Volapuk is an artificial and long dead language. The meaning of the word volapuk

Regulatory organization Volyapyuk International Academy [d]

Volapyuk, or volyapyuk(Volapük: from vol "world" in the genus case + pük - language, that is, "world language") - an international artificial socialized language (see planned language), created in 1879 by the German Catholic priest Johann Martin Schleyer (German Johann Martin Schleyer). Now the Volapuk variant is used, reformed by Arie de Jong (Dutch. Arie de jong) in 1929 and presented to the general public in 1931.

Language

Alphabet and reading

Nominative case - zero ending: dom("house"), vol("world");
Genitive case - ending "a": doma ("at home"), vola("peace");
Dative case - ending "e": dome ("home"), vole("peace");
Accusative case - ending "i": domi ("house"), will("world");
In plural respectively - doms, domas, domes, domis.

Some also distinguish the vocative case in Volapük, indicated by an exclamation and a particle o: o bod(s)!- "O bird (birds)!".
Case forms can form compound words (as in German): Vola-puk world-language. The language also has a rich system of suffixes and prefixes that are used in word formation, for example: fam("glory") and familiar("great glory"), but some of them, including given example, were abolished by the De Jong reform.

Verb

Volapyuk a complex system formation of verbs and various verb forms, but almost all of them are optional and optional for use. So, the personal-numerical suffixes of the verb coincide in form with the corresponding pronouns, for example:

Pronoun ob(s)- "I (we)", when attached to the root lof("love") becomes a verb lofob(s)(“I love, love”);
Pronoun ol(s)- "you you)") lofol(s)- "love, love";
Pronoun om(s)- "he (they, men)" lofom(s)- “a man loves, men love”;
Pronoun of(s)- "she (they, women)" lof(s)- “a woman loves, women love”;
Pronoun on(s)- in the first version of the language indefinite pronoun, "something", in the second version neuter gender, "it (they are neuter)", when attached as a suffix, it turns out lofon(s)- “loves something (loves someone)” in the first version and “loves it, loves someone (neuter)” in the second;
Pronoun oy(s)- introduced by the De Jong reform, replaced the indefinite pronoun from the first version of Volapuk, means the same as on(s) in the first version ("something"), when attached as a suffix, it turns out lofoy(s)- "loves something (loves someone)."

Change in tenses and inclinations occurs with the help of postfixes and prefixes:
Imperfect Forms, prefixes ä- , a- and o-:

Past: alofom- "he loved";
The present: alofom- "He loves";
Future: olofom- "he will love";

Adjective

An adjective is formed using a formant -ik (gudik- “good”), does not decline and stands after the noun being defined. An adverb is created by adding suffixes to an adjective. -about or -i (gudiko- “good”), stands after the verb on which it depends, and also does not change.

Story

Appearance and first popularity

According to Schleyer, on the night of March 31, 1879, he had severe insomnia, he walked around the house all night until the Lord himself came to him, and Schleyer immediately saw what an international language should be. All night long he wrote down its grammar and vocabulary, after which he began to publish sentences on it, and then whole verses.

The first article on the Volapük was published by Schleyer in May 1879 in the Catholic journal The Zion Harp (German: Sionsharfe) edited by him. In 1880, the author of the language published a detailed textbook in German. Schleyer himself wrote practically no books in Volapük, although there were several writers who did. For a long time, the language was very popular; by 1889, 25 magazines were published in it around the world, 316 textbooks were written in 25 languages, and 283 clubs operated. There is even a known case when Volapuk was a native language for a person, it was the daughter of Professor Volapuk Henry Cohn (Eng. Henry Cohn) Corinne Cohn (Eng. Corinne Cohn) . About her future fate nothing is known. In 1884, a convention of Volapük supporters was held in Friedrichshafen, but the working language at the convention was German, the second convention, in Munich, 1887, was held in the same way. Only the third convention (in Paris, in 1889) took place in Volapük. By 1889 more than 30 periodicals Volapuk societies, and the associations themselves numbered about 255. The Institute of Teaching consisted in total of 1100 teachers and 50 professors.

Decline in popularity

Volapük's initial popularity was largely due to its relative simplicity. Some of the difficulties have been reduced. natural languages, for example, missing:

complex spelling (characteristic of English and French);
dual number (characteristic of Arabic and some Slavic languages);
unpredictable place of stress (typical for the Russian language);
polysemantic words, homonyms and homophones.

At the same time, many features of the German language, not noticed by its speakers as difficulties, also migrated to Volapük. For example, nouns had 2 numbers and 4 cases, verbs - 6 tenses, 4 moods, 2 types and 2 pledges, changed in persons and numbers. The principle of one-to-one correspondence of letters and sounds was violated (the sequences , , , , , were denoted by one letter, some letters allowed two readings). Many critics (in particular, the first director of the Volapuk Academy O. Kerkgoffs) blamed Volapuk for being too long, as in German, Difficult words. An example of a three-component word is klonalitakip'chandelier' ( clone‘crown, crown’ + litakip‘candlestick, candelabra’; the latter, in turn, contains two roots: lit‘light’ and kip‘retention, storage’, as well as a connecting vowel -a-, sometimes interpreted as an indicator genitive(and then we have an example of not word formation, but fusion)), which, by the way, is a tracing paper from German Kronleuchter(this explains the illogicality of putting the root with the meaning "crown" in the first, and not the second place: literally it turns out that klonalitakip not a "candelabra crown", but a "crown candelabra"). Volapuk's ability to connect in compound word an unlimited number of roots was sometimes even ridiculed: as reported by L. Couture and L. Lo in their "History of the Universal Language", in the journal "Le Volapük" one witty person parodied this word-formation feature of Volapük, constructing a noun as a joke klonalitakipafablüdacifalöpasekretan‘secretary of the directorate (plant management) of the chandelier factory’, and the magazine Cogabled (Entertainment Leaflet) invited its readers to unravel the meaning of the word lopikalarevidasekretel‘Ober Secretary (Supreme Secretary) of the Accounts Chamber’, which was only possible for two Volapukists. Tellingly, both words did not exist in Volapuk: the first was invented as a joke, the other as a puzzle (on the Russian Internet, in particular, on the page about Volapuk of the World of Esperanto website, it is said that both words actually existed in Schleyer's Volapuk; by the way speaking, these words are given with an error, without diacritics). The first of these words is generally difficult to imagine in a real Volapük: in the Schleyer period, the suffix -el used much more often than -an(although against this "expansion" -el many Volapukists spoke, including O. Kerkgoffs), and the word was used secretel‘secretary’ (not secretan); word cifal ‘chief boss' (suffix -al with the meaning ‘highest-ranking person’) was used in relation to I. Schleyer as the leader of the Volapuk movement, but it is unlikely that they would have designated the director of the plant; potential cifalop‘the place where the chief is located’ was also not recorded in dictionaries, perhaps because it cannot be unambiguously translated (it can mean both an office and an entire building); finally, it is difficult to imagine a factory that produces only chandeliers ( fablud'factory'). inner form second word is somewhat semantically redundant: it has two associated with the idea of counting the root kal‘counting’ and revision'revision' (lopi-- a prefix similar to the following: ober-, upper-), moreover, the element ‘commission, chamber’, necessary for decoding, is missing.

Vocabulary uses unrecognizable elements European languages. The complexity of the grammar and the non-internationality of the vocabulary caused criticism and later (after the appearance of simpler languages) became one of the reasons for the decline in the popularity of Volapuk.

During years the director of the Volapük Academy was a cryptographer from Flanders Auguste Kerckhoffs (German: Auguste Kerckhoffs). Over time, tensions arose between him and Schleyer related to the unwillingness of Schleyer, who considered Volapuk to be his brainchild and his property, to recognize the need to make changes, which Kirkgoffs insisted on. This resulted in a split and the departure of many Volapuk adherents to alternative language projects, such as the idiom Neutral and Esperanto, a simpler etymologically and grammatically language, whose appearance in

The section is very easy to use. In the proposed field, just enter right word, and we will give you a list of its values. It should be noted that our site provides data from different sources- encyclopedic, explanatory, derivational dictionaries. Here you can also get acquainted with examples of the use of the word you entered.

The meaning of the word volapuk

Volapyuk in the crossword dictionary

Volapuk

Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. D.N. Ushakov

Volapuk

(la and la), volapyuka, m. Artificial international language invented in 1879 by Schleyer and not used.

trans. Speech from a hodgepodge of incomprehensible words, gibberish (joking). Do not use so many unnecessary foreign terms, otherwise you get some kind of volapuk. He speaks some kind of volapuk. (The word volapuk means "vernacular" in this language.)

New explanatory and derivational dictionary of the Russian language, T. F. Efremova.

Volapuk

An artificial language invented in late XIX century, which they tried to use as an international one.

trans. unfold A set of words from different languages; gibberish.

Wikipedia

Volapyuk

This article is about artificial language. For ways to write Russian words in Latin, see the articles Transliteration, Transliteration.

Volapyuk, or volyapyuk- an international artificial socialized language (see planned language), created in 1879 by the German Catholic priest Johann Martin Schleyer in 1929 and presented to the general public in 1931.

Examples of the use of the word volapuk in the literature.

If you ever forget the sum of the angles of a triangle or the area in a vicious circle, come back here: the amalgam of the mirror in the bathroom hides heavily flavored with cute Cyrillic Volapuk and a top secret thought about death.

If decorations are permissible and even desirable in poetry, then nevertheless, remembering their literary rank, they must leave the idea easily translated into ordinary, service Volapuk, which for some reason is considered the privileged spokesman of the world, which does not correspond directly with the outside.

Well, Nicole, it's time to move on Volapuk let's try to figure it out together.

Already in Spain, at a time when mathematical Volapuk, the rubber condom and the swing had not yet been invented, the problem of warranty obligations was quite acute.

Literary Russian speech, as it were, hangs in the air between the magazine Volapuk and speaking,

Or Volyapyuk (Volapk: from vol - world + pk - language, i.e. "world language"). An artificial international language created in 1879 by the German Catholic priest Johann Martin Schleyer. According to Schleyer, he suddenly felt that the Lord commanded him to create an international language.

The Volapyuk alphabet consists of 27 characters. The roots are mostly taken from in English and rebuilt in accordance with the restrictions on the structure of the root in Volapuk (as a result, many roots began to radically differ from their etymons). Sound system very simple; there is no [r] sound and complex consonant combinations - this was supposed to make pronunciation easier for children and, for example, the Chinese. Volapyuk was used primarily as written language- According to contemporaries, even Schleyer himself was forced to resort to a dictionary when communicating in this language.
Story
The first essay on Volapük was published by Schleyer in May 1879 in the Catholic journal Sionsharfe (The Zion Harp), which he edited. In 1880, Schleyer published a detailed textbook in German. In 1884, a convention (congress) of supporters of the Volapük language was held in Friedrichshafen, the working language of which was German. Already the Third Volapuk Language Convention (Paris, 1889) was held in Volapuk itself, on which 25 magazines were published, 316 textbooks were written in 25 languages and 283 clubs operated.

For many years, the Dutch cryptographer Auguste Kerckhoffs was the director of the Volapük Academy. Over time, tensions arose between him and Schleyer due to the unwillingness of Schleyer, who considered the Volapük to be his brainchild and his property, to recognize the need to make changes, which Kerckhoffs insisted on. This resulted in a split and the departure of many Volapuk adherents to alternative language projects. Not less than important reason The beginning of Volapuk's decline was the appearance in 1887 of the simpler (etymologically and grammatically) Esperanto language, as a result of which many Volapuk clubs became Esperantist.

In 1931, a new edition of the Volapuk language was published by Arie de Jong. De Jong simplified the grammar and slightly changed the phonetics, adding, in particular, the sound r, which was absent in Schleyer's Volapuk. As a result, some words have reverted to their native English or German sound, for example, lmib (rain) became rein. After de Jong's reforms, Volapük experienced a brief surge in popularity in the Netherlands and Germany. With the advent of the Nazis, the study of artificial languages fell under the ban and this put an end to the history of Volapuk.

Today there are 2-3 dozen Volapukists in the world.

There are known attempts to reform Volapuk.
Grammar
The language created by Schleyer has a vocabulary based primarily on English with some additions of German and French. In order for people all over the world to be able to speak the international language, Schleyer tried to adapt the words of European languages so that they did not cause difficulties for either the Chinese or representatives of other peoples. In addition, he sought to make Volyapyuk's lexicon independent, devoid of imprints of the source languages. As a result, the words have changed beyond recognition. For example, the English world (“world”) and speak (“to speak”) turned into vol and pk, which gave the name to the new language. The unusual sound of volyapyuk caused ridicule in the press, so that the word volyapyuk itself became a synonym for something unnatural in many languages.

Grammar has the features of an agglutinative system.

The noun is declined in four cases:

(fall name - dom, genus fall - doma, data fall - dome, wine fall - domi, plural - doms, domas, domes, domis).

Case forms can form construction material for difficult words (as in German): Vola-pk world-language.

The adjective is formed with the formant -ik, is not declined, and comes after the noun it defines.

By adding the suffix -o to an adjective, you get an adverb that comes after the verb on which it depends.
Sample texts
Prayer Our Father

O Fat obas, kel binol in sls, paisaludomz nem ola!
Kmomd monargn ola!
Jenomz vil olik, s in sl, i su tal!
Bodi obsik vdeliki govols obes adelo!
E pardols obes debis obsik,
s id obs aipardobs debeles obas.
E no obis nindukols in tendadi;
sod aidalivols obis de bas.
Jenosd!
Text about the International Language

Ven lrnoy pki votik, vdastok plsenon fikulis. Mutoy ai dnu sukn vdis nesevdik, e seko nited paperon. In dil donatida, ye, skd at pebemaston, bi tradut tefik vda alik pubon dis vds Volapkik. Vlot reidedas skon, e pamobos, das vds Volapkik pareidons laodiko. Gramat e stabavds ya pedunons in ndug; too logged viffik traduta pakomandos ad garann, das sinif valodik pegeton. Binos prinsip sagatik, kel sagon, das stud nemdik a del binos gudikum, ka stud mdik spo.

(The translation is close to the original, sometimes to the detriment of the style and norm of the Russian language)

When learning a foreign language, vocabulary is difficult. Need to constantly look for unknown words, and as a result, interest is lost. In the elementary part, however, this problem is overcome, because the correct translation of the word appears under Volyapyuk's words. A selection of (texts for) reading follows, and it is assumed that Volyapyuk's words are read aloud. Grammar and basic vocabulary already given in the introduction; however, a cursory glance at the translation is recommended to ensure a common understanding. It has been wisely said that a little bit of teaching each day is better than a lot of teaching in one day.
Wikipedia

vol ISO/DIS 639-3 : vol

See also: Project:Linguistics

Constructed languages

Volapyuk, or volyapyuk(Volapük: from vol "world" in the genus case + pük - language, i.e. "world language") - an international artificial socialized language (see planned language), created in 1879 by the German Catholic priest Johann Martin Schleyer (German . Johann Martin Schleyer).

Language

Alphabet and reading

Nominative case - zero ending: dom("house"), vol("world");
Genitive case - ending "a": doma ("at home"), vola("peace");
Dative case - ending "e": dome ("home"), vole("peace");
Accusative case - ending "i": domi ("house"), will("world");
In the plural, respectively - doms, domas, domes, domis.

Some also distinguish the vocative case in Volapük, indicated by an exclamation and a particle o: o bod(s)!- "O bird (birds)!".
Case forms can form compound words (as in German): Vola-puk world-language. The language also has a rich system of suffixes and prefixes that are used in word formation, for example: fam("glory") and familiar(“great glory”), but some of them, including this example, were abolished by De Jong's reform.

Verb

Volapuk has a complex system of forming verbs and various verb forms, but almost all of them are optional and optional. So, the personal-numerical suffixes of the verb coincide in form with the corresponding pronouns, for example:

Pronoun ob(s)- "I (we)", when attached to the root lof("love") becomes a verb lofob(s)(“I love, love”);
Pronoun ol(s)- "you you)") lofol(s)- "love, love";
Pronoun om(s)- "he (they, men)" lofom(s)- “a man loves, men love”;
Pronoun of(s)- "she (they, women)" lof(s)- “a woman loves, women love”;
Pronoun on(s)- in the first version of the language, an indefinite pronoun, “something”, in the second version, the neuter gender, “it (they are neuter)”, when attached as a suffix, it turns out lofon(s)- “loves something (loves someone)” in the first version and “loves it, loves someone (neuter)” in the second;
Pronoun oy(s)- introduced by the De Jong reform, replaced the indefinite pronoun from the first version of Volapuk, means the same as on(s) in the first version ("something"), when attached as a suffix, it turns out lofoy(s)- "loves something (loves someone)."

Change in tenses and inclinations occurs with the help of postfixes and prefixes:
Not perfect shapes, prefixes ä- , a- and o-:

Past: alofom- "he loved";
The present: alofom- "He loves";
Future: olofom- "he will love";

Adjective

Story

Appearance and first popularity

According to Schleyer, on the night of March 31, 1879, he had severe insomnia, he walked around the house all night until the Lord himself came to him, and Schleyer immediately saw what an international language should be. All night he wrote down its grammar and vocabulary, after which he began to publish sentences on it, and then entire poems.

The first article about the Volapük was published by Schleyer in May 1879 in the Catholic journal The Harp of Zion, which he edited. Sionsharfe). In 1880, the author of the language published a detailed textbook in German. Schleyer himself wrote practically no books in Volapük, although there were several writers who did. For a long time, the language was very popular; by 1889, 25 magazines were published in it all over the world, 316 textbooks were written in 25 languages, and 283 clubs operated. There is even a case when Volapuk was a native language for a person, it was the daughter of Professor Volapuk Henry Cohn (Eng. Henry Cohn) Corrine Cohn Corinne Cohn) . Nothing is known about her further fate. In 1884, a Volapük convention was held in Friedrichshafen, but the working language at the convention was German, the second convention, in Munich, 1887, was held in the same way. Only the third convention (in Paris, in 1889) took place in Volapük. By 1889, more than 30 periodicals of Volapuk societies were published, and there were about 255 associations themselves. The teaching institute consisted of a total of 1100 teachers and 50 professors.

August Kerkhoffs.

For many years, the director of the Volapük Academy was the Flemish cryptographer Auguste Kerckhoffs (Ger. August Kerckhoffs). Over time, tensions arose between him and Schleyer, connected with the unwillingness of Schleyer, who considered Volapuk to be his brainchild and his property, to recognize the need to make changes, which Kirkgoffs insisted on. This resulted in a split and the departure of many adherents of Volapuk into alternative language projects, such as the idiom Neutral and Esperanto, a simpler etymologically and grammatically language, whose appearance in 1887 further aggravated Volapuk's position. As a result, many Volapukist clubs became Esperantist.

Reform

Arie de Jong, ideologue of the Volapuk reform

Wikipedia on Volapuk

Sample texts

Comparison of Volapuk texts before and after the reform (prayer of Our Father)

Original Volapuk.	Reformed Volapuk.
O Fat obas, kel binol in süls, paisaludomöz nem ola!	O Fat obas, kel binol in suls! Nem olik pasaludukonod!
Komomod monargän ola!	Regan ola komonod!
Jenomöz vil olik, äs in sul, i su tal!	Vil olik jenonöd, äsä in sul, i su tal!
Bodi obsik vädeliki givolös obes adelo!	Givolös obes adelo bodi aldelik obsik!
E pardolos obes debis obsik,	E pardolös obes dobotis obsik,
Äs id obs aipardobs debeles obas.	Äsä i obs pardobs utanes, kels edöbons kol obs.
E no obis nindukolös in tentadi;	E no blufodolos obis,
Sod aidalivolös obis de bad.	Ab livukolos obis de bad!
	(Ibä dutons lü ol regän, e nämäd e glor jü ün laidüp.)
Jenosod!	So binosos!

International language text (reformed version)

Ven lärnoy püki votik, vödastok plösenon fikulis. Mutoy ai donu sukön vödis nesevädik, e seko nited paperon. In dil donatida, ye, säkäd at pebemaston, bi tradut tefik vöda alik pubon dis vöds Volapükik. Välot reidedas sökon, e pamobos, das vöds Volapükik pareidons laodiko. Gramat e stabavöds ya pedunons in nüdug; too logged viföfik traduta pakomandos ad garanön, das sinif valodik pegeton. Binos prinsip sagatik, kel sagon, das stud nemödik a del binos gudikum, ka stud mödik süpo.

Literal translation

When learning a foreign language, vocabulary is difficult. It is necessary to constantly look for unknown words, and as a result, interest is lost. In the elementary part, however, this problem is overcome, because the correct translation of the word appears under Volapyuk's words. A selection of (texts for) reading follows, and it is assumed that Volapyuk's words are read aloud. Grammar and basic vocabulary are already given in the introduction; however, a cursory glance at the translation is recommended to ensure a common understanding. It has been wisely said that a little bit of teaching each day is better than a lot of teaching in one day.

Notes

Story

Appearance and first popularity

The first article about the Volapük was published by Schleyer in May 1879 in the Catholic journal The Harp of Zion, which he edited. Sionsharfe). In 1880, the author of the language published a detailed textbook in German. Schleyer himself wrote practically no books in Volapük, although there were several writers who did. For a long time, the language was very popular; by 1889, 25 magazines were published in it all over the world, 316 textbooks were written in 25 languages, and 283 clubs operated. There is even a case when Volapuk was a native language for a person, it was the daughter of Professor Volapuk Henry Cohn (Eng. Henry Cohn) Corinne Kohn Corinne Cohn) . Nothing is known about her further fate. In 1884, a Volapük convention was held in Friedrichshafen, but the working language at the convention was German, the second convention, in Munich, 1887, was held in the same way. Only the third convention (in Paris, in 1889) took place in Volapük. By 1889, more than 30 periodicals of Volapuk societies were published, and there were about 255 associations themselves. The teaching institute consisted of a total of 1100 teachers and 50 professors.

Decline in popularity

Volapük's initial popularity was largely due to its relative simplicity. It reduced some of the complexities of natural languages, for example, missing:

complex spelling (characteristic of English and French);
dual number (characteristic of Arabic and some Slavic languages);
unpredictable place of stress (typical for the Russian language);
polysemantic words, homonyms and homophones.

At the same time, many features of the German language, not noticed by its speakers as difficulties, also migrated to Volapük. For example, nouns had 2 numbers and 4 cases, verbs - 6 tenses, 4 moods, 2 types and 2 pledges, changed in persons and numbers. The principle of one-to-one correspondence of letters and sounds was violated (the sequences , , , , , were denoted by one letter, some letters allowed two readings). Many critics (in particular, the first director of the Volapuk Academy O. Kerkgoffs) blamed Volapuk for too long, as in German, compound words. An example of a three-component word is klonalitakip'chandelier' ( clone‘crown, crown’ + litakip‘candlestick, candelabra’; the latter, in turn, contains two roots: lit‘light’ and kip‘retention, storage’, as well as a connecting vowel -a-, sometimes interpreted as an indicator of the genitive case (and then we have an example of not word formation, but fusion)), which, by the way, is a tracing paper from German Kronleuchter(this explains the illogicality of putting the root with the meaning "crown" in the first, and not the second place: literally it turns out that klonalitakip not a "candelabra crown", but a "crown candelabra"). Volapük's ability to combine an unlimited number of roots in a compound word was sometimes even ridiculed: as reported by L. Couture and L. Lo in their "History of the Universal Language", in the journal "Le Volapük" one witty person parodied this derivational feature of Volapük, constructing as a joke noun klonalitakipafablüdacifalöpasekretan‘secretary of the directorate (plant management) of the chandelier factory’, and the magazine Cogabled (Entertainment Leaflet) invited its readers to unravel the meaning of the word lopikalarevidasekretel‘Ober Secretary (Supreme Secretary) of the Accounts Chamber’, which was only possible for two Volapukists. Tellingly, both words did not exist in Volapuk: the first was invented as a joke, the other as a puzzle (on the Russian Internet, in particular, on the page about Volapuk of the World of Esperanto website, it is said that both words actually existed in Schleyer's Volapuk; by the way speaking, these words are given with an error, without diacritics). The first of these words is generally difficult to imagine in a real Volapük: in the Schleyer period, the suffix -el used much more often than -an(although against this "expansion" -el many Volapukists spoke, including O. Kerkgoffs), and the word was used secretel‘secretary’ (not secretan); word cifal‘chief boss’ (suffix -al with the meaning ‘highest-ranking person’) was used in relation to I. Schleyer as the leader of the Volapuk movement, but it is unlikely that they would have designated the director of the plant; potential cifalop‘the place where the chief is located’ was also not recorded in dictionaries, perhaps because it cannot be unambiguously translated (it can mean both an office and an entire building); finally, it is difficult to imagine a factory that produces only chandeliers ( fablud'factory'). The internal form of the second word is somewhat semantically redundant: it has two roots related to the idea of counting kal‘counting’ and revision'revision' (lopi-- a prefix similar to the following: ober-, upper-), moreover, the element ‘commission, chamber’, necessary for decoding, is missing.

The vocabulary uses elements of European languages changed beyond recognition. The complexity of the grammar and the non-internationality of the vocabulary caused criticism and later (after the appearance of simpler languages) became one of the reasons for the decline in the popularity of Volapuk.

For many years, the director of the Volapük Academy was the Flemish cryptographer Auguste Kerckhoffs (Ger. August Kerckhoffs). Over time, tensions arose between him and Schleyer related to the unwillingness of Schleyer, who considered Volapuk to be his brainchild and his property, to recognize the need to make changes, which Kirkgoffs insisted on. This resulted in a split and the departure of many adherents of Volapuk into alternative language projects, such as the idiom Neutral and Esperanto, a simpler etymologically and grammatically language, whose appearance in 1887 further aggravated Volapuk's position. As a result, many Volapukist clubs became Esperantist.

Reform

In 1920, a small group of Volapukists, led by the Dutchman Arie de Jong (dutch. Arie de jong) developed a revision of the language and presented it in 1931. De Jong simplified grammar (abolished rarely used verb forms), and the sound [r] began to be used much more often. As a result of this, some words have returned to their original English or German sound (for example, lomib("rain") has become rein). After the reforms of de Jong, Volapuk experienced a brief rise in popularity in the Netherlands and Germany, but with the advent of the Nazis, the study of artificial languages in these countries fell under the ban, and this finally nullified the Volapuk movement.

Volapyuk today

Since that time, the Volapükist movement has been at a consistently low level. Today there are 20-30 Volapukists in the world. At the head of the Volapuk movement is the so-called leader, or supreme leader (in Volapuk cifal). He issues edicts, as a rule, concerning the assignment of official titles (Volapiuk teacher, member of the Volapuk Academy). An important role in the development of Volapuk is played by the Volapuk Academy, which consists of 8 members who collectively make decisions on the inclusion in the lexicon of new words necessary to display new concepts. Volapukists living in the same country can create national clubs that make up the Federation of Volapuk Clubs. True, at present Volapukists are not enough to create an extensive international organization.

Wikipedia on Volapuk

She is famous for the fact that almost all of her articles are created by bots. Almost all bots are created by the only active member of the project - Smeira. This has caused outrage among many other Wikipedians, as most believe that such methods are not compatible with the rules of Wikipedia, and that this section Wikipedia should be removed. On December 25, 2007, a vote was started to move the Volapük Wikipedia back to the Wikimedia Incubator. On January 28, 2008, the voting closed with the decision to leave Wikipedia on Volapük as an active section of Wikipedia.

Sample texts

Comparison of Volapuk texts before and after the reform (prayer of Our Father)

Original Volapuk.	Reformed Volapuk.
O Fat obas, kel binol in süls, paisaludomöz nem ola!	O Fat obas, kel binol in suls! Nem olik pasaludukonod!
Komomod monargän ola!	Regan ola komonod!
Jenomöz vil olik, äs in sul, i su tal!	Vil olik jenonöd, äsä in sul, i su tal!
Bodi obsik vädeliki givolös obes adelo!	Givolös obes adelo bodi aldelik obsik!
E pardolos obes debis obsik,	E pardolös obes dobotis obsik,
Äs id obs aipardobs debeles obas.	Äsä i obs pardobs utanes, kels edöbons kol obs.
E no obis nindukolös in tentadi;	E no blufodolos obis,
Sod aidalivolös obis de bad.	Ab livukolos obis de bad!
	(Ibä dutons lü ol regän, e nämäd e glor jü ün laidüp.)
Jenosod!	So binosos!

International language text (reformed version)

Ven lärnoy püki votik, vödastok plösenon fikulis. Mutoy ai donu sukön vödis nesevädik, e seko nited paperon. In dil donatida, ye, säkäd at pebemaston, bi tradut tefik vöda alik pubon dis vöds Volapükik. Välot reidedas sökon, e pamobos, das vöds Volapükik pareidons laodiko. Gramat e stabavöds ya pedunons in nüdug; too logged viföfik traduta pakomandos ad garanön, das sinif valodik pegeton. Binos prinsip sagatik, kel sagon, das stud nemödik a del binos gudikum, ka stud mödik süpo.

Literal translation

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An excerpt characterizing Volapyuk

"No, I have business," Rostov answered curtly.
Rostov became out of sorts immediately after he noticed the displeasure on Boris's face, and, as always happens with people who are out of sorts, it seemed to him that everyone was looking at him with hostility and that he interfered with everyone. Indeed, he interfered with everyone and alone remained outside the newly ensued general conversation. "And why is he sitting here?" said the glances cast at him by the guests. He got up and walked over to Boris.
“However, I’m embarrassing you,” he said to him quietly, “let’s go and talk about business, and I’ll leave.”
“No, not at all,” said Boris. And if you're tired, let's go to my room and lie down and rest.
- And in fact ...
They entered the small room where Boris slept. Rostov, without sitting down, immediately with irritation - as if Boris was to blame for something before him - began to tell him Denisov's case, asking if he wanted and could ask about Denisov through his general from the sovereign and through him to convey a letter. When they were alone, Rostov was convinced for the first time that it was embarrassing for him to look Boris in the eyes. Boris crossing his legs and stroking his left hand thin fingers right hand, listening to Rostov, as the general listens to the report of his subordinate, now looking to the side, then with the same obscured gaze, looking straight into Rostov's eyes. Rostov felt awkward every time and lowered his eyes.
– I have heard about such cases and I know that the Emperor is very strict in these cases. I think we should not bring it to His Majesty. In my opinion, it would be better to directly ask the corps commander ... But in general, I think ...
“So you don’t want to do anything, just say so!” - Rostov almost shouted, not looking Boris in the eyes.
Boris smiled: - On the contrary, I will do what I can, only I thought ...
At this time, the voice of Zhilinsky was heard in the door, calling Boris.
- Well, go, go, go ... - said Rostov and refusing dinner, and left alone in a small room, he walked back and forth in it for a long time, and listened to the cheerful French dialect from the next room.

Rostov arrived in Tilsit on the day least convenient for intercession for Denisov. He himself could not go to the general on duty, since he was in a tailcoat and arrived in Tilsit without the permission of his superiors, and Boris, even if he wanted to, could not do this the next day after Rostov's arrival. On this day, June 27, the first terms of peace were signed. The emperors exchanged orders: Alexander received the Legion of Honor, and Napoleon received the 1st degree, and on this day a dinner was appointed for the Preobrazhensky battalion, which was given to him by the battalion of the French guard. The sovereigns were to attend this banquet.
Rostov was so awkward and unpleasant with Boris that when Boris looked in after dinner, he pretended to be asleep and the next day, early in the morning, trying not to see him, left the house. In a tailcoat and a round hat, Nikolai wandered around the city, looking at the French and their uniforms, looking at the streets and houses where the Russian and french emperors. On the square he saw tables being set up and preparations for dinner; on the streets he saw draperies thrown over with Russian and french flowers and huge monograms A. and N. In the windows of the houses there were also banners and monograms.
“Boris does not want to help me, and I do not want to contact him. This matter is settled, thought Nikolai, everything is over between us, but I will not leave here without doing everything I can for Denisov and, most importantly, without handing over the letter to the sovereign. Sovereign?! ... He is here! thought Rostov, involuntarily going back to the house occupied by Alexander.
Riding horses stood at this house and a retinue gathered, apparently preparing for the departure of the sovereign.
“I can see him at any moment,” thought Rostov. If only I could hand him the letter directly and tell him everything, would I really be arrested for wearing a tailcoat? Can not be! He would understand which side justice is on. He understands everything, knows everything. Who can be more just and generous than him? Well, if I were arrested for being here, what's the trouble? he thought, looking at the officer going up to the house occupied by the sovereign. “After all, they are rising. - E! it's all nonsense. I’ll go and submit a letter to the sovereign myself: so much the worse for Drubetskoy, who brought me to this. And suddenly, with a decisiveness that he himself did not expect from himself, Rostov, feeling the letter in his pocket, went straight to the house occupied by the sovereign.
“No, now I won’t miss the opportunity, as after Austerlitz,” he thought, expecting every second to meet the sovereign and feeling a rush of blood to his heart at this thought. I will fall at my feet and beg him. He will raise, listen and thank me again.” “I am happy when I can do good, but correcting injustice is the greatest happiness,” Rostov imagined the words that the sovereign would say to him. And he walked past those who were looking at him curiously, on the porch of the house occupied by the sovereign.
From the porch a wide staircase led straight up; to the right was a closed door. Downstairs under the stairs was a door to the lower floor.
- Who do you want? someone asked.
“Submit a letter, a request to His Majesty,” said Nikolai with a trembling voice.
- Request - to the duty officer, please come here (he was pointed to the door below). They just won't accept it.
Hearing this indifferent voice, Rostov was frightened of what he was doing; the idea of meeting the sovereign at any moment was so seductive and therefore so terrible for him that he was ready to run, but the chamber fourier, who met him, opened the door to the duty room for him and Rostov entered.
Low fat man about 30 years old, in white pantaloons, over the knee boots and in one batiste shirt, which was just put on, was standing in this room; the valet was fastening beautiful new straps embroidered with silk on his back, which for some reason Rostov noticed. This man was talking to someone in the other room.
- Bien faite et la beaute du diable, [The beauty of youth is well built,] - this man said, and when he saw Rostov, he stopped talking and frowned.
– What do you want? Request?…
- Qu "est ce que c" est? [What is this?] someone asked from the other room.
- Encore un petitionnaire, [Another petitioner,] - answered the man in the harness.
Tell him what's next. It's out now, you have to go.
- After the day after tomorrow. Late…
Rostov turned and wanted to go out, but the man in the harness stopped him.
- From whom? Who are you?
“From Major Denisov,” answered Rostov.
- Who are you? the officer?
- Lieutenant, Count Rostov.
- What courage! Submit on command. And you yourself go, go ... - And he began to put on the uniform given by the valet.
Rostov went out again into the passage and noticed that on the porch there were already many officers and generals in full dress uniform which he had to pass.
Cursing his courage, dying at the thought that at any moment he could meet the sovereign and be disgraced and sent under arrest in his presence, fully understanding the indecency of his act and repenting of it, Rostov, lowering his eyes, made his way out of the house, surrounded by a crowd of brilliant retinue when a familiar voice called out to him and a hand stopped him.
- You, father, what are you doing here in a tailcoat? asked his bass voice.
He was a cavalry general, who in this campaign earned the sovereign's special favor, the former head of the division in which Rostov served.
Rostov frightenedly began to make excuses, but seeing the good-natured joking face of the general, stepping aside, in an excited voice handed over the whole matter to him, asking him to intercede for Denisov, who was known to the general. The general, having listened to Rostov, shook his head seriously.
- It's a pity, a pity for the young man; give me a letter.
As soon as Rostov had time to hand over the letter and tell the whole story of Denisov, quick steps with spurs rattled from the stairs and the general, moving away from him, moved to the porch. The gentlemen of the sovereign's retinue ran down the stairs and went to the horses. Ene, the landlord, the same one who was in Austerlitz, led the sovereign’s horse, and on the stairs he heard light creak steps that Rostov now recognized. Forgetting the danger of being recognized, Rostov moved with several curious residents to the very porch and again, after two years, he saw the same features he adored, the same face, the same look, the same gait, the same combination of greatness and meekness ... And a feeling of delight and love for the sovereign with the same strength resurrected in the soul of Rostov. The sovereign in the Preobrazhensky uniform, in white leggings and high boots, with a star that Rostov did not know (it was legion d "honneur) [star of the Legion of Honor] went out onto the porch, holding his hat under his arm and putting on a glove. He stopped, looking around and that's all illuminating his surroundings with his eyes. He said a few words to some of the generals. He also recognized former boss division of Rostov, smiled at him and called him to him.
The whole retinue retreated, and Rostov saw how this general said something to the sovereign for quite some time.
The emperor said a few words to him and took a step to approach the horse. Again a crowd of retinues and a crowd of the street, in which Rostov was, moved closer to the sovereign. Stopping by the horse and holding the saddle with his hand, the emperor turned to the cavalry general and spoke loudly, obviously with a desire that everyone could hear him.
“I can’t, General, and therefore I can’t, because the law is stronger than me,” said the emperor and put his foot in the stirrup. The general bowed his head respectfully, the sovereign sat down and galloped down the street. Rostov, beside himself with delight, ran after him with the crowd.

On the square where the sovereign went, the battalion of the Preobrazhenians stood face to face on the right, the battalion of the French guards in bear hats on the left.
While the sovereign was approaching one flank of the battalions, which had made guard duty, another crowd of horsemen jumped to the opposite flank, and ahead of them Rostov recognized Napoleon. It couldn't be anyone else. He rode at a gallop in a small hat, with St. Andrew's ribbon over his shoulder, in a blue uniform open over a white camisole, on an unusually thoroughbred Arabian gray horse, on a crimson, gold embroidered saddle. Riding up to Alexander, he raised his hat, and with this movement, the cavalry eye of Rostov could not fail to notice that Napoleon was badly and not firmly sitting on his horse. The battalions shouted: Hooray and Vive l "Empereur! [Long live the Emperor!] Napoleon said something to Alexander. Both emperors got off their horses and took each other's hands. Napoleon had an unpleasantly fake smile on his face. Alexander with an affectionate expression said something to him .
Rostov did not take his eyes off, despite the trampling by the horses of the French gendarmes, besieging the crowd, followed every movement of Emperor Alexander and Bonaparte. As a surprise, he was struck by the fact that Alexander behaved as an equal with Bonaparte, and that Bonaparte was completely free, as if this closeness with the sovereign was natural and familiar to him, as an equal, he treated the Russian Tsar.
Alexander and Napoleon with a long tail of retinue approached the right flank of the Preobrazhensky battalion, right on the crowd that was standing there. The crowd unexpectedly found itself so close to the emperors that Rostov, who was standing in the front ranks of it, became afraid that they would not recognize him.
- Sire, je vous demande la permission de donner la legion d "honneur au plus brave de vos soldats, [Sir, I ask you for permission to give the Order of the Legion of Honor to the bravest of your soldiers,] - said a sharp, precise voice, finishing each letter This was said by Bonaparte, small in stature, looking directly into Alexander's eyes from below.
- A celui qui s "est le plus vaillament conduit dans cette derieniere guerre, [To the one who showed himself the most bravely during the war,]" Napoleon added, rapping out each syllable, with outrageous calmness and confidence for Rostov, looking around the ranks of the Russians stretched out in front of him soldiers, keeping everything on guard and looking motionlessly into the face of their emperor.
- Votre majeste me permettra t elle de demander l "avis du colonel? [Your Majesty will allow me to ask the colonel's opinion?] - Alexander said and took a few hasty steps towards Prince Kozlovsky, the battalion commander. Meanwhile, Bonaparte began to take off his white glove, small hand and tearing it, he threw it in. The adjutant, hastily rushing forward from behind, picked it up.
- To whom to give? - not loudly, in Russian, Emperor Alexander asked Kozlovsky.
- Whom do you order, Your Majesty? The sovereign grimaced with displeasure and, looking around, said:
“Yes, you have to answer him.
Kozlovsky looked back at the ranks with a resolute look, and in this look captured Rostov as well.
“Is it not me?” thought Rostov.
- Lazarev! the colonel commanded, frowning; and the first-ranking soldier, Lazarev, briskly stepped forward.
– Where are you? Stop here! - voices whispered to Lazarev, who did not know where to go. Lazarev stopped, glancing fearfully at the colonel, and his face twitched, as happens with soldiers called to the front.
Napoleon slightly turned his head back and pulled back his small plump hand, as if wanting to take something. The faces of his retinue, guessing at the same moment what was the matter, fussed, whispered, passing something to one another, and the page, the same one whom Rostov had seen yesterday at Boris, ran forward and respectfully leaned over the outstretched hand and did not make her wait for a single moment. one second, put an order on a red ribbon into it. Napoleon, without looking, squeezed two fingers. The Order found itself between them. Napoleon approached Lazarev, who, rolling his eyes, stubbornly continued to look only at his sovereign, and looked back at Emperor Alexander, showing by this that what he was doing now, he was doing for his ally. Small white hand with the order touched the button of the soldier Lazarev. It was as if Napoleon knew that in order for this soldier to be happy, rewarded and distinguished from everyone else in the world forever, it was only necessary that Napoleon’s hand deign to touch the soldier’s chest. Napoleon only put the cross on Lazarev's chest and, putting his hand out, turned to Alexander, as if he knew that the cross should stick to Lazarev's chest. The cross really stuck.
Helpful Russian and French hands, instantly picking up the cross, attached it to the uniform. Lazarev looked gloomily at the little man with white hands, who did something to him, and continuing to hold him motionless on guard, he again began to look straight into Alexander's eyes, as if he was asking Alexander whether he was still to stand, or whether they would order him walk now, or maybe do something else? But nothing was ordered to him, and he remained in this motionless state for quite some time.
The sovereigns sat on horseback and left. The Preobrazhenians, upsetting their ranks, mingled with the French guards and sat down at the tables prepared for them.
Lazarev was sitting in a place of honor; he was embraced, congratulated and shook hands by Russian and French officers. Crowds of officers and people came up just to look at Lazarev. The buzz of Russian French and laughter stood in the square around the tables. Two officers with flushed faces, cheerful and happy, walked past Rostov.
- What, brother, treats? Everything is in silver,” said one. Have you seen Lazarev?
- Saw.
- Tomorrow, they say, the Preobrazhensky people will treat them.
- No, Lazarev is so lucky! 10 francs for life pension.
- That's the hat, guys! shouted the Preobrazhensky, putting on a Frenchman's shaggy hat.
- A miracle, how good, lovely!
Did you hear the feedback? said the Guards officer to another. The third day was Napoleon, France, bravoure; [Napoleon, France, courage;] yesterday Alexandre, Russie, grandeur; [Alexander, Russia, greatness;] one day our sovereign gives a review, and the other day Napoleon. Tomorrow the sovereign will send George to the bravest of the French guards. It's impossible! Should answer the same.
Boris and his comrade Zhilinsky also came to see the Preobrazhensky banquet. Returning back, Boris noticed Rostov, who was standing at the corner of the house.
- Rostov! Hi; we didn’t see each other,” he told him, and could not help asking him what had happened to him: Rostov’s face was so strangely gloomy and upset.
“Nothing, nothing,” replied Rostov.
– Will you come?
- Yes, I will.
Rostov stood at the corner for a long time, looking at the feasters from afar. A painful work was going on in his mind, which he could not bring to the end. Terrible doubts arose in my heart. Then he remembered Denisov with his changed expression, with his humility, and the whole hospital with those torn off arms and legs, with this dirt and disease. It seemed to him so vividly that he now feels this hospital smell. dead body that he was looking around to see where that smell might be coming from. Then he remembered this self-satisfied Bonaparte with his white pen, who was now the emperor, whom the emperor Alexander loves and respects. What are the severed arms, legs, murdered people for? Then he remembered the awarded Lazarev and Denisov, punished and unforgiven. He found himself thinking such strange thoughts that he was afraid of them.
The smell of Preobrazhensky food and hunger brought him out of this state: he had to eat something before leaving. He went to the hotel he had seen in the morning. In the hotel, he found so many people, officers, who, like him, arrived in civilian clothes, that he hardly managed to get dinner. Two officers from the same division as him joined him. The conversation naturally turned to the world. Officers, comrades of Rostov, like most of armies, were dissatisfied with the peace concluded after Friedland. They said that if they could hold on, Napoleon would have disappeared, that he had no crackers or charges in his troops. Nicholas ate in silence and mostly drank. He drank one or two bottles of wine. The inner work that arose in him, not being resolved, still tormented him. He was afraid to indulge in his thoughts and could not get behind them. Suddenly, at the words of one of the officers that it was insulting to look at the French, Rostov began to shout with fervor, which was not justified in any way, and therefore greatly surprised the officers.
“And how can you judge which would be better!” he shouted, his face suddenly flushed with blood. - How can you judge the actions of the sovereign, what right do we have to reason ?! We cannot understand either the purpose or the actions of the sovereign!
“Yes, I didn’t say a word about the sovereign,” the officer justified himself, who could not explain his temper to himself except by the fact that Rostov was drunk.
But Rostov did not listen.
“We are not diplomatic officials, but we are soldiers and nothing else,” he continued. - They tell us to die - so die. And if they are punished, it means that they are to blame; not for us to judge. It is pleasing to the sovereign emperor to recognize Bonaparte as emperor and conclude an alliance with him - then it must be so. Otherwise, if we began to judge and reason about everything, nothing sacred would remain that way. So we say that there is no God, there is nothing, - Nikolai shouted, striking the table, very inappropriately, according to the concepts of his interlocutors, but very consistently in the course of his thoughts.
“Our business is to do our duty, to fight and not to think, that’s all,” he concluded.
“And drink,” said one of the officers, who did not want to quarrel.
“Yes, and drink,” Nikolai picked up. - Hey, you! Another bottle! he shouted.

In 1808, Emperor Alexander went to Erfurt for a new meeting with Emperor Napoleon, and in the highest Petersburg society they talked a lot about the greatness of this solemn meeting.
In 1809, the proximity of the two rulers of the world, as Napoleon and Alexander were called, reached the point that when Napoleon declared war on Austria that year, the Russian corps went abroad to assist their former enemy Bonaparte against their former ally, the Austrian emperor; before that in high society talked about the possibility of marriage between Napoleon and one of the sisters of Emperor Alexander. But, in addition to external political considerations, at that time the attention of Russian society with particular vivacity was drawn to the internal transformations that were being carried out at that time in all parts of the state administration.
Meanwhile, life, the real life of people with their essential interests of health, illness, work, recreation, with their own interests of thought, science, poetry, music, love, friendship, hatred, passions, went on, as always, independently and without political closeness or enmity with Napoleon Bonaparte, and beyond all possible transformations.
Prince Andrei lived without a break for two years in the countryside. All those enterprises on estates that Pierre started and did not bring to any result, constantly moving from one thing to another, all these enterprises, without showing them to anyone and without noticeable labor, were carried out by Prince Andrei.
He had in the highest degree that practical tenacity that Pierre lacked, which, without scope and effort on his part, gave movement to the cause.
One of his estates of three hundred souls of peasants was listed as free cultivators (this was one of the first examples in Russia), in others corvée was replaced by dues. In Bogucharovo, a learned grandmother was issued to his account to help women in childbirth, and the priest taught the children of peasants and yards to read and write for a salary.
One half of the time Prince Andrei spent in the Bald Mountains with his father and son, who was still with the nannies; the other half of the time in the Bogucharovo monastery, as his father called his village. Despite the indifference he showed to Pierre to everyone external events world, he diligently followed them, received many books, and to his surprise noticed when fresh people from St. Petersburg, from the very whirlpool of life, came to him or to his father, that these people, in the knowledge of domestic politics, far behind him, sitting without a break in the village.
In addition to classes on names, except general occupations reading a wide variety of books, Prince Andrei was engaged at that time critical analysis our last two unfortunate campaigns and the drawing up of a project to change our military regulations and regulations.
In the spring of 1809, Prince Andrei went to the Ryazan estates of his son, whom he was the guardian of.
heated spring sun, he sat in a carriage, looking at the first grass, the first birch leaves and the first clubs of white spring clouds, scattered across the bright blue of the sky. He did not think about anything, but looked cheerfully and senselessly around.
We passed the ferry on which he spoke with Pierre a year ago. We passed a dirty village, threshing floors, greenery, a descent, with the remaining snow near the bridge, an ascent along washed-out clay, a strip of stubble and a shrub that was greening in some places, and drove into a birch forest on both sides of the road. It was almost hot in the forest, the wind could not be heard. The birch tree, all covered with green sticky leaves, did not move, and from under last year's leaves, lifting them, the first grass and purple flowers crawled out green. Scattered in some places along the birch forest, small spruce trees with their coarse eternal greenery unpleasantly reminded of winter. The horses snorted as they rode into the woods and became more sweaty.
The footman Peter said something to the coachman, the coachman answered in the affirmative. But it was not enough for Peter to see the sympathy of the coachman: he turned on the goats to the master.
- Your Excellency, how easy! he said, smiling respectfully.
- What!
“Easy, your highness.
"What he says?" thought Prince Andrew. “Yes, it’s true about spring,” he thought, looking around. And then everything is already green ... how soon! And birch, and bird cherry, and alder is already beginning ... And the oak is not noticeable. Yes, here it is, the oak.
There was an oak at the edge of the road. Probably ten times older than the birches that made up the forest, it was ten times thicker and twice as tall as each birch. It was a huge oak tree in two girths with broken branches, which can be seen for a long time, and with broken bark, overgrown with old sores. With his huge clumsy, asymmetrically spread, clumsy hands and fingers, he stood between the smiling birches, an old, angry and contemptuous freak. Only he alone did not want to submit to the charm of spring and did not want to see either spring or the sun.

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