of behavior and the psyche. From the evolutionary point of view. occurrence mental activity was a qualitatively new step in the development of mechanisms and methods of biological adaptation. Without this mechanism, the evolution of life would present a completely different picture compared to that studied by biology. Profound thoughts about the mental factor of evolution and A. to changing, non-stationary environmental conditions expressed growing up. biologist A. N. Severtsov (1866-1936) in his short work "Evolution and the Psyche" (1922). This line is taken up by the theorists behavioral ecology(eg, Krebs and Davis, 1981), which explicitly pose the problem of an accurate study of the significance of behavior for survival in an evolutionary aspect.

There is no doubt that in the structure of the way of life of animals, starting with the simplest, essential role play behavioral A. A look at behavior and its mental regulation as active forms of A. was developed by many psychologists of the so-called. functionalist orientation. At the origins functionalism in psychology stood, as you know, At.James, but early functionalism even failed to put forward a program of ecobehavioral and ecopsychological research. Nevertheless, functionalism gave, in principle, the correct theoretical representation, within which different evolutionary forms of behavior and mental processes. Based on this presentation F.Piaget developed an impressive concept of intellectual development. Piaget himself noted his commitment to the ideas of E. Claparede that intelligence performs the function A. to new(for the individual and species) environment, while skill and instinct serve A. to recurring circumstances. Moreover, the instinct is somewhat similar to the intellect, since its first use is also A. to a new situation for the individual (but not for the species). But only with real development zoopsychology and ethology understanding and substantiation of the need to study the psyche and behavior in the structure (context) of the whole, which is called way of life. This idea does not lose its validity even in the transition to the field of human psychology (cf. Environmental psychology). (B. M.)

VISUAL ADAPTATION(English) visual adaptation) - fixture sensitivity eyes (and all visual system) to different lighting conditions. Distinguish A. z. to light (light A. z.) and darkness (dark A. z.). A. h. to light normally occurs within 1 min. At normal condition of the visual analyzer, it depends on the intensity and brightness of the light affecting the eye.

A. h. to darkness lasts much longer. During the first 30-45 minutes there is an increase light sensitivity 8-10 thousand times. However process And. goes during the next hours of stay in the dark, reaching a maximum at about 2-3 hours. to darkness (twilight) occurs as a result of 1) photochemical reactions in the retina (restoration of visual purpura); 2) switching of vision from cone to rod receptor apparatus; 3) increase in the area of ​​receptive fields (spatial summation); 4) increase in pupil area. A. h. measured with special devices called adaptometers. Cm. Hemeralopia,Vision,Photoreceptors. (G. N. Ilyina.)

ADAPTATION SENSOR(English) sensory adaptation) - sensitivity change sensory systems under the influence of an irritant. The concept of A. s. (or, which is not very accurate, A. sense organs) combines a variety of phenomena of change sensitivity, sometimes having a completely different physiological nature. There are at least 3 varieties of A. s.

1. A. - complete disappearance of sensation in the process prolonged action constant irritant. For example, a light load resting on the skin soon ceases to be felt. A person feels the touch of clothes and shoes only at the moment of putting them on. The pressure of the watch on the skin of the hand or glasses on the bridge of the nose also ceases to be felt very quickly. These changes in sensitivity, according to L. M. Vekker (1998), are due to the fact that when a stationary state of interaction with a stimulus is established, the attenuation of centripetal impulses automatically stops the entire further process of sensation, although the process of irritation receptors continues. The absence of the phenomenon of complete adaptation of the visual analyzer under the action of a constant and immobile stimulus is explained by the fact that in this case there is compensation for the immobility of the stimulus due to the movements of the receptor apparatus itself.

2. A. is also called a deterioration in the ability to feel weak stimuli and, consequently, an increase in lower absolute threshold under the influence of a strong light stimulus. The phenomenon of reducing the absolute sensitivity of the visual system under the influence of intense light stimulation is called light BUT.

The described 2 types of A. can be combined general term negative A., t. to. their result is a decrease in the sensitivity of the analyzers.

3. A. is called an increase in sensitivity under the influence of a weak stimulus; this is positive A. In the visual analyzer, positive A. is called dark A., it is expressed in an increase in the absolute sensitivity of the eye under the influence of being in the dark.

Adaptive regulation of the level of sensitivity, depending on which stimuli (weak or strong) affect the receptors, has a huge biological significance. A. protects the sense organs from excessive irritation in case of exposure to strong stimuli. At the same time, it does not allow permanent stimuli to mask new signals or divert attention from more important stimuli. The phenomenon of A. is explained by those peripheral changes that take place in the functioning of receptors during prolonged exposure to an irritant, as well as by the processes occurring in the central sections of the analyzers. For prolonged irritation cortex responds to internal "protective", extreme braking, reducing sensitivity.

It is necessary to distinguish other phenomena from the considered phenomena of A., for example, sensorimotor A. to inversion or shift of retinal images (see. Displaced vision). It has been established that subjects wearing inverting prisms gradually adapt to the conditions of inversion and perceive the surrounding objects as correctly oriented in space. I. Koller (1964) suggested the possibility of 2 types of A. under these conditions: physiological A., independent of c.-l. forms of activity on the part of the subject, and A. as a result practical activities. (See also Adaptation,Visual adaptation,Vision,Thresholds of sensation,Temperature sensations.) (T. P. Zinchenko.)

Addendum:

1. Usually, in the definitions of A., they indicate not just a change in sensitivity, but an adaptive (useful, positive) change, and it is understood that the adaptive effect manifests itself in the sensory sphere itself. The term "negative A." can create misconception about light A. as a phenomenon, which is characterized only by a deterioration in perception, which in itself can also have a positive meaning in the light of other “interests” of the subject (for example, protection from sensory overload or dangerous stimuli, filtering informative signals). However, light A. cannot be limited only to the noted process of lowering absolute sensitivity, since (this is precisely its adaptive value), in parallel with the decrease in absolute sensitivity, there is an increase in differential light (or contrast) sensitivity - the ability of the observer to notice differences, details, contrasts (any a person with normal vision knows that when moving from a dark room to a bright street, it takes some time for the glare to pass and objects to become distinguishable). 2. The phenomena of sensory A. often have a certain selectivity (selectivity): the changes in sensitivity that occur in the sensory system are specific to a certain range of stimulus characteristics close to the characteristics of the adapting stimulus (speed of movement, orientation, color, spatial frequency, etc.) (B. M .)

HEARING ADAPTATION(English) auditory adaptation) - changes in the nature of the perception of sounds during and after the action of a sound stimulus. Most often A. s. manifests itself in a decrease in auditory sensitivity, although other indicators of auditory perception may change under the action of sounds (assessment volume,pitch). A. s. in the form of an increase in hearing thresholds, it depends on the intensity, frequency and duration of the affecting tone, as well as on the time elapsed after the beginning or termination of the sound.

An increase in the time of exposure to an irritating tone leads to auditory fatigue, characterized by a temporary increase in hearing thresholds and a significant recovery period.

A.'s mechanisms with. insufficiently studied. Along with changes in the function of the inner ear (see inner ear), expressed in a decrease in the frequency of cell discharges, on the development of A. s. the processes happening in the higher departments of c influence. n. with. (see also Hearing).

SOCIAL ADAPTATION(English) social adaptation) - an integrative indicator of a person's state, reflecting his ability to perform certain biosocial functions: adequate perception of the surrounding reality and his own body; an adequate system of relations and communication with others; ability to work, study, organize leisure and recreation; the ability to self-service and mutual service in the family and the team, the variability (adaptability) of behavior in accordance with the role expectations of others.

Social maladaptation may occur as a result of an organic disease, severe injury, functional mental illness. The degree of maladaptation and potential opportunities social readaptation defined as severity and specific features disease, and the nature of internal processing by patients social situation illness. Cm. Internal picture of the disease. (J. M. Glozman.)

(Zinchenko V.P., Meshcheryakov B.G. Bolshoi psychological dictionary- 3rd ed., 2002)

Introduction

General understanding of the concept of adaptation

Adaptation in various sciences

Adaptation in psychology

Factors that determine the effectiveness of the adaptation process

Adjustment disorder

Introduction

Human life cannot take place in isolation from the external environment. Objects and phenomena of the external environment constantly have a certain impact on a person and determine the conditions for the implementation of his activities, and often their impact is negative, harmful. The conditions for the normal functioning of a person are very harsh. A change in body temperature of just one degree leads to a feeling of significant discomfort. A change in temperature by five or six degrees can lead to the death of the body. Man, like other animals, has undergone severe natural selection in his evolution, but still remains a rather vulnerable creature. Adaptation of the body allows you to smooth out many of the unpleasant consequences of a sharp change in the physical and physiological parameters of existence.

From birth to death, a person has to adapt to the constantly changing conditions of life.

So the mental health of the Russian population has not been left without the attention of concerned experts for several years now. About 30% of Russians today need medical or consultative assistance from a psychiatrist or psychologist, as they cannot adequately adapt. That is why the topic of adaptation is truly relevant today.

General understanding of the concept of adaptation

The concept of adaptation is one of the main ones in the scientific study of the organism, since it is precisely the adaptation mechanisms developed in the process of evolution that ensure the possibility of the organism's existence in constantly changing environmental conditions. Thanks to the adaptation process, the optimal functioning of all body systems and balance in the "man-environment" system are achieved. The French physiologist C. Bernard put forward the hypothesis that any living organism, including the human one, exists due to the ability to constantly maintain parameters of the internal environment of the organism that are favorable for its existence. This preservation occurs due to the work of complex self-regulatory mechanisms (which were later called homeostatic). Bernard was the first to formulate the idea that constancy internal environment- a condition of any life. Later, the American physiologist W. Cannon developed this theory and called the ideal state homeostasis. Homeostasis is a mobile equilibrium state of any system, maintained by its counteraction to internal and external factors that disturb this balance. One of the central points of the doctrine of homeostasis is the idea that any stable system seeks to maintain its stability. According to W. Cannon, receiving signals about changes threatening the system, the body turns on devices that continue to work until it can be returned to an equilibrium state. If the balance of the processes and systems of the body is disturbed, then the parameters of the internal environment are disturbed, the living organism begins to suffer. The disease state will persist throughout the entire time of restoration of the parameters that ensure the normal existence of the organism. If the previous parameters cannot be achieved, then the organism may try to achieve equilibrium with other, changed parameters. The organism, therefore, is not only able to return the ideal parameters, but will also try to adapt to new, not ideal ones. In this case general state organism will be different from the ideal. Chronic disease is a typical example of temporary equilibrium. Human vital activity is ensured not only by striving for the internal balance of all systems, but also by constantly taking into account the factors that affect this organism from the outside. The organism is not only surrounded by the environment, it exchanges with it. He is forced to constantly receive from the external environment the components necessary for life (for example, oxygen). Complete isolation of a living organism from the external environment is tantamount to its death. Therefore, a living organism tries by all available means not only to return its internal state to the ideal one, but also to adapt to the environment, making the exchange process the most effective. In other words, adaptation is the process of adapting the internal environment of the body to external conditions its life activity, that is, the optimization of the interaction of "external" and "internal" in order to preserve and maintain life.

Adaptation in various sciences

The concept of “adaptation” arose initially in biology (“biological adaptation” is the adaptation of an organism to external conditions in the process of evolution, including morphophysiological and behavioral components), but it can also be attributed to general scientific concepts that arise at the “junctions” of sciences or even in certain areas of knowledge and are further extrapolated to many areas of the natural and social sciences. The concept of "adaptation", as a general scientific concept, contributes to the unification of knowledge of various (natural, social, technical) systems.

There are many definitions of adaptation, both having a common, very broad sense, and reducing the essence of the adaptation process to the phenomena of one of the many levels - from biochemical to social.

G. Selye made a significant contribution to the development of the modern theory of adaptation in physiology, biology and medicine. His concept of stress organically complements the theory of adaptation. Stress stages are characteristic of any adaptation process, since they include both a direct reaction to an impact that requires adaptive restructuring (anxiety stage, alarm reaction), and a period of maximum effective adaptation (resistance stage), and (in case of insufficiency of adaptive mechanisms) a violation of the adaptation process ( exhaustion stage). The universal nature of these regularities makes it possible to similarly consider the relationship between mental adaptation and mental (emotional) stress.

The phenomenon of stress occurs when the normal adaptive response is insufficient.

The issues of adaptation have been studied at the cellular, organ, organism, population and species levels. V.Yu. Vereshchagin singles out, in particular, medical-biological, evolutionary-genetic and ecological directions in the study of the problem of human adaptation, respectively, defined differently. So, G. Selye identifies the constantly ongoing process of adaptation with the concept of life. HELL. Slonim defines adaptation as a set of physiological characteristics that determine the balance of the body with constant or changing environmental conditions. V.P. Kaznacheev considers physiological adaptation as a process of maintaining the functional state of homeostatic systems and the body as a whole, ensuring its preservation, development, performance, maximum life expectancy in inadequate environmental conditions. According to F.Z. Meyerson, adaptation is the process of adapting an organism to the external environment or to changes occurring in the organism itself. In his opinion, in addition to genotypic adaptation, which has developed in the process of evolutionary development and is inherited, there is a phenotypic adaptation acquired in the course of individual life. Phenotypic adaptation is defined as a process by which an organism acquires resistance to a certain environmental factor. F.Z. Meyerson considers the phased nature of these processes, the transition of urgent adaptation to guaranteed, ensuring the fixation of the existing adaptation systems. Studying the relationship between memory and adaptation, the researcher comes to a fair conclusion that memory is the main, necessary prerequisite for adaptation, but is not identical to it.

Since in the process of individual development of a person, adaptation mechanisms are developed in him, based primarily on the restructuring of social relations between people, V.G. Aseev believes that this concept can be used to determine scientific approaches to the study of social adaptation.

N. Nikitina defines social adaptation as the integration of the individual into the existing system of social relations. Such a definition does not take into account the specific features of social interaction, in which both sides (the social environment and the person) are mutually active. A similar concept of adaptation was used by J. Piaget, who defined it as a unity of oppositely directed processes: accommodation and assimilation. The first of them provides a modification of the subject's behavior in accordance with the properties of the environment. The second one changes certain components of this environment, processing them according to the structure of the organism or including them in the behavioral patterns of the subject.

According to T.N. Vershinina, if the social environment is active in relation to the subject, then adaptation prevails in adaptation; if the interaction is dominated by the subject, then adaptation is in the nature of vigorous activity.

F.B. Berezin believes that mental adaptation plays a decisive role in human life, largely influencing adaptation processes. Yu.A. Aleksandrovsky considers mental adaptation as the result of the activity of an integral self-governing system that ensures human activity at the level of "operational rest", allowing him not only to most optimally resist various natural and social factors, but also to actively and purposefully influence them.

Adaptation in psychology

Psychological adaptation is that aspect of adaptation where a person is considered as a person, affecting the structural components, personality traits, and its activity. The source of psychological adaptation is the interaction between the individual and society, and the means of implementation is the assimilation of the norms, values, requirements of this society by a person. At the same time, it should be noted that the criterion for the effectiveness of the adaptation process is the internal structure of the personality, its needs, motives, attitudes, etc. in accordance with the requirements of the community of residence. The main mechanism of this adaptation is changes in the structural connections and relationships of those properties and qualities that are determined by the personality, i.e. their integration into a single system.

The implementation of the process of mental adaptation, according to F.B. Berezina, is provided by a complex multi-level functional system, on different levels which regulation is carried out mainly by psychological (socio-psychological and actually mental) or physiological mechanisms. In the general system of mental adaptation, three main levels or subsystems are distinguished: the actual mental, socio-psychological and psychophysiological. At the same time, the tasks of mental adaptation proper are to maintain mental homeostasis and preserve mental health, socio-psychological - the organization of adequate microsocial interaction, psycho-physiological adaptation - the optimal formation of psycho-physiological relationships and the preservation of physical health. The study of indicators of mental adaptation therefore involves an integrated approach and simultaneous assessment of the current mental state, the characteristics of microsocial interaction, cerebral activity and autonomic regulation, respectively. An indicator of the success of mental adaptation is the achievement of the ability to perform the main tasks of activity. Two groups of them were most often used as adaptation criteria: objective and subjective. F.B. Berezin emphasizes that the effectiveness of adaptation cannot be assessed regardless of cost indicators, and defines mental adaptation as “the process of establishing the optimal correspondence between the individual and the environment in the course of carrying out activities characteristic of a person, which allows the individual to satisfy actual needs and realize significant goals associated with them (while maintaining mental and physical health), ensuring at the same time the compliance of a person’s mental activity, his behavior with the requirements of the environment. Factors that determine the effectiveness of the adaptation process

Violations of homeostasis and equilibrium in the human-environment system can be caused by various factors. Depending on the aspect in which the adaptation process was considered, a number of authors studied the influence of either biological or social factors. According to V.G. Aseeva, social factors (production and interpersonal relations, social ties, communication, etc.) are the same objective forms of influence on a person as biological factors, and social factors play a decisive role in adaptive mechanisms. It is obvious that the action of biological and social factors can be mutually mediated: “it can be confidently stated that such factors of progress as, for example, the acceleration of the pace of life, the intensification of production processes, urbanization, “alienation”, a complex of socio-psychological and cultural-historical conditions of our era - act on human biology not directly, but indirectly, refracting through the neuropsychic sphere.

IN AND. Medvedev describes three groups of factors (determinators) of the adaptation process that are closely interconnected. In his opinion, a person is affected by a complex of both natural adaptogenic factors and social ones, determined by the type of activity performed and the social tasks facing it. The third group of factors are the internal conditions for the performance of activities, i.e. the state of the processes that provide adaptation. G.M. Zarakovskiy singles out three groups of such processes: operational - constituting the direct content of those actions that a person performs to achieve the goal of the activity; support processes (energy, plastic, etc.) that create conditions for the performance of activities; regulatory processes - organizing, directing activities in general and managing the functioning of the first two groups.

F.B. Berezin studied the influence of character accentuations on the process of adaptation. In his opinion, accentuated personalities do not show violations of mental adaptation, tk. personality traits that determine their behavior contribute to mental adaptation if they meet the requirements of the environment. However, if prolonged stress of adaptive mechanisms leads to an undesirable sharpening of accentuated features, the adaptive capabilities of the individual are reduced and these features facilitate the emergence of intrapsychic and interpersonal conflicts.

Adjustment disorder

Adjustment disorder is a maladaptive reaction to clearly detectable psychosocial stress or stresses, which manifests itself 3 months after the onset of stress. This pathological reaction can be perceived by the subject as a personal misfortune, it is not an exacerbation of a mental illness that meets other criteria. The disorder usually resolves shortly after the stress wears off or, if the stress persists, a new level of adaptation is achieved. The reaction is maladaptive due to disturbances in social or professional activities or due to manifestations that go beyond the normal, usual, expected reactions to such stress. Therefore, this diagnosis should not be made if the patient meets the criteria for a more specific disorder.

Adjustment disorders are aggravated by the presence of one or more stressors. The severity of the stress or stresses does not always determine the severity of the adjustment disorder. Personal organization and cultural or social norms and values ​​contribute to inadequate responses to stress. Its severity is a complex function of degree, amount, duration, reversibility, environment, and personal relationships.

In the presence of a simultaneous personality disorder or organic lesion, an adjustment disorder may also develop. Such exposure may also result from the loss of a parent in childhood. Although, by definition, adjustment disorder occurs after stress, the symptoms do not necessarily begin immediately, nor do they immediately disappear when the stress stops. With constant stress, the disorder can last a lifetime. It can also occur at any age. Its manifestations are very diverse, with depressive, anxiety and mixed symptoms being the most common in adults.

Physical symptoms are most commonly seen in children and the elderly, but may affect others. Sometimes patients show violence and recklessness, drink, commit offenses or isolate themselves from society.

DSM-III-R Diagnostic Criteria for Adjustment Disorders.

A. A response to overt psychosocial stress (or multiple stresses) that appears within 3 months of the onset of exposure to the stress(s).

B. The maladaptive nature of the reaction is indicated by one of the following: 1) a violation in professional (including school) activities or in ordinary social life or relationships with others, 2) symptoms that go beyond the norm and expected reactions to stress. C. The disorder is not merely an example of an over-reaction to stress or an exacerbation of one of the previously described mental disorders.

G. The reaction of maladjustment lasts no more than 6 months.

findings

The problem of adaptation, being interdisciplinary, takes great place in studies of domestic and foreign psychologists.

Almost all authors consider adaptation as a process of adaptation to various conditions of the external environment, during which new qualities or properties are acquired. This emphasizes the activity of adaptive processes that constantly accompany human life and contribute to its survival in various conditions.

But, despite numerous studies of adaptation, there are still many blank spots in understanding the essence, types and structure of this phenomenon, as well as the factors that determine it.

Bibliography:

Alekhin A.N. Adaptation as a concept in medical and psychological research // Anniversary collection of scientific papers (to the 10th anniversary of the department clinical psychology RGPU them. A.I. Herzen). - St. Petersburg: Future Strategy, 2010. - S. 27-32.

Berezin FB Psychological and psychophysiological adaptation of a person. - L.: Nauka, 1988. - 260 p.

Kaplan G.I. Clinical Psychiatry. M., 1994.

Maklakov A. G. General psychology. St. Petersburg: Peter, 2001.

Yanitsky M.S. Adaptation process: psychological mechanisms and patterns of dynamics. Tutorial. – Kemerovo: Kemerovo State University, 1999..

lat. adaptation) in biology - a set of physiological, behavioral, population characteristics of a biological species, providing the possibility of a specific lifestyle of individuals in certain environmental conditions (see. Environment). Adaptation is also called the process of developing adaptations. In physiology and medicine, it also refers to the process of addiction.

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ADAPTATION

Late Lat. adaptatio - adaptation, adjustment) - the term was originally used in biological science to refer to the process of adapting the structure and functions of organisms (populations, species) and their organs to certain environmental conditions. A. are formed throughout all stages life cycle organism. The totality of A. developed in the process of development gives living systems an expedient organization. At the same time, A. is also a certain result of the adaptive process - adaptatiogenesis, which occurs during the interaction of living systems with their environment. The materialistic interpretation of the nature of A. was first proposed by Darwin, who showed that A. arise as a result of natural selection. At present, the concept of A. has gone beyond biology. It began to be used in many technical, natural and humanities. So, in medicine, it is used to characterize the optimal life and normal socio-biological development of a person. In the technical sciences and cybernetics, on the basis of the concept of A., the concept of "adaptive systems" is being developed, which denotes various self-adjusting technical systems with feedback. In many social sciences and psychology refers to the social A. of the individual or social group to the social environment (microenvironment), in the process of which relationships are established that ensure the development of both the individual and the social group, and the environment (microenvironment). At the same time, social A. covers the biological, mental and social sphere human being. The general scientific status of the concept of A. also implies the need to define it in a broader sense, invariant for specific scientific disciplines: Is there special form reflection by systems of the influences of the external and internal environment, which consists in the tendency to establish dynamic equilibrium with them. This balance ensures the harmonious relationship of the system with its internal and external environment and development of this system.

The concept of A. arose in biology to designate the adaptation of the structure and functions of organisms to the conditions of existence or getting used to them. Psychological A. is determined by the activity of the individual and acts as a unity of accommodation (assimilation of the rules of the environment, “assimilation” to it) and assimilation (“assimilation” to oneself, transformation of the environment). The environment affects a person or a group, to-rye selectively perceive and process these influences in accordance with their internal. nature, and the individual or group actively influences the environment. Hence - adaptive and, at the same time, adapting activity of an individual or group. Such an A. mechanism, taking shape in the process of socialization of the individual, becomes the basis of its behavior and activities. The most important role in this belongs to social control. With an underestimation of the factor of social and mental. activity (for example, in psychoanalysis) A. is reduced to simple balance biological desires of a person and social requirements and prohibitions, and the personality itself - to the passive result of the collision of both.

Actually social level A. is primarily determined by the active, active nature social subjects. On the part of the social environment, A. is determined by the goals of activity, social norms - the ways to achieve them, and sanctions for deviation from these norms.

There are traces, variants of adaptive interaction, depending on the degree of activity and direction of the activity of the individual and the group. Submission to the environment, with Krom own. the goals of an individual or a group and the ways to achieve them are developed socio-historically, generally accepted, traditional, fully consistent with social norms. Updating the environment, in which a person or group uses unconventional, disapproved or previously unknown methods to achieve generally accepted and approved goals. Ritualism, in which, in pursuit of non-generally accepted goals, a person or group uses outwardly decent, approved and generally accepted methods, strictly following traditions and rituals. Departure from life, with Krom unaccepted, strange in terms of sp. environments, goals are achieved in the same obscure and frowned upon ways. Rebellion, rebellion, in which, refusing to generally accepted goals, a person or group does not act with a reaction. positions, but put forward new goals and use new ways to achieve them, which often acts as creativity. constructive transformation of the environment.

The most important condition for successful A. is the optimum. a combination of adaptive and adaptive activities, varying depending on specific situations, that is, the correct definition of how, to what extent and to everything whether A is possible and necessary. The basis of this is a highly conscious creativity. activity, continuous contain, exchange with the social environment, with society as a whole, contributing qualities, updating the environment, personality or group, their transition to a new more high level. This requires awareness of oneself as a doer, the right combination reasonable needs individual or group with the tasks of the social environment, which is possible only when determined. social conditions. So, in the bourgeoisie. society, in which the goals of the individual, as a rule, are not combined with public ones, successful A. in many ways. cases is in principle impossible, resulting in various forms deviant behaviour.

The concept of A. is also used in the analysis of "man-machine" systems, socio-psychological. climate of groups and collectives, asocial and antisocial behavior, in pedagogy and psychology of education. In a number of areas (jurisprudence, medicine), the term "readaptation" has been adopted, meaning A. to the previous social conditions after changes that have occurred to an individual or group.

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