The article tells about the complexities of geological exploration. Provides information about the presence of minerals on the mainland.

Minerals of Antarctica

Antarctica is the continent that is the coldest, and at the same time full of mysteries, a place on earth.

The area is completely covered with ice crust. This is the reason why information about minerals in this part of the land is extremely scarce. Deposits are located under the thickness of snow and ice:

• coal;
• iron ore;
• precious metals;
• granite;
• crystal;
• nickel;
• titanium.

Extremely narrow information about the geology of the continent can be justified by the difficulties of carrying out exploration work.

Rice. 1. Geological exploration.

This is affected by low temperatures and the thickness of the ice shell.

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Primary information on the accumulation of minerals, ore deposits and precious metals was obtained at the beginning of the last century.

It was during this period that it was possible to identify the layers hard coal.

Today, more than two hundred points have been found on the territory of Antarctica with deposits of iron ore and coal. But only two have the status of a deposit. Industrial production from these deposits in Antarctic conditions is recognized as unprofitable.

Copper, titanium, nickel, zirconium, chromium and cobalt are also found in Antarctica. Precious metals are expressed in gold and silver veins.

Rice. 2. Western coast of the Antarctic Peninsula.

They are on West Coast peninsulas. On the shelf of the Ross Sea, it was possible to find gas manifestations that are located in wells for drilling. This is evidence that there may be natural gas, but it is difficult to determine its exact volume.

Geology of Antarctica

The geology of the mainland is such that almost its entire plane (99.7%) is hidden in ice, and its average thickness is 1720 m.

Many millions of years ago, it was so warm on the mainland that palm trees adorned its shores, and the air temperature exceeded 20 ° C.

On the eastern plain there are differences from 300 meters below sea level to 300 m above. The transantarctic mountain peaks cross the entire continent and are 4.5 km long. height. Slightly smaller is the Queen Maud Land mountain range, which has a length of 1500 km. along, and then rises up to 3000 m.

Rice. 3. Lands of Queen Maud.

The Schmidt Plain has an altitude range from -2400 to +500 m. western plain located approximately at appropriate level seas. The Gamburtsev and Vernadsky mountain range has a length of 2500 km.

The most suitable regions for mining are located on the periphery of the continent. This is explained by inner regions Antarctica has been studied to a small extent, and any kind of research is doomed to failure due to the considerable distance from the coast.

What have we learned?

From the article, we learned what minerals the land of Antarctica is rich in. It was found out that on the territory of the continent there are deposits of coal, granite, precious metals, crystal, nickel, titanium, iron ore. We also learned that low temperatures make mining difficult.

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The Russian government has approved a resolution, one of the main goals of which is "ensuring Russia's national interests in the Antarctic region." Although officially these interests are mostly limited to scientific research, there is much more at stake - control of vast mineral reserves. However, Russia can hardly count on unhindered access to them: there are too many competitors.

Land of the Seven Capitals

Antarctic region, about which in question in the resolution Russian government, represents the territories located south of the 60th degree south latitude. The outlined boundaries include the southern basin of the World Ocean (usually this sector is called the general term South ocean), however, Antarctica has traditionally been of the greatest interest to states. Unlike all other continents, since its discovery in 1820, Antarctica has essentially remained a no man's land. More precisely, the rights to it were presented by seven countries at once, but so far their claims remain for the most part unrecognized.

The discoverers of Antarctica are considered Russian sailors Thaddeus Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev. On January 28, 1820, the members of the expedition they led became the first people to see the icy continent. Just two days later, vessels as part of a British expedition led by Edward Bransfield approached the shores of Antarctica. The first who happened to land on the continent, presumably, were American St. John's wort, led by Captain John Davis. In search of seals on February 7, 1821, they landed on the coast of West Antarctica, where they spent about an hour.

The very first claim to land in Antarctica in 1908 was announced by Great Britain, which declared sovereignty over a number of islands located next to the Falklands already owned by the British crown. True, then London “took” only a small piece of Antarctica, but later, in 1917, the entire sector of the continent (up to South Pole), bounded by 20 and 80 degrees west longitude.

Other countries' claims southern continent were designed in a similar way - in the form of sectors. In 1923, London "annexed" the Ross Territory, a narrow section of Antarctica between 150 degrees east and 160 degrees west, to New Zealand, which was subordinate to him. Him for british crown back in 1841, the navigator James Clark Ross “staken out”, however, the lands were officially declared royal possessions only 82 years later. The Australian Antarctic Territory was transferred by the mother country to its former colony in 1933. She occupied the sector between the 44th and 160th degrees east longitude.

In 1924, the Antarctic territory - Adélie Land - was acquired by France, which issued claims for the site, which was discovered in 1840 by the traveler Jules Dumont-Durville. This sector was limited to 136 and 142 degrees east longitude and wedged into the Australian Antarctic Territory, with which the British agreed.

Another Antarctic power appeared in 1939 - then the sector between 20 degrees west and 44 degrees east longitude was declared to belong to Norway. The territory was named Queen Maud Land - in honor of the wife of the Norwegian king Haakon VII Maud of Wales. Chile and Argentina were the last to claim Antarctic territories in 1940 and 1942. At the same time, the segments indicated by their authorities overlapped not only with each other, but also with the British one. Another site, Mary Byrd Land, located between 90 and 160 degrees west longitude, has remained unoccupied - no state in the world has put forward official claims to it.

Antarctic Treaty

The situation that has developed around Antarctica from the very beginning threatened to international conflict. The applications of seven states for the Antarctic territories, as expected, caused objections from many other countries - both those that also claimed a piece of the continent, and others that preferred to see Antarctica neutral territory. Uncertainty with the status of Antarctica complicated and scientific research: by the middle of the 20th century, scientists actively used the continent as a unique research platform, and the presence of national segments did not contribute to international cooperation.

Attempts to stop the division of Antarctica in the late 1940s were undertaken by the United States and India. However, the meetings and conferences they held did not yield any results. Progress was achieved only in 1959, when 12 states signed the Antarctic Treaty - a kind of international code of conduct on the continent. In addition to the seven countries claiming territory in Antarctica, representatives of Belgium, the USSR, the USA, South Africa and Japan signed the document. All of them at the time of the creation of the treaty were on the continent active research. Now the number of signatories to the treaty has increased to 50 countries, and only 22 of them have the right to vote - those whose researchers are most actively involved in the study of Antarctica.

The core of the agreement was the postulate that Antarctica is declared a peaceful zone, where it is forbidden to place any military bases, conduct maneuvers and test weapons, including nuclear weapons. Instead, the region was supposed to become a platform for large-scale scientific research, the results of which the parties could freely exchange.

No less important was political aspect document: according to its Sixth Article, it actually froze everything territorial claims to Antarctica. On the one hand, the contract is drawn up in such a way that attempts to challenge the claims of one or another participant on its basis are simply impossible. On the other hand, the "owners" of the Antarctic territories did not have any tools to confirm their sovereignty over these areas. As a result, this deprived both camps of arguments - both those who had territorial claims in Antarctica and those who did not agree with them. At the same time, the treaty established the principle free access its members to any territory of the continent.

Minerals

Eliminating the danger political conflict, the treaty, however, left out one more no less important question: access to minerals. As geologists suggest, there are vast deposits in Antarctica a large number resources: coal, iron ore, copper, zinc, nickel, lead and other minerals. However, oil and gas reserves are of greatest interest to most countries. Their exact volumes are unknown, however, according to some reports, the Ross Sea region alone (the Australian sector) contains about 50 billion barrels of oil and more than 100 trillion cubic meters of gas. For comparison, Russia's reserves of these hydrocarbons are 74 billion barrels and 33 trillion cubic meters, respectively.

An attempt to discuss the possibility of mining was made by the participants of the Antarctic Treaty in 1988, by adopting the relevant convention. However, the document never entered into force, and instead, in 1991, the parties signed the Madrid Protocol, which entered into force in 1998. According to this document, the extraction of any minerals is strictly prohibited on the territory of Antarctica. True, this ban is not indefinite: the text of the protocol must be revised 50 years after its entry into force - in 2048. At the same time, some countries claiming territories in Antarctica do not exclude that, as a result, the industrial development of the continent may be allowed. In addition, there is a possibility that one of the participants in the protocol will simply refuse to participate in it.

It's obvious that similar scenarios give cause for concern, especially to those countries that consider Antarctica theirs. In practice, this led to the fact that in the course of the implementation of the provisions of the UN Convention on maritime law(UNCLOS), which entered into force in 1994, there was a serious conflict in connection with the need to determine the boundaries continental shelves. Applicants from among the "owners" of the continents immediately found candidates for the Antarctic shelf. On the other hand, the Antarctic Treaty expressly forbids its participants to increase their possessions.

However, a solution was found. Three countries - Australia, Argentina and Norway - indicated the coordinates of the proposed shelf properties in Antarctica, but asked the UN not to consider their status until the resolution of the territorial dispute. Three more countries New Zealand, France and the United Kingdom - simply reserved the right to submit a corresponding request later. the only state of the seven, which so far has not indicated its position in any way, was Chile.

Submission of "Antarctic" applications caused a flood of objections. Naturally, Great Britain and Argentina began to argue among themselves, which claim the same territories (and in addition to Antarctica, they are trying to challenge each other's Falklands and other islands in South Atlantic). Representatives of Russia, the USA, Japan, the Netherlands, India and other countries filed statements about the need to maintain the "no one's" status of Antarctica.

Equal Chances

So far, few people dare to conduct open conversations about mining in Antarctica. Meanwhile all around ice continent nervousness is obviously growing: almost any gesture of any country in its direction is immediately perceived by counterparties as an attempt to push back the “legitimate” owners.

Photo: Alexei Nikolsky / RIA Novosti

For example, in a report by the Institute international politics Named by Lowy (Lowy Institute for International Policy, .pdf), prepared in 2011 for the Australian authorities, the Kremlin's actions are described as real economic expansion. “The government order of 2010 on the Antarctic strategy until 2020 speaks peremptorily about the importance of Antarctic resources for energy and economic security Russia, - write the authors of the report. - as priority targets public policy it mentions comprehensive study, dedicated to mineral and hydrocarbon resources, as well as the development of a "progressive" strategy designed to discuss the situation after 2048.

On the one hand, the strategy is only about “geological and geophysical studies that allow for the necessary predictive assessments of the mineral and hydrocarbon potential Antarctica". In other words, the authors of the program propose not to extract fuel, but only to explore it. However, on the other hand, it is unlikely that a prerequisite for such studies is purely scientific interest. Especially if " comprehensive study mineral, hydrocarbon and other types natural resources Antarctica” is intended to contribute to “strengthening the economic potential of Russia”.

In a similar vein, the Australians evaluate the activities of the Chinese, whose goal is called "assessment of the potential of resources and methods of their use." The author of the report almost accuses Beijing of imperial ambitions: according to him, on one of the Chinese polar stations“Welcome to China sign is hanging, indicating a desire for isolation and a refusal to recognize Australia’s claims.”

Obviously, in anticipation of the expiration of the moratorium on mining, the nervousness around Antarctica will only intensify. At the same time, the likelihood that, in the context of the global energy shortage, the ban on exploration and production of hydrocarbons will be in effect forever is not very high. It is possible that in order to prevent full-scale confrontations, a new agreement will be signed that regulates the procedure for working in Antarctica and on its shelf. But Russia, most likely, with this division will have no more arguments than any other country.

The world economy's demand for mineral resources will only grow. Against this background, according to Invest-Foresight experts, in full height the problem of developing the resources of Antarctica may arise. Although it is protected from development mineral resources numerous conventions and treaties, this may not save the coldest continent of the planet.

© Stanislav Beloglazov / Photobank Lori

It is estimated that developed countries consume approximately 70 per cent of all the world's minerals, although they possess only 40 per cent of their reserves. But in the coming decades, the growth in the consumption of these resources will not be at the expense of developed, but at the expense of developing countries. And they are quite capable of paying attention to the Antarctic region.

Expert of the Union of Oil and Gas Producers Rustam Tankaev believes that on this moment the extraction of any minerals in Antarctica is not economically viable and is unlikely to ever become so.

“In this respect, even the Moon, in my opinion, is more promising in terms of the development and extraction of mineral resources. Of course, we can say that technology is changing, but space technology are developing even faster than the Antarctic, - the expert emphasizes. – There were attempts to drill wells to open ancient cavities with water in the hope of finding ancient microorganisms. There was no such thing as searching for mineral resources at the same time.”

The first information that the ice continent is rich in minerals appeared at the beginning of the 20th century. Then the researchers discovered layers of coal. And today, for example, it is known that in one of the water areas surrounding Antarctica - in the Commonwealth Sea - a coal deposit includes more than 70 seams and can reach several billion tons. There are thinner deposits in the Transantarctic Mountains.

In addition to coal, Antarctica has iron ore and rare earth and precious metals such as gold, silver, copper, titanium, nickel, zirconium, chromium and cobalt.

The development of minerals, if it ever starts, can be very dangerous for the ecology of the region, says a professor at the Faculty of Geography of Moscow State University Yuri Mazurov. There is no unambiguous vision of the consequences of such abstract significant risks, he reminds.

“On the surface of Antarctica, we see a dense thickness of ice up to 4 kilometers, and we still have little idea of ​​what is under it. In particular, we know, for example, that there is Lake Vostok there, and we understand that organisms from there can have the most amazing nature, including those associated with alternative ideas about the origin and development of life on the planet. And if so, it requires an incredibly responsible attitude towards economic activity around the lake,” he warns.

Of course, the expert continues, every investor who decides to develop or search for mineral resources on the ice continent will try to get various recommendations. But in general, Mazurov recalls, there is a principle in one of the UN documents, which is called "On the historical responsibility of states for the preservation of the nature of the Earth."

"It says explicitly, 'cannot be allowed economic activity, the economic result of which exceeds the environmental damage or is unpredictable. The situation in Antarctica is just the second. Until now, there is not a single organization that could conduct an examination of the project with a deep immersion in the nature of Antarctica. I think this is just the case when you need to follow the letter and not guess about the possible outcome, ”the expert warns.

And he adds that the probability of some point, very accurate developments can be considered acceptable.

By the way, the documents themselves, which protect the mineral resources of the ice continent from development and development, are strong only at first glance. Yes, on the one hand, the Antarctic Treaty, which was signed on December 1, 1959 in the United States, is open-ended. But on the other hand, the Convention on the Management of the Development of Mineral Resources of Antarctica, which was adopted on June 2, 1988 by a meeting of 33 states, is still in limbo.

The main reason is that in Antarctica, under the main treaty, "any activity related to mineral resources is prohibited, with the exception of scientific research." In theory, it follows from this that the 1988 Antarctic Minerals Management Convention cannot and will not apply while this prohibition is in effect. But in another document - the "Protocol on the Protection of environment” - it is said that after 50 years from the date of its entry into force, a conference may be convened to consider how it operates. The Protocol was approved on October 4, 1991 and is valid until 2048. It, of course, can be canceled, but only if the participating countries renounce it, and then adopt and ratify a special convention on the regulation of the extraction of mineral resources in Antarctica. Theoretically, the development of minerals can be carried out with the help of so-called international consortia, the rights of participants in which are equal. Perhaps other options will emerge in the coming decades.

“There are much more promising regions on Earth for mining in the future. In Russia, for example, there huge territory Arctic lands and shelf, the mineral reserves are huge, and the conditions for their development are much better compared to Antarctica,” Rustam Tankaev is sure.

Of course, it is possible that by the end of the 21st century, the issues of development mineral wealth Antarctica will still have to be transferred from the theoretical to the practical plane. The whole question is how to do it.

It is important to understand one thing - the ice continent in any situation should remain an arena of interaction, not discord. As, in fact, it has been customary since its discovery in the distant 19th century.

Antarctica is a huge icy continent, almost twice the size of Australia. it the only place on earth, almost touched by man.

The main part of the land in Antarctica is covered with ice, which retreats in the coastal regions in summer. Here on some mountain peaks it never snows. Living organisms have adapted to extremely low temperatures.

Geologists believe that in Antarctica there are large stocks coal, iron and copper. However, the Antarctic Treaty prohibits the development of any minerals, but some countries would like to amend it to allow them to mine them.

According to international agreement, there is no mining on the mainland. This is due to the fact that during the extraction of minerals, huge heaps of waste rock or quarry remain in the mining sites.

And in Antarctica, such emissions of rock to the surface will cause melting continental ice, which will inevitably lead to disaster in the Antarctic and in general on the globe.

If in Antarctica any, even a small, object, such as a piece of wood, is thrown on ice or snow, the ice under it will simply begin to melt before our eyes, and the object will sink deeper. This is due to the significant solar radiation, which concentrates heat on an object.

Thus, mining in Antarctica is possible only with the use of new technologies currently being developed by some developed countries world (Japan, USA).

Antarctica is a continent with extreme low temperatures located in . Almost all of its territory is covered with ice, with the exception of the area in the west. The difficult living conditions annually attract researchers and tourists.

Basic geographic information

The area of ​​the mainland exceeds 14 million km². The territory is located in the subantarctic and antarctic belt. Antarctica captures all longitudes, and cannot have a western and eastern extreme. There is only northern extreme point, Cape Sifra.
The continent is washed by the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans, as well as the Amundsen, Ross, Weddell and Bellingshausen seas. The water in the Weddell Sea is the cleanest on the planet. Through it you can see representatives and at a depth of up to 70 m.

The coastline is slightly indented, its length exceeds 30 thousand km. The shores are most often high ice cliffs, ice shelves. The Arctic Peninsula is the largest on the mainland. It extends north of southern border. To others large peninsulas include Hut Point, Mawson's Peninsula, and the Edward VII Peninsula. Land of Alexander I, Deception and Clarence are major islands Antarctica.

There is no permanent population on the continent due to the harsh climate. The number of scientists and tourists fluctuates depending on the season. 16 countries of the world conduct research on the territory of Antarctica. The region is studied exclusively for peaceful purposes. States are prohibited from declaring part of the land as their territory. The mainland is not divided into time zones and time zones. Scientists are guided by the time of their country.

Relief

Antarctica is located on the plate of the same name. As a result tectonic faults most of it rose. The surface is dissected due to dense ice cover. It is difficult for scientists to study the true relief: in some places, the thickness of the ice reaches several kilometers.

The average height of the continent reaches 2000 m above sea level. The highest site is Vinson Massif, highest point which reaches 4892 m above sea level. The Bentley depression is the most low point- 2540 m below sea level. The Transarctic Mountains divided the area into Western and East Antarctica. In the western part it is more complex, the ridges break through the ice crust. In the east, mountain rises alternate with deep depressions. The Gamburtsev Mountains rest under a layer of ice. The length of the massif is 1300 km, and the highest point is 3390 m. They are comparable in size to the Alps.

Antarctica has both dormant and active volcanoes. Over the past 200 years, two of them have erupted. To the south of all is the active volcano Erebus. Lava ejection was recorded in 2011.

Inland waters

Ice shelves block the way inland. In Antarctica, you can find sheet and mountain glaciers. Their food comes from rainfall. About 2200 km³ is accumulated per year. Ice is consumed due to the breakaway of the coast. 140 lakes were found under the ice. The largest body of water is Lake Vostok, named after the Soviet scientific station. Its depth is 1200 m. Under-ice reservoirs formed a long time ago: melt water flowed into depressions and was covered with a crust of ice.

There are no permanently flowing rivers. The Onyx River, located in the Wright Oasis, stretches for 30 km. It flows for two months a year, and with the onset of frost, it is covered with ice and snow.

Climate

on the continent very Cold winter and the same cold summer. The average annual temperature is -60°C. Most of Earth is located in the Antarctic belt, the Antarctic Peninsula lies in the subantarctic belt. Due to placement inside the South polar circle in winter time here round the clock polar night, and in the summer - round-the-clock polar day.

The continent is distant from . He receives less heat because of the large slope earth's axis. The ice surface reflects 80% of the light into space. The territory of Antarctica is an icy desert. The amount of snowfall does not exceed ten centimeters per year. They blow from high mountains strong winds. In some areas, their speed is 320 km / h.

Flora and fauna:

Vegetable world

There is no vegetation in the Antarctic desert; it covers the outskirts of the mainland. Mosses, lichens and fungi grow on ice-free land. Unpretentious undersized bushes are found on the Antarctic Peninsula. Their number includes several dozen species. The flowers are faintly colored, because pollination is carried out by the wind, and not by insects.

Animal world

The islands are inhabited by beetles, butterflies and spiders. Plovers, pipits and several species of ducks nest in South Georgia. Life depends on the seas, the waters of which are rich. Animals are represented by pinnipeds and whales: seals, sea leopards, humpback, blue minke. Adélie penguins, emperor penguins and Sclater penguins settle on the northern coast. Flying birds, cormorant, petrel and gull nest on the rocks.

Minerals

The continent has deposits of coal, copper and iron. According to scientists, the volume of oil exceeds the amount of oil by Arabian Peninsula. Installation of special equipment and mining will cause irreparable damage. In 1991, a protocol was drawn up banning mining until 2048.

Ecological situation

The main problem of Antarctica is ozone holes. The thinning of the protective layer threatens with an overabundance ultraviolet radiation. The sun melts polar ice. because of global warming the air warms up slowly. Animals have to adapt to new conditions of existence.