Starting from the turn of the 7th-8th centuries. and especially in the ninth century. there is another trend that is increasingly influencing the cultural and artistic development Baltic countries - the influence of the northwestern and Western European cultures of Ireland, England and the Frankish power of the Merovingians, and then the Carolingians. For some areas of Scandinavia, this trend has become decisive. It is not always possible to reveal its influence in detail. However, undoubtedly art style of the Viking Age in the art of Scandinavia, represented by magnificent examples in the carving of the Oseberg ship (ill. 13, color ill. 6), as well as countless works of small forms, its appearance is very much due to plant motifs drawn from Frankish art, as well as to the image " Carolingian lion." In the IX-X centuries. these motifs merged in Scandinavian art with ribbon weaving and animal ornaments characteristic of it 49 . However, the latter, it seems, was in turn formed in the previous Vendel period (VI-VIII centuries) under the influence of Anglo-Saxon and especially Irish-Scottish Celtic art 50 . Both the continental European, Frankish, and insular, Anglo-Irish, zones remained a source of influence on the art of Scandinavia throughout the Viking Age until the 11th century. The next wave of impulses is revealed at the end of the Viking Age at the end of the 10th - beginning of the 11th century, when new Western European elements appear in Scandinavian ornamentation: "masks" and "antennae". Two richly decorated caskets from Bamberg and Kamen, the latter undoubtedly made in the Baltic, demonstrate these connections 51 . Finally, in the late Jellingian style, the image of a large beast is spreading, completely filling the plane of the image; it displaces the animal ornament dating back to the previous period. The beast, depicted in full growth, is particularly monumental. It remains open, however, the question of how widespread in Scandinavian art this new look, which owes its origin to continental art 52 (ill. 14).

Europe is called the part of the world that lies in the western part of the Eurasian continent in the Northern Hemisphere, and together with Asia forms a single continent. Its area is 10 million km 2, about 20% of the total population of the Earth (743 million people) lives here. Europe is the largest economic, historical and political center having importance worldwide.

Geographical position

Europe is washed by the Atlantic and Arctic Oceans, its coastline it is distinguished by significant indentation, the area of ​​\u200b\u200bits islands is 730 thousand km 2, ¼ of the entire area is occupied by the peninsulas: Kola, Apennine, Balkan, Pyrenean, Scandinavian, etc. The border between Europe and Asia conditionally runs along east coast Ural mountains, r Emba, the Caspian Sea. Kumo-Manych depression and the mouth of the Don.

Main geographical features

The average surface height is 300 meters, the highest point is Mount Elbrus (5642 m, Caucasian mountains in Russia), the lowest is -27 m (Caspian Sea). Most of the territory is occupied by plains (East European, Lower and Middle Danube, Central European), 17% of the surface is mountains and plateaus (Urals, Carpathians, Pyrenees, Alps, Scandinavian Mountains, Crimean Mountains, mountains of the Balkan Peninsula), Iceland and the islands of the Mediterranean are located in the zone of seismic activity.

The climate of most of the territory is temperate ( Western part- temperate oceanic, eastern - temperate continental), northern islands lie in the arctic and subarctic climatic zones, southern Europe - a Mediterranean climate, the Caspian lowland - semi-desert.

The amount of water flow in Europe is about 295 mm, this is the second largest in the world after South America, however, due to the much smaller area of ​​the territory, the volume of water runoff (2850 km 3) exceeds the readings of Africa and Antarctica. Water resources distributed unevenly across Europe, runoff inland waters decreases from north to south and from west to east. Most of rivers belongs to the basin of the seas of the Atlantic Ocean, minority- to the Northern basin Arctic Ocean and the internal drainage basin of the Caspian Sea. The largest rivers in Europe are located mainly in Russia and of Eastern Europe, there are also large rivers and in the territory Western Europe. Major rivers: Volga, Kama, Oka, Danube, Ural, Dnieper, Don, Dniester, Rhine, Elbe, Vistula, Tahoe, Loire, Oder, Neman. The lakes of Europe are of tectonic origin, which determines their considerable depth, elongated shape and heavily indented coastline, these are flat lakes Ladoga, Onega, Vattern, Imandra, Balaton, mountain lakes - Geneva, Como, Garda.

In accordance with the laws latitudinal zonality the whole territory of Europe is in different natural areas: far north - zone Arctic deserts, then comes the tundra and forest-tundra, a zone of deciduous and mixed forests, forest-steppe, steppe, subtropical Mediterranean forest vegetation and shrubs, the extreme south is a semi-desert zone.

European countries

The territory of Europe is divided between 43 independent states officially recognized by the UN, there are also 6 officially unrecognized republics (Kosovo, Abkhazia, South Ossetia, Transnistria, LPR, DPR) and 7 dependent territories (in the Arctic and Atlantic Oceans). 6 states due to their very small size belong to the so-called microstates: the Vatican, Andorra, Liechtenstein, Malta, Monaco, San Marino. Partially in Europe are the territories of such states as Russia - 22%, Kazakhstan - 14%, Azerbaijan - 10%, Georgia - 5%, Turkey - 4%. 28 states of Europe united in a national association European Union(EU), have a common currency euro, common economic and political views. According to cultural, geographical and political characteristics, the entire territory of Europe is conditionally divided into Western, Eastern, Northern, Southern and Central.

List of countries in Europe

Major European countries:

(with detailed description)

Nature

Nature, plants and animals of Europe

The presence in Europe of several natural and climatic zones provides a rich and varied plant and animal world, which, under the influence of human economic activity, have undergone a number of changes, which led to a decrease in their biodiversity and even to the complete disappearance of some species ...

On the Far North, in the Arctic climate, mosses, lichens, polar buttercups, poppies grow. Dwarf birches, willows, and alders appear in the tundra. To the south of the tundra are vast expanses of taiga, which is characterized by the growth of such typical coniferous trees like cedar, spruce, fir, larch. Due to the temperate climate zone prevailing in most of Europe, large areas are occupied by huge forests of deciduous and mixed trees (aspen, birch, maple, oak, fir, hornbeam). Oak forests, steppe grasses, cereals, shrubs grow in the zone of steppes and forest-steppes: feather grass, irises, steppe hyacinths, blackthorn, steppe cherry, dereza. The Black Sea subtropics are characterized by the predominance of forests of fluffy oak, juniper, boxwood, and black alder. Southern Europe is characterized by subtropical vegetation, there are palm trees and creepers, olives, grapes, citrus fruits, magnolias, cypresses grow.

The foothills of the mountains (Alps, Caucasian, Crimean) are characterized by the growth of coniferous trees, for example, such as relic Caucasian plants: boxwood, chestnut, Eldar and Pitsunda pines. In the Alps, pines and spruces give way to subalpine tall grass meadows; on the peaks there are alpine meadows that amaze with the beauty of their emerald greenery.

AT northern latitudes(subarctic, tundra, taiga), where human influence on surrounding nature appears to a lesser extent more quantity predators: polar bears, wolves, arctic foxes. Reindeer, polar hares, walruses, seals live there. Red deer, brown bears, lynxes and wolverines, sables and ermines are still found in the Russian taiga, wood grouses, hazel grouses, black grouses, woodpeckers, and nutcrackers live here.

Europe is a highly urbanized and industrialized region, therefore large mammals are practically absent here, the largest inhabitants of European forests are deer and fallow deer. In the Alps, Carpathians and on Iberian Peninsula wild boars, chamois still live, moufflons are found on the islands of Sardinia and Corsica, Poland and Belarus are famous for their relic animals from the bison genus bison, which are listed in the Red Book and live exclusively in reserves. The lower tiers of deciduous and mixed forests are inhabited by foxes, hares, badgers, ferrets, weasels, and squirrels. Beavers, otters, muskrats and nutria live on the banks of rivers and reservoirs. Characteristic inhabitants of the semi-desert zone: gazelles, jackals, a large number of small rodents, snakes.

Climatic conditions

Seasons, weather and climate of European countries

Europe is located in four climatic zones: the Arctic ( low temperatures, in summer not higher than +5 С 0, precipitation - 400 mm / year), subarctic (mild maritime climate, t January - +1, -3°, July - +10°, the predominance of cloudy days with fogs, precipitation - 1000 mm / year), moderate (marine - cool summers, mild winters, and continental - long winters, cool summers) and subtropical (hot summers, mild winters)...

Most of Europe has a temperate climate climate zone, the west is under the influence of the Atlantic Ocean air masses, east - continental, south - Mediterranean air masses from the tropics, the north is exposed to the invasion of arctic air. The territory of Europe has sufficient hydration, precipitation (mainly in the form of rain) is unevenly distributed, their maximum (1000-2000 mm) falls on Scandinavia, British Isles, slopes of the Alps and the Apennines, at least - 400 mm in the east of the Balkan Peninsula and the southeast of the Pyrenees.

The peoples of Europe: culture and traditions

The population living in Europe (770 million people) is diverse and colorful. ethnic composition. In total, there are 87 nationalities, of which 33 are the national majority in any particular independent state, 54 - minority (105 million or 14% of total population of Europe)

In Europe, there are 8 groups of peoples, whose number exceeds 30 million, together they represent 460 million people, which is 63% of the total European population:

• Russians of the European part (90 million);
• Germans (82 million);
• French (65 million);
• British (55-61 million);
• Italians (59 million);
• Spaniards (46 million);
• Ukrainians (46 million);
• Poles (38 million).

About 25 million European residents(3%) - members of the diaspora of non-European origin, the population of the EU (approximately 500 million people) is 2/3 of the total population of Europe.

For several millennia, there were only two long-term centers of innovation and economic power. One of them was East Asia, and others in the Mediterranean, especially countries on the East Coast.

Of the influential Western empires that existed before 1500 AD. e., Egyptian, Mesopotamian, Greek, Roman, Hellenistic and Byzantine Empire grouped in this relatively small area. The Eastern Mediterranean was not only the birthplace of the most widespread Abrahamic religions in the West - Judaism and its descendants, Christianity and Islam - but also the cradle of a wide variety of vital Western innovations - from agriculture and metalworking to writing, arithmetic and even statehood.

The rise to domination of the world stage by the countries of northwestern Europe - a dominance never reached by the old empires of the Eastern Mediterranean and Asia Minor - could not have been predicted as early as 1600. This rise was not inevitable, but in retrospect one can note several powerful factors that contributed to it. With the discovery of America and the development of a long sea ​​route around the cape Good Hope to India, the East Indies and China Northwestern Europe gained the advantage. Of course, she shared this advantage with the western coast of Italy and the Mediterranean coast of Spain, which occupied no less advantageous position for transporting the treasures of the New World across the ocean than Amsterdam and London.

Protestantism was one of the driving belts of the rise of Northwest Europe. This religious movement flourished mainly in north side Alps. It was probably easier for the reformers to succeed away from Rome and other Italian cities and principalities, with their connection with the papacy and their emotional interest in supporting it. In addition, in the early years of the Reformation it was adopted and supported with an enthusiasm, which only increased over time, by the trading and capitalist system, mainly connected with textiles, which was already established and intensively developed in some parts of Europe.

With a few notable exceptions, the Protestant creed was more sympathetic to the spirit of inquiry so necessary developing science and technology.

THE EARTH GLOBE AT A GLOBAL

The geographical position in its own way contributed to the rise of Northwestern Europe. This cold region, with its long winters, was an active fuel consumer. As England, Belgium and other parts of the region began to run out of cheap firewood, they turned to the shallow coastal coal seams. It so happened that this region had the richest coal deposits in comparison with Italy, Greece, Egypt, the Holy Crescent and all the countries of the Eastern Mediterranean and the Persian Gulf. In turn, the development of coal deposits led, although not automatically, to the emergence of steam engine and coking blast furnaces. Steam propulsion has been the most influential agent of globalization to date, as it led directly and indirectly to automobile and aircraft engines, to the age of gas and oil.

So a combination of major and minor factors has helped Northwest Europe outpace the warmer, drier Mediterranean and Middle East. Western Europe used its geographical position, driven by a spirit of intellectual and commercial adventurism that the world has probably not known before.

The United States has demonstrated the same spirit of adventurism, and even with great success. A huge pantry of natural resources and the engine of science, they were potentially richer than North-Western Europe, and by 1900 they contained more residents than any two European countries, taken together. They were also united while Europe was divided. Nothing will influence the events of the 20th century more than the unity of North America and the growing fragmentation of Europe.

More on the Rise of NORTHWESTERN EUROPE:

1. The northwestern, western, southern and southeastern borders of Russia have changed.
2. THE NORTHWESTERN AND NORTHERN WINGS OF THE MOUNTAIN CRIMEA MEGANTICLINORIUM
3. SARMATIAN MONUMENTS OF THE STEPPES OF THE NORTH-WESTERN BLACK SEA REGION
4. The appearance of korchags at the Late Bronze Age Erochi sites of the northwestern Black Sea region
5. countries and peoples. Scientific-popul.geographical-ethnogr. ed. in 20 tons. Foreign Europe. Western Europe. Redcall. V. P. Maksakovskii (responsible editor) and others - M.: Thought, 1979. - 381 p., ill., cart., 1979

Before talking about the geographical achievements of the astronomer and traveler of antiquity Pytheas, a reservation should be made. After all we are talking about the discovery of Western Europe by a European. These regions have been inhabited by people since ancient times, since the end of the last glaciation, at least 10 thousand years ago. Moreover, tin from Britain and amber from the Baltic southern Europe, in the Mediterranean (amber products are found in the burials of the pharaohs). However, such movements of things do not yet mean the same journeys of people. Things passed from hand to hand, were transported in wagons, in ships along rivers and seas. Where they were delivered from, they didn’t really know anything about the people and countries where their products eventually ended up. And the "consumer", in turn, often had the most vague ideas about the lands where silver or gold, tin or amber were brought from. (Also, we still do not know where the country of Ophir and the legendary mines of King Solomon were located, although gold did indeed come from there to Asia Minor and Egypt.)

For Europeans living on the coast mediterranean sea(on the territory of present-day France), remained unknown lands located relatively close, in the area of ​​​​the English Channel and North Sea. The way by land passed through dense forests, unknown rivers and mountains, through the possessions of different tribes, and by sea it was long, difficult and dangerous, primarily because of the frequent bad weather. The first geographer to explore western edge Europe, was Pytheas - a native of the Greek colony of Massalia (now Marseille). If we compare the journey of Pytheas with the expedition of Hanno, which was discussed above, then two patterns can be noted.

First, each of them discovered the lands of their native continent. Hanno moved along the southern edge of the Mediterranean Sea, skirting Africa, and Pytheas moved along the northern edge, skirting Europe. This indicates that at that time almost exclusively coastal voyages were made - along the coast. In addition, researchers were attracted primarily by lands that could be most easily developed. Secondly, West Coast Africa began to be studied much earlier than the Atlantic coast of Europe. The northern countries attracted Mediterraneans less than the southern ones. Yes, and navigation off the coast of Europe was more difficult than that of Africa. Or maybe the ancient inhabitants of Western Europe met uninvited guests too aggressively (uncivilized Europeans, unlike Africans, were better armed and fought more often).

One way or another, and the journey of Pytheas, comparable in length to the route of Hanno, was made two centuries later - in the VI century BC. Much more skeptical remarks were heard about Pytheas than about Hanno's expedition. Particularly harsh reviews belong to the great Roman geographer Strabo .. To our time, the works of Pytheas have come down almost exclusively in retellings. One of the few surviving passages, indeed, could be considered pure fantasy by a Mediterranean citizen:

“The barbarians showed us the place where the Sun goes to rest. For it just happened that the night in these regions was very short and lasted two hours in some places, three hours in others.

An enlightened Roman could hardly doubt that the Earth is spherical and that the days in the north are long in summer. But he was also sure of the impossibility for a person to live in a gloomy and unbearably cold northern country. There is no information about what the expedition of Pytheas was, who organized it and for what purposes. Apparently, the enterprise was secret and was intended to find out the sea route to the deposits of tin and amber, which were delivered to the Mediterranean by land, along rivers and passes. Not by chance " supervisor» The expedition appointed Pytheas: he was a famous astronomer, determined with great accuracy the geographical coordinates of Massalia, and also found out that the exact direction to the North Pole does not quite coincide with polar star. Even Strabo saw fit to admit: “From the side of astronomical phenomena and mathematical calculations in areas close to the cold zone, he (Pytheas) made correct observations”.

Here is what information about the journey and observations of Pytheas was given in their writings by ancient authors - Diodorus Siculus, Pliny the Elder and Aetis.

“The inhabitants of Britain, living near Cape Belerion (modern Land End), are very hospitable ... They extract tin, skillfully smelting it from ore ... Merchants buy tin from the inhabitants and ship it to Gaul. Finally, tin is transported by land on pack horses through Gaul, and after 30 days it reaches the mouth of the Rhone.

“The farthest of all known lands is Thule, where during the solstice, when the sun passes the sign of Cancer, there are no nights, but very little light in winter ... Some mention other islands (north of Britain): Scandia, Dumna, Bergi and the greatest of all Bergion.

"In forty days, Pytheas traveled around the entire island of Britain. For six days he sailed along the North Sea to the land of Thule (Norway?), Not Iceland, as it is inhabited, there are bees. He reached Jutland, the North Frisian Islands ... The Massiliots traded in tin, transporting it by land. And Pytheas could also travel. Polybius wrote that Pytheas made big trips by water and land."

It is still unclear whether Pytheas visited Iceland and how far he went into the Baltic Sea (if at all). Almost all of his messages have come down to us in retelling, which means they could be distorted. More more precisely information remained apparently secret. Moreover, he did not necessarily visit all the places he wrote about; in some cases relied on stories local residents, using the services of translators of merchants, tin and amber dealers.

What kind of country is Thule (or Fule, as it is often translated)? Here is what Strabo writes about this: “Pytheas declared that he had gone through all Brettania accessible to travelers, he said that the coastline of the island was more than 40,000 stadia (over 6 thousand km), and added a story about Fula and about areas where there is no longer any land in the proper sense, nor sea, no air, but some substance condensed from all these elements, similar to the lung of the sea; in it, says Pytheas, hangs the earth, the sea, and all the elements, and this substance is, as it were, a connection of the whole: it is impossible to pass through it or sail on a ship. As for this light-like substance, he claims to have seen it himself, but he talks about everything else by hearsay..

It can be assumed that Pytheas was talking about thick fogs in the northern seas. Perhaps he misunderstood the tales of fogs and sea ​​ice. Some of his messages about the life of the northerners were considered reliable even by Strabo: “The people living there eat millet and other cereals, fruits and roots; and where there is bread and honey, a drink is prepared from them. As for bread, he says, since they do not have clear sunny days, they thresh bread in large barns, bringing it there in ears, because they do not use the threshing current because of the lack of sunny days and because of the rains ”.

Pytheas was the first to report the "frozen sea" and could come close to the North Sea during the voyage. polar circle. Therefore, he is sometimes called the first polar explorer. Most likely, he did not enter the Baltic Sea, but he visited the area of ​​the Netherlands and the Jutland Peninsula. It is unlikely that he reached Iceland, which at that time, apparently, was uninhabited. It is more likely that he reached Norway, or at least collected information about it.

The journey of Pytheas with all certainty testifies to the relativity of the concept of "geographical discovery" when it comes to inhabited countries. After all, the tribes that inhabited regions of Europe unknown to the ancient Greeks (and this was about 9/10 of its territory - site) were at a high cultural level, led mining and trade with southern countries, had developed agriculture and cattle breeding. Here, perhaps, it would be more accurate to speak not about geographical discoveries, but about the discoveries of geographers - people studying the Earth. Pytheas certainly belonged to them.

The first geographers known to us were the ancient Greeks. We have to proceed from their messages, their understanding of the structure of the earth's surface and the stages of its study. That is why the history of geography is characterized not so much by “Eurocentrism”, but more narrowly by “Grecocentrism”, especially since the word “geography” itself is of Greek origin.

No matter how we relate to the achievements of Pytheas, we must keep in mind that he left descriptions not only of what he saw and heard, but also of those measurements that he carried out, trying to determine geographical coordinates individual items. It's already quite scientific approach, despite the fact that many of his measurements were not accurate.

The interwar years were relatively quiet time for Britain. The obvious movement of all nations towards peace and economic depression reduced the interest in the small British army guarding the interests of the empire and forced them to further reduce the cost of maintaining it. Although the late 1920s and 1930s often considered a period of stagnation, in reality it was a time when the army was laying the foundations for future development. Despite a very limited budget, she nevertheless developed not only new weapons and equipment, but also new uniforms. Much of this work was undoubtedly dictated by the lack of available funds and, as a result, the need to reorganize available resources in order to use both people and materials as efficiently as possible.

At the start of the war in September 1939, the British infantry lacked numbers rather than the quality of available equipment. When in 1938 were signed Munich Agreements, Prime Minister Nevil Chamberlain may not have been as misguided as his critics make him out to be. In fact, the treaty gave the Allies additional months to increase their readiness for a second conflict with Germany - a time that was well used to prepare the mass production of weapons and equipment for the new army, including elements that were developed but not produced due to lack of funds. Unfortunately, most of this equipment was abandoned in France and Belgium when the British Expeditionary Force and the French armies retreated under pressure from the Germans in May - June 1940.

This defeat was the result of tactical innovations by the German top leadership, but any serious comparison will show that british soldier 1940, unlike his senior officers, could fight on equal terms with his German opponent. The "huge numerical superiority" of the enemy was, in fact, the product of excellent Nazi propaganda and the gullibility of the Allied leadership. Only one huge french army outnumbered the Wehrmacht in tanks and artillery. wonderful German victories were won through concentration of effort, ingenious, aggressive air-ground tactics, local superiority, and multiple breakthroughs. The Allied Commander-in-Chief, French General Gamelin, was unable to counter this blitzkrieg tactic. The Allied armies were doomed by inflexible defensive tactics, and as soon as their front lines were breached by mobile German formations, they quickly found themselves disoriented and, in some cases, demoralized. German armored units at the forefront of the attack took serious risks and sometimes paid expensive price- their commanders left notes in which they highly appreciated British troops opposing them; but their speed and confidence usually blinded the Allies, and the complete dominance of the German tactical air force led to collapse.

An infantryman with a Bren light machine gun, serving in the 44th Infantry Brigade, 15th (Scottish) Division, autumn 1944. Note the standard sapper shovel tucked into the belt: it provided additional protection for the abdomen and lower chest (here and further in parentheses are the storage numbers of photographic documents in the archives of the Imperial War Museum - Imperial War Museum; IWM B11563).

Soldier of the 7th Battalion of the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders, part of the 154th Brigade of the 51st (Highland) Division of General Victor Fortune. This "big man" in a twill field uniform and a Mk II steel helmet was photographed in Millebosch (France) on June 7, 1940. Apparently, the 51st Division was the only formation of the British Expeditionary Force in which full scheme use of insignia of brigades by color. According to the memoirs of veterans, the divisional sign in the form of the St. Andrew's Cross in purple and green was assigned to the divisional headquarters, red - to the 152nd and brown - to the 154th brigades. The color of the 153rd brigade could not be established. At the level of the battalions that were part of the brigades, various combinations of the number and location of stripes-stripes of the corresponding colors were used. For example, the 7th Battalion wore one horizontal brown patch, while the 8th Battalion wore a vertical one. The junior battalion of the 152nd Brigade, the 4th Cameron Highlander Battalion, was designated by three red horizontal stripes (IWM F4736).

The British Army paid a terrible price for training in modern mobile warfare, but learned its lesson. When she returned to the Continent in June 1944 - hardened by years of fighting in the African desert, in Sicily, in Italy and supported by the power of the industry of her American allies - it was a completely different army, capable of facing the Wehrmacht on equal terms. Losses in the last eleven months of the war were inevitably very high, especially after Germany had gone on the defensive. Historians most often explain the terrible loss of life by the fact that the best parts of the SS and army units who fought almost to the last, as well as the actions of allied aviation; but this should not hide other reasons.

It should be emphasized that veteran infantrymen of this last campaign noted in their records that most of the German troops they encountered showed less aggressiveness and initiative than Tommy. The privately published memoirs of Lieutenant Sidney Gary, a young platoon leader of the 43rd (Essex) Infantry Division, which fought hard from the Normandy Bocages to victory, made this statement:

“In my 18th platoon, the soldiers were better than anyone we had to fight. The same can be said of D Company and the entire 4th Battalion, Somerset Light Infantry [Regiment] ... In many attacks we took more prisoners than there were attackers, and there were only a few German units that resisted in close combat. Unlike us, they rarely fought at night, and if they did, they were extremely nervous and unsure of themselves. Where we heavily patrolled, they avoided it… [ German soldiers] have encouraged the spread of the theory and myth that they are superior fighters and can only be defeated by superior forces and overwhelming firepower. My experience is that this was not the case."

CAMPAIGN RESULTS

"Strange War"

Following the declaration of war on September 3, 1939, Britain hastily ferried the British Expeditionary Force (British Expeditionary Force- BEF) in Northern France. Initially, it was 160,000 people, divided into two corps, each of two divisions: General Barker's I Corps - General Alexander's 1st Division, General Lloyd's 2nd Division; General Brooke's II Corps - General Montgomery's 3rd Division, General Johnson's 4th Division; plus auxiliaries. The reader may note that three of these generals later became top commanders. british army. In December 1939, the 5th Division joined the British Expeditionary Force. Soon these troops were reinforced by units of the territorial divisions of the "first line" (they were formed mainly from volunteer units of the temporary Territorial Army) at the rate of a regular battalion per brigade. From January 1940, the 48th (South Midland), 50th (Northumberland) and 51st (Highland) divisions arrived in France. The 51st Division was sent to the Maginot Line in the Saarland and placed under French command. The remaining units were deployed along the Belgian border, being part of the French army group, headed by General Gaston Billot, commander of the North-Eastern Front. In April 1940, the 42nd, 44th and 46th “first line” divisions arrived, as well as the 12th and part of the 23rd “second line” territorial division. In May, the 1st armored division, although this unit was understaffed and not ready for combat.