Modern environmental problems in forestry
Introduction
1. History of environmental legislation in Russia
2. Environmental crimes
3. Environmental crime through the eyes of journalists
Conclusion and Conclusions
Literature
Introduction
“You count on a year - plant rice. You count on ten years - plant a tree. You count on a hundred years - enlighten people. ( Chinese thinker XIIIin. guan tzu.).
In the twentieth century, mankind fully felt global ecological crisis , which unequivocally points to anthropogenic toxication of the biosphere, to the rapid reduction of biodiversity, degradation over vast expanses natural ecosystems. These dramatic changes in the natural environment have been able to have negative impacts on the economy and human health. Obviously, man in his development has crossed the permissible limits of interaction with nature. It is the knowledge of natural laws and patterns that will help humanity to overcome the ecological crisis in the future and preserve a favorable environment in the interests of present and future generations. Global environmental issues - greenhouse effect, depletion of the ozone layer, acid rain, climate warming, fires, deforestation, etc. - in the modern changing world have acquired the main importance.
To solve these problems, the following steps should be taken :
1. Ecological education of the population, as one of the indispensable conditions for realizing the right of every person to life in a comfortable environment.
2. Broad involvement of public organizations and all segments of the population in the preparation and adoption of decisions, resolutions by the government of the laws of the State Duma of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation.
3. Take part in the holding mass events, festivals, dedicated to the Day Earth, World Conservation Day environment etc.
4. Environmental education is a minimum mastery environmental knowledge necessary for the formation of an ecological culture of citizens and all students. For this, starting from kindergarten acquaint children with nature to instill a love for nature. Establish school forestries in schools. One of the tasks of school forestries is to promote knowledge of laws on nature protection and disseminate information about violations of legislation in this area.
This work is aimed at fulfilling this task.
Target: Pay attention to the problem in our country related to environmental crimes in forestry.
Relevance of the work: Currently, there is an illegal export of timber raw materials abroad without documents; timber is sold without auctions, at reduced prices, which brings loss to the state; forests are being cut down without issuing tickets.
1. History of environmental legislation in Russia
Let's get acquainted with the history of development and organization of nature protection and adopted legislative acts.
Known Decree (1563) of Ivan the Terrible on the prohibition of logging on the banks of the Dvina in order to protect against floods, as well as the conservation (1571) southern border Moscow principality, and for visiting them without permission it was provided the death penalty. Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov (1645 - 1676) issued 67 environmental decrees, including a number of decrees on state protected forests, which were strictly protected for royal hunts, as well as the well-known decree on the creation of a nature reserve on the Murmansk coast "Semiostrovie", to preserve the nesting places of gyrfalcons.
Particularly noteworthy is the environmental protection activity of Peter I (1672–1725), during which numerous environmental decrees were issued. Wherein great attention devoted to the conservation of forests, soil, clean water. It was new, more high level nature conservation. Especially known are the decrees on forbidden and water protection forests, the cleanliness of water bodies, the preservation of the soil cover during logging, and the protection of forests from fires. Peter I limited the felling of forests in the vicinity of cities, along the banks of many rivers, and the Waldmeister Office was created to manage the use of forests. However, after the death of Peter, many of his decrees were canceled.
Before mid-nineteenth century in the environmental protection of Russia there was some lull, except for a few environmental acts of Catherine II, Paul I and other emperors. However, the level of these acts did not exceed the level of acts of Peter the Great. These are the law on hunting (1763), the decree on the protection of spawning grounds (1835), some acts on the regulation of forest management, on the creation of botanical gardens and individual reserves.
Significant progress in the conservation of nature began under the emperor Alexandra III after the abolition of Serfdom and the beginning of the industrialization of Russia. Society shows an understanding of the need for civil initiative in environmental protection. In 1865, the Russian Society for the Protection of Animals was created, and a little later, in various provinces, societies of naturalists and nature lovers. In 1873 The Ural Society of Natural Science Lovers has begun work on the preservation of a unique natural object near the city of Yekaterinburg - granite rocks "Shartash stone tents". Now it is a natural monument. In 1882, on the initiative of B.I. Dybovsky in the area of the Kronotsky volcano in Kamchatka, the first public reserve in Russia was created for the breeding and protection of sable. In connection with industrial development Russia began intensive deforestation. Therefore, in 1888, Emperor Alexander III "deigned to approve and ordered to fulfill" the Regulations on the conservation of forests, it was simply called the forest protection law. This provision introduced the concept of protective forests with a strict use regime. These are water protection, coastal protection and soil protection mountain forests as specially protected areas. They prohibited clear-cutting of forests and grazing of livestock. Serious fines were levied for violation: for every hundred square sazhens of cut down area - 5 rubles, in addition to the tax value of cut down timber. The provincial forestry committees monitored the implementation of the regulations.
AT late XIX in. several private reserves were created: Askania - Nova, the forest on Worksla, the relic groves of Pitsunda, etc. V.V. Dokuchaev (1892) formulated several principles that formed the basis for the formation of the nature reserve and the protective fertility of the land.
Environmental measures, decrees, resolutions have been applied and introduced into the life of the state since 1917, and all of them were aimed at preserving, increasing, and protecting the wealth of Russia.
The greatest progress in environmental protection took place after the establishment in 1988 of the Ministry of Environmental Protection and the network of its committees in all constituent entities of the Russian Federation (later and until 2000, State Committee Russian Federation for Environmental Protection). Since the second half of 2000, this committee has been transformed into public service nature protection within the Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation. Foresters were laid off or transferred to other jobs with a salary of no more than 1,000 rubles. Many sanctuaries, nature reserves, and specially protected territories have also been put under the ax of reorganization.
These are erroneous strategic decisions, the losses will be huge !
Some in the government look at Russian forests like a cash cow that can be milked endlessly. Our forest is not only an economic, but also the most important global environmental and political resource for the country.
2. Environmental crimes
F.Z. p. 7 - F.Z. dated January 10, 2002 “On Environmental Protection” refers to “harm to the environment”, which means a negative change in the environment as a result of its pollution, resulting in degradation natural ecological systems and the depletion of natural resources. And also talk about environmental safety, the state of protection of the natural environment and the vital interests of man, from negative impact economic and other activities, emergencies natural and man-made nature, their consequences (Article 1 of the Federal Law). In accordance with paragraph 1 of Art. 14 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation, a guilty - committed socially - dangerous act, prohibited by the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation under threat of punishment, is recognized as a crime.
Based on this, the concepts environmental crimes can be disclosed as “socially dangerous acts that infringe on the environmental law and order established in the Russian Federation, the environmental safety of society, causing harm to the environment and human health” (Article 7 of the Federal Law of January 10, 2002 “On Environmental Protection "). Unlike the subject of an environmental crime - environmental law and order and public safety - the object is the material benefits of nature (subsoil, land, water, atmospheric air, forests, gene pool, etc.)
The Criminal Code of the Russian Federation provides for liability for forest offenses:
Article 260 "Illegal felling of trees and shrubs".
Article 261 "Destruction or damage to forests".
Article 262 “Violation of the regime of specially protected natural areas and natural objects.
For clarity, let us dwell on Article 260 “Illegal logging”.
This is how things stand with article 260 in the Mansky forestry of the Ungut forestry.
Protocols for illegal logging in the Manskoye forestry of the Ungut forestry.
|
Years of deforestation |
Quantity forest violations |
Identified forest offenders |
Is pending |
| 1993 | 3 | 3 | 0 |
| 1994 | - | - | - |
| 1995 | 1 | 1 | 0 |
| 1996 | - | - | - |
| 1997 | 1 | 0 | 0 |
| 1998 | 4 | 2 | 0 |
| 1999 | 1 | 0 | 0 |
| 2000 | 4 | 4 | 4 |
| 2001 | 10 | 1 | 1 |
| 2002 | 5 | 0 | 0 |
| 2003 | 4 | 1 | 1 |
It should be borne in mind that crimes in the area forest relations similar in actual composition to administrative offenses, however, they pose a greater danger due to the significant damage or encroachment on especially protected forest objects (forests of the first protection group, nature reserves, national parks, etc.). For example, by objective side Art. 260 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation and Art. 8.28. The Code of Administrative Offenses of the Russian Federation provides for liability for a similar offense - illegal felling of trees and shrubs. If, as a result of these actions, damage was caused in a significant amount, then criminal, rather than administrative, liability arises.
For example.
So, on June 20, 2003, the prosecutors of the Mansky district initiated administrative proceedings under Art. 8.28 of the Code of Administrative Offenses of the Russian Federation. According to the resolution on initiation of proceedings on an administrative offense, on December 19, 2002, in quarter No. 74 of the Badzheysky forestry in the forests of the first group, a forest violation was committed - illegal felling of trees in the amount of 5.9 m 3 . The damage caused to the forest fund amounted to 216 rubles 53 kopecks. The audit carried out found that Mr. To together with gr. G. illegally felled the said forest, by prior agreement. Thus, the actions of K. are seen as elements of a crime under part 2 of Art. 260 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation. However, given that the damage caused to forestry is insignificant in the actions of K., there is no corpus delicti of this crime.
Thus, K. committed an administrative offense under Art. 8.28 of the Code of Administrative Offenses of the Russian Federation.
In principle, all environmental offenses directly or indirectly pose a threat environmental harm and only legislation classifies some of them as environmental crimes (socially dangerous) or environmental offenses (social harm).
The distinction between the elements of a crime and an environmental offense is usually given not only on the basis of the principle of repetition, i.e. the application of a conditional administrative punishment only after the application of measures of administrative responsibility (administrative prejudice - Article 4.3, paragraph 2 of the Code of Administrative Offenses), but also on the presence of real environmental damage. The significance of this is due to the fact that "... for many, if not most, offenses in the field of environmental protection ... the law enforcement officer is forced to raise and decide on the issue of their distinction from administrative offenses." As a rule, environmental crimes refer to material compositions, the necessary element of which is the presence of harm. For most environmental offenses, there is no need for environmental harm (ideal composition). However, in a number articles of the Code of Administrative Offenses direct responsibility for real threat causing environmental damage (Art. 8.3; 8.10 p. 2; 8.38, etc.).
Despite the fact that in recent times there has been an acute issue of logging and export (export) of timber, the practice of conducting law enforcement agencies and considering cases of this category by judges is negligible.
In 2002-2003, the Mansky District Department of Internal Affairs received 18 applications on the facts of illegal logging. Based on 8 applications, a decision was made to refuse to initiate a criminal case. In 2004, one case was sent to court.
“In 2002, the inspectors of the State Institution “Selsky Leskhoz Mansky” carried out 27 inspections of compliance with the rules of forest management and forest legislation. According to the results of the checks, a penalty of 10 thousand rubles was charged. Everything is really charged. In 2003, 51 certificates of examination were drawn up, penalties were charged - 12.2 thousand rubles. Actually recovered - 5.1 thousand rubles.
From July to November 2003, 8 facts of illegal logging were revealed, 3 by individuals, 5 by legal entities. The total damage amounted to 12 thousand rubles, 2.5 thousand rubles were actually recovered.
3. Environmental crimes through the eyes of journalists
Starting to consider environmental crimes and adopted resolutions, laws in recent years, Russian journalists found out that our government is far from the problems of preserving Russian forests, subsoil, etc.
Journalist Stepan Dengin published his article Pillars for cottages?". It deals with the favorite place of recreation for Krasnoyarsk residents - the Stolby reserve, as well as more than 100 reserves and 35 national parks of our country. The Ministry of Natural Resources of Russia sent out telegrams with conclusions about the inexpediency of their existence. The director of the Stolby reserve confirmed the existence of such a telegram in his commentary, but a denial came a little later, and they were told that the senders of this telegram were punished.
Everything would be fine. The topic seemed to be over. But there is one interesting detail in this case. Three years ago reserves and National parks, i.e. protected areas with forests, minerals, large tempting areas have passed to the Ministry of Natural Resources, which, among other things, is engaged in the extraction of those same minerals, deforestation, etc. The conclusion suggests itself...
There is something to think about. Recently The State Duma On the government's initiative, it adopted amendments to the Forest Code, legalizing the cottage development of especially valuable forests, the so-called forests of the first group. The Federation Council has already approved the amendments.
Article Alexandra Ostrov « Don't cut, guys! continues this theme. I explain: the forests of the first group are forests of specially protected natural areas - the banks of rivers, lakes, reservoirs, nature reserves, resort and park areas. In connection with this amendment, it will be possible to lease forests for at least 49 years, but not to everyone and not always.
The new text of the code reads: “The transfer of forest lands to non-forest lands is carried out in the forests of the first group - by the Government of the Russian Federation on the proposal of the authorities ... agreed with the authority ... in cases of impossibility of their further use for their intended purpose due to the loss of forests of their useful natural properties... and placement of cultural, housing and communal, social and household facilities and in other cases.”
So, according to this interpretation of the question, who will determine this utility? Who will decide that utility is lost?
In the Moscow region, thousands of hectares of specially protected forests, where mushroom pickers and tourists used to roam, are already fenced with barbed wire. Apparently, they have lost useful properties. Now the new edition of the forest code will legalize everything. And such an economic crime as illegal logging is reflected in the article Yuri Zvyagin in "Rossiyskaya Gazeta" dated August 4, 2003 " black lumberjacks».
« black lumberjacks» in recent years have become a real scourge of remote areas of the Leningrad region. A particularly difficult situation has developed in the Boksitogorsk region, 88% of which is covered with forest. " black lumberjacks» Trees have already started to be felled here in broad daylight, cars were loaded right on the highway, on the Vologda highway. According to the estimates of local timber merchants, the volumes of illegal logging have become equal to the volumes of legal ones. At the same time, walking around the forest real war. Two years ago, in the "showdown" of criminal structures that controlled illegal logging, only two dozen people died in a year. They shot right on the streets of the district center. Harvesters - tenants began to unite to protect their forests and demand help from the state. In August 2003, the Boksitogorsk district administration, the Union of Timber Manufacturers and the Committee for Natural Resources and Environmental Protection initiated the adoption by the regional government of a resolution on the introduction of a special forest management regime in the Boksitogorsk district. It was forbidden to enter the forest on tractors and timber trucks, as well as to enter with chainsaws, without having a special permit from the forestry enterprises. A headquarters for the introduction of a special regime was created in the region, which began to organize forest patrols and inspections of sawmills. The directors of the leshozes were replaced, regarding whom it became known that they were yielding to the requirements of " black lumberjacks". More determined people were put in their place.
This is where it all started. I will not go into details, but I will say that assassination attempts began on the directors of forestry enterprises, as well as foresters, they were beaten, killed, their houses were burned.
Where, excuse me, are the police looking? In the forest, of course, no matter how much you feed the wolf, he still wants to. When the fight against illegal logging began, the headquarters was faced with the fact that all their attempts to achieve punishment for the "black loggers" stumble upon an incomprehensible passivity of the internal affairs bodies and the prosecutor's office. About 300 cases of forest violations were transferred to law enforcement in 2002, about 500 in the last six months, so what? About 25 cases reached the court, and not a single one was convicted.
The article says that the police and the prosecutor's office did nothing about the beatings and arson. She also interpreted the crimes with the forest in her own way. In their opinion, while the tree stands, it is state property, and as soon as the saw separates it from the stump, it becomes a draw until it is branded by a forester. It turns out that a tree lying on the ground can be taken by anyone? Well, caught with the forest" black lumberjacks"and they say:" I found these trunks lying around in the forest and just picked them up.
And the bodies of inquiry say to the foresters: “You didn’t catch him at the moment when he was sawing, did you? It means that he is not guilty” and refuse to start a case.
The most interesting thing is that not much is needed to correct the situation, - Nikolai Kondratenko, director of the Boksitogorsk forestry, believes. - It is just necessary to normalize Article 260 of the Criminal Code. For some reason, the fish inspector detains the poacher, he can take away the boat, and the hunting inspector - the gun, and the forest guard cannot confiscate the timber truck and the chainsaw. Not covered by the article.
And at the end of my article Yuri Zvyagin draws a good conclusion, and I agree with him, that illegal logging should be considered as theft of state property. And punish accordingly.
What can we say about the Leningrad Region, when we have an equally tragic situation in the Krasnoyarsk Territory with the illegal export of timber. Stop playing the fight against forest violations and illegal export of timber from the region!
These words can characterize the general mood of the participants in the coordination meeting of the region's law enforcement agencies, which took place in 2003. The heads of the prosecutor's office, the police, the FSB, tax officials and bailiffs spoke about the implementation of legislation regulating the harvesting and export of timber. It is no secret that the problem of illegal export of timber from the region to recent times took on a special urgency. For a year and a half, the state forest service of the main department of natural resources and environmental protection in the region revealed 559 cases of illegal logging, the total damage was estimated at 134 million rubles. And how many violations have not been identified!
Regional Prosecutor V. Ya. Grin drew attention to the lack of proper control by the forestry services and competent authorities for compensation for damage caused by illegal logging. The activities of the Krasnoyarsk customs are recognized as ineffective - foreigners export our timber abroad in large volumes and without returning its value. Fictitious firms are being created that use pre-planned tax evasion schemes when harvesting and exporting timber, trying to illegally recover VAT from the budget on products, the legality of which is either not confirmed or “confirmed” by falsified documents.
The Coordinating Council noted that control measures in this area are given sporadically and are not of a systemic nature. It is encouraging that, at the initiative of the regional prosecutor's office Gen, the prosecutor's office and the Supreme Court have determined a unified judicial practice in criminal cases of this category. At the meeting, decisions were made to create a departmental working group under the leadership of the Deputy Prosecutor of the Territory, to form a unified information database on felling and release of wood. Prepared for the regional administration specific proposals to prevent violations of the law in the forestry sector and improve the effectiveness of joint actions of regulatory and law enforcement agencies.
Conclusion and Conclusions
In my work, I touched on only a small part of environmental crimes in forestry, namely illegal logging. When we start talking about the fate of the Russian forest, for some reason we rarely mention the role of ordinary citizens who are not professionally connected with the forest. Probably because this role, alas, is mostly consumer.
Why is our forest being stolen? What are the reasons for this disgrace? A lot of them. Well, for example: the poverty of the population, unemployment, the right to the real use of firearms taken away from the forest guard, the high level of corruption among employees of state structures, the state seizing 100% of the proceeds from auction sales of standing timber from forestry enterprises. As well as the negative attitude of many local authorities to forest auctions, the obvious interest of their own and foreign firms in acquiring cheaper wood stolen from the state, the presence of high-performance logging machines among thieves. Etc. Etc.
The named reasons for the theft of the forest are real. In their totality, they are a complex conglomerate of causal relationships. In my opinion, in order to unravel this tangle, it is necessary to find the main reason and only then take on the rest. So. In conclusion, we must state with chagrin that the roots of mass theft of timber must be sought in the low quality of the laws adopted by the State Duma. The imperfection of laws related to the forest is fraught with danger not only for the forestry sector of the economy, but also for the country as a whole.
Due to the aforementioned problems, this moment the most radical measures must be taken to preserve forests. And these problems must be solved both at the state level and by every ordinary person who must develop his own attitude towards the forest, towards its preservation.
· First of all, it is necessary to stop illegal felling of forests and bring violators to justice.
· Secondly, the rational distribution of quotas for deforestation, depending on their volume in the territories and the value of species.
· Thirdly, the development and adoption of codes of laws on the conservation of forests.
Only with an integrated approach to the problems of care, conservation, logging behind the forests of all forest departments, responsible workers on the ground, as well as educating the younger generation to respect the forest, it is possible to achieve the preservation of the main wealth of our Russia - forests.
PROTECT THE EARTH
Take care of the Earth. take care
Skylark at the blue zenith
Butterfly on dodder leaves,
Sunshine on the path...
The hawk hovering over the field
A clear moon over the river calm,
A swallow flickering in life.
Take care of the Earth. Take care
The miracle of the songs of cities and towns,
The darkness of the depths and the will of the skies...
Tenderness helpless singing
And love iron patience.
Take care of young seedlings
At the green festival of Nature.
Sky in the stars, Ocean and Land
But a believing soul in immortality,
All destinies are the connecting threads.
Take care of the Earth. take care
Time turns sharply
Joy of Inspiration and Work,
Ancient kinship living properties.
Revelations of Earth and Heaven,
Sweetness of Life, Milk and Bread,
Take care of Kindness and Pity,
To fight for the weak
Take care of the future
This word is from my notebook.
I give everything! I accept all good
Just take care of the Earth!
Mikhail Dudin
Used Books
1. V.A. Vronsky. Ecology. Dictionary - reference book. Rostov-on-Don, 2002 572 pp.
2. Environmental legislation. M., 1998, 253 pages.
3. Articles from periodicals.
Modern environmental problems in forestry Contents Introduction 1. History of environmental legislation in Russia 2. Environmental crimes 3. Environmental crime through the eyes of journalists ConclusionsMINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF RUSSIA
FEDERAL STATE BUDGET
EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
"NIZHNY NOVGOROD STATE PEDAGOGICAL UNIVERSITY NAMED AFTER KOZMA MININ"
Faculty: Natural Mathematics and computer science
Department of Environmental Education and environmental management
Direction of training (specialty): Ecology and nature management
Profile (specialization): Environmental management and audit
Course work
on the topic: "Forest management as a direction of resource management"
Student Shaibekova M.R.
Nizhny Novgorod - 2014.
Introduction
Chapter 1. Theoretical foundations of forest management
1.1Main functions of the forest
1.2 Types of forest management
3Problems of irrational use of forest resources
Conclusions for chapter 1
Chapter 2. Optimization of forest management
2 Integrated processing of raw materials
3 Use of thinnings
4 Carrying out reforestation
Conclusions on chapter 2
Analysis of the state of the forest fund Nizhny Novgorod region
Conclusions on chapter 3
Conclusion
Introduction
The relevance of this term paper lies in the fact that with the development of science and technology in modern world forest management remains one of the main resources. Forests are a source of timber harvesting - raw materials for the production of various products. At the same time, a variety of non-timber forest products are harvested in the forests: resin, various resins, essential oils, technical and medicinal raw materials, mushrooms, nuts, honey and others. food products. At the same time, forests perform the most important ecological functions, maintain the conditions of life in the Earth's biosphere. Ecological and economic characteristics of the forest is unique. Under the condition of a reasonable economy, it can be used simultaneously in various society needs purposes: to harvest wood, carry out secondary forest management, use it for cultural and recreational purposes, etc. The time when the forest was considered only as a source of timber is receding into the past. Foreground as the most important factor put forward the task of complex, multi-purpose use of all useful properties forests, organization of continuous, sustainable forest management.
The purpose of the course work is to consider forest management as one of the main types of resource management.
The task is:
ü to study the concept of forest management;
ü identify the main problems of forest management;
ü consider the types of reforestation as the main direction of optimizing forest management;
ü analyze state of the art forest fund in the Nizhny Novgorod region.
1. Forest management as a direction of resource management
1.1Main functions of the forest
Russia is located in a forest zone extending from eastern borders country to its western borders. In the northern part of the forest belt, where the surface of the earth receives less heat than the southern one grows dense, impenetrable coniferous forests, which are called taiga. Cold-resistant tree species grow in the taiga: spruce, pine, fir, larch and cedar. To the southwest of the taiga, the surface of the earth receives more heat and moisture, so they grow there along with coniferous trees mixed forests: birch, aspen, alder, willow, bird cherry, oak. The most powerful tree of these forests is the oak. Oaks are demanding on soil, heat, moisture, therefore they spread to the east only to the Ural Mountains. Broad-leaved forests and groves extend further south. In these forests grow: maple, ash, beech, elm, oak, linden, hawthorn, viburnum, wild rose, raspberry. Russia accounts for 22% of the world's forested territory (72% of them are coniferous forests). This is 764 million hectares (about 60% of Russia's land mass):
§ 37% (279 million hectares) are in the Far East,
§ 41% (295 million ha) to Siberia
§ 22% (167 million ha) for European part Russia
Forests perform a variety of functions, the main of which are shown in Fig. one.
Trees growing in forests, through photosynthesis, create organic matter using carbon dioxide, which they absorb from the atmosphere, as a source of carbon. Oxygen is released back into the atmosphere. per molecule absorbed by the plant carbon dioxide(respectively, one atom of bonded carbon) accounts for one molecule of oxygen released into the atmosphere. The carbon bound in the process of photosynthesis is partially used by the plant to build its own organism, and partially it is returned back to the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide during the respiration of the plant and during the decomposition of its dying parts (for example, leaves falling every year).
Rice. 1. The main functions of the forest
Accordingly, the carbon that is used by the plant throughout its life to build its own organism is the equivalent of the oxygen released into the atmosphere by this plant. How many carbon atoms are contained in all the organs of an adult tree, the same number of oxygen molecules (approximately) were released by this tree during its entire life into the atmosphere.
Observations of the amount of precipitation in areas with varying degrees of forest cover have shown that the amount of precipitation becomes greater as the amount of forest cover increases, which is conditionally expressed by the length of the forest contours, that is, forest edges. With an increase in the length of the edges from 100 to 1300 km in the area of meteorological stations, the amount of annual precipitation increased by 15%, and summer - by 20%. This phenomenon is explained by the ability forest areas lift air masses to a considerable height, which causes them to cool. If the amount of water vapor is close to saturation, this cooling can cause precipitation.
Forest plantations - protection against water and wind erosion of soils. Forest belts regulate the flow of water in the catchment area of the hydrographic network. At the same time, not all runoff is absorbed in forest belts. Part of it reaches and concentrates in the hydrographic network. To retain residual runoff, ponds are arranged along hollows and beams, having great importance not only as flow regulators, but also as sources of water supply. To protect the ponds from silting with solid runoff and large evaporation of water, forest belts such as balusters are created around them. Balochnye strips are placed along the water's edge, leaving an intermediate grassing zone 20–40 m wide. For the passage of livestock to watering places, gaps 20–30 m wide are made in the forest belt. bottom and banks at a distance of up to 100 m upwards from the confluence of the hollow into the pond. Silt filters retain solid runoff and protect the pond from silting. With proper placement, the surface runoff of water is significantly reduced, planar erosion and the growth of ravines along the bottom of the hydrographic network stop.
The forest has great sanitary and hygienic and healing value. Forests are actively transforming atmospheric pollution, especially gaseous ones. Conifers, as well as some varieties of lindens and birches, have the highest oxidizing ability. The forest actively absorbs industrial pollution, in particular dust. Trees absorb car exhaust and emissions industrial enterprises. In addition, the forest keeps noise and emissions from nearby industrial area. The forest in the city protects residential areas from the smell of smoke and landfills.
The value of forest air is enormous - it has a beneficial effect on the central and sympathetic nervous system of a person, increases the overall tone and immunity of the body. It is noticed that the amount of release of phytoncides by young pines is much greater than by old ones. The healing effect of forest air on a person depends primarily on the concentration of phytoncides in it. These substances improve oxidative processes, have a positive effect on the activity of the cardiovascular and nervous systems of the body, improve metabolism. Forest air contains three times more light negatively charged ions than normal air. The number of positive ions is significantly lower.
Vegetable world very rich, and almost all of its representatives have medicinal properties. That is why the forest can rightfully be called a forest green pharmacy. Herbal medicine has a long tradition. From the beginnings of medicine to the present day, people have used a wide variety of methods and means of treatment. As medical knowledge improves in medical practice there are more and more new remedies, but only herbal medicine.
2 Types of forest management
Forest management is the use of forests in order to meet the needs of the economy and the population in various forest resources, products and usefulness of the forest.
Rice. 2. Basic forest management
Forest management is divided into two types: industrial and secondary.
Industrial forest management is engaged in the harvesting and use of wood products: the main one is wood. Wood is the main raw material in:
§ pulp and paper industry;
§ furniture industry;
§shipbuilding;
construction.
Secondary forest management is engaged in the collection of live bait, bark, wood chips, stumps, bast. Secondary forest management uses non-timber products, such as picking berries and mushrooms, as well as wild fruits and medicinal plants.
A distinctive feature of the two types of nature management is that industrial forest management is characterized by wide circle environmental problems, and for the secondary, the problems associated with an excess of visits to forest areas and immoderate withdrawal of biological resources forests.
3 Problems of irrational use of forest resources
Great human impact on nature and non-preservation of natural resource potential leads to irrational use of resources.
The problems of irrational use of forest resources lead to serious consequences:
1) an increase in dry areas due to large volumes of logging;
2) destruction of the surface layer of soil due to skidding;
) clogging of riverbeds due to the mole alloy of wood;
4) biodiversity reduction;
) an increase in fire hazardous areas.
Landscape changes due to deforestation, increased fires and urbanization lead to fragmentation of the natural environment and complicate the survival of many species. Infrastructure such as roads, highways and power plants are often built to the detriment of many species. Due to the fragmentation of vast areas, many species cannot adapt to new environment and die out.
Desertification, caused mainly by climate change and human activity, is leading to a loss of biodiversity. Trees are cut down without further remediation, intensive grazing leads to the depletion of pastures, leading to a decrease in the economic productivity of the land and forcing its inhabitants to move to other areas.
During mole rafting, part of the timber sinks as a result of their loss of buoyancy, clogging the riverbeds, clogging the rivers with waste, branches and firewood; mechanical impact on fish spawning grounds; continuous overlapping of the river with wad in the zapani; exposure to substances extracted from wood by water. Under the influence of substances washed out of wood, microorganisms develop that absorb oxygen dissolved in water.
Tree hauling causes strong change microrelief of the surface of the soil and vegetation cover of the cutting area. At the place where the tractor turns, micro-elevations are formed, occupying an average of a quarter of the cutting area. Microdepressions are created on the dragways and make up more than 40% of the area. With the existing technology of logging operations, a set of multi-operational machines almost completely destroys the undergrowth and destroys the entire soil and vegetation cover. The surface of the soil in the process of skidding is highly mineralized as a result of stripping off the forest litter, mixing it with the mineral horizons of the soil and vegetation cover, or pressing it into the soil. The increase in pressure on the soil and the number of passes of machine movers along the cutting area puts serious problem soil compaction. Soil compaction to a greater extent negatively affects the development of small tree roots.
Conclusions for chapter 1
In the first chapter, the direction of forest management was considered.
The main functions of the forest are listed: the release of oxygen and the absorption of carbon dioxide and chemical pollution, the impact on water regime, drought reduction, protection against water and wind erosion. The main types of forest management are identified, such as industrial, which is the main and secondary, which is of secondary importance. The problems of irrational use of forests are analyzed: changes in the microclimate and arid regions, soil destruction and clogging of rivers due to improper transportation of wood, as well as an increase in fire zones and a decrease in biodiversity.
2. Optimization of forest management
1 Main directions of forest management optimization
The main directions of forest management optimization are shown in Figure 3.
Rice. 3. Optimization of forest management
Processing of raw materials, thinning and reforestation are the main directions for forest care and rational wood processing.
2.2 Integrated processing of raw materials
When harvesting wood only in the forest, up to 25% of the biomass remains. During further processing of roundwood, waste is also inevitably generated in the form of sawdust, shavings, cuts, and slabs. Consequently, when processing such a valuable natural raw material as wood, half of its volume is used unskilled. One of the most common areas of wood waste processing is their use as fuel (burning) in order to obtain thermal energy. However, as a rule, wood waste in the form of sawdust, small chips, shavings and bark is inconvenient for transportation, storage and storage. The high moisture content of wood waste does not allow it to be used effectively as a fuel without additional training.
Charcoal production. Getting raw charcoal is the best way utilization of wood formed in the cutting area during the felling of industrial timber. Firstly, waste from logging is processed, and the forest is cleared. Secondly, waste softwood is recycled. Traditionally, charcoal is obtained by pyrolysis (decomposition of wood without air access) in special devices. In accordance with the requirements of GOST, charcoal can be produced in several grades: - Grade A (obtained by pyrolysis of hardwood); - grade B (obtained by pyrolysis of a mixture of hard and soft hardwood); - grade B (obtained by pyrolysis of a mixture of hard-softwood and coniferous wood).
Production of charcoal briquettes. At enterprises engaged in the manufacture of charcoal, a large amount of small things accumulate, which cannot be sold and can be processed into briquettes. Charcoal briquettes are high quality fuel. Briquettes have high mechanical strength, increased density, high calorific value. Briquetting of charcoal fines is carried out using binders. As a binder, coal and wood tars and their pitches, petroleum products, products of processing of plant materials and other binders are used.
Briquetting of small wood waste. An effective way to prepare wood waste for disposal is briquetting without the use of a binder. Briquettes are of two types: fuel and technological (pellets). Fuel briquettes can be used for heating in home stoves and fireplaces, as well as in factory boilers and CHPs. Pressing wood waste makes it possible to clean up the territories of enterprises and solve a number of environmental problems. Briquettes from wood waste and bark contain practically no sulfur, so there is no SO in their combustion products 2and SO 3, and the CO content is minimal. In addition, the ash formed during the combustion of briquettes has the properties of an effective potash fertilizer. Existing power plants working on traditional form fuels (coal, gas, fuel oil) cannot "switch" to pellets, replacement or reconstruction of equipment is required.
Gasification. Gasification is the process of converting solid fuel (wood) into gas. The development of equipment and technology for the gasification of lump wood, its processing waste and logging waste in order to obtain energy gas for boiler houses and diesel engines was very intensively carried out in our country in the 50-60s of the last century. However, due to the provision of timber industry enterprises and settlements with cheap electricity, it has not yet received proper development. Now the question of getting our own electricity is acute.
2.3 Use of thinnings
Forest care system by removing unwanted trees from the plantation and creating favorable conditions for growth best trees of the main species, aimed at the formation of highly productive high-quality plantations and the timely use of wood [Clearings // Forest Encyclopedia: in 2 volumes / Ch. ed. Vorobyov G.I.; ed. Col.: Anuchin N. A. and others. - M .: Sov. encyclopedia, 1986. - 631 p.]
Lighting cabins. This type of felling is carried out in order to clarify the main tree species (mainly oak) in the phase of closing a mixed plantation. Clarification of the main breed is carried out by cutting down the shrubs that shade it and related species. At the same time, drying and severely damaged trees are cut down for sanitary purposes. Clarification cuttings are repeated after 2-3 years. During this time, the main species can again be shaded by rapidly growing shoots from previously cut down plants or overgrown trees and shrubs that did not shade it during the previous felling. During clarification felling, 40-50% of the total wood supply is cut down, since the largest plants have to be cut down. Excessive logging should not be allowed, so as not to greatly disturb the closeness of the tree canopy and not cause overgrowth of the soil with weedy grassy vegetation. Those woody plants that do not directly shade the main species at the moment are not cut down.
Cleaning cabins. The task of cleaning is to care for the composition of the plantation. During these cuttings, those types of tree species are left and in such a ratio (proportion) that the formation of the most productive and biologically sustainable plantation is ensured. These cuttings are carried out in the thicket phase, when all woody plants (shrubs and trees) grow in one layer. During the natural renewal of cuttings, rather random mixing proportions arise between different types woody plants and quite often to the detriment of the main species (oak, pine, etc.). During the cutting process, it is necessary to provide protection to the main species and their activators; rock-inhibitors must be cut down. When repeating cleanings, one should strive to gradually bring the composition of young animals closer to the possible best proportions mixing.
Thinning cuts. These cuttings are carried out in order to care for the shape of the trunk. The growth of shrubs weakens, they lag far behind tree species and occupy the lower tier in the plantation, forming undergrowth. In this phase, the growth of trees of the main species is significantly enhanced and the accompanying species are weakened. Trees of the main species make up the bulk of tree plantations. The quality of this wood should be high, but not all trunks have it. For various reasons, many trunks develop abnormally. If the apical bud is damaged (frost, insects, birds), the growth of the trunk in height continues due to the development of lateral buds or lateral branches closest to the top, which gradually assume a vertical position. At the same time, the harmony of the trees is disturbed, the trunks are formed cranked, double, with stepson, etc. During felling, trees with straight trunks are kept among the main species and crooked and knotty ones are cut down, while avoiding excessive thinning. During thinning, accompanying rocks are also partially cut down. Cut down those of them that interfere with the growth of the best trees of the main species. Part of the accompanying species is left to form the second tier of the plantation. The presence of this tier, due to lateral shading, will prevent the growth of lateral branches in the trees of the main species and contribute to the natural cleansing of their trunks from branches. Thinning cuttings are repeated after 5-10 years, depending on the growth rate of the stand. At the same time, 15 - 25% of the total wood supply is cut down.
Sanitary cabins. These cuttings improve the sanitary condition of the forest. At the same time, dead trees (dead wood) are cut down, and with a high density, diseased trees and those with large mechanical damage. Sanitary felling is carried out simultaneously with regular thinning. At the same time, trees that have died during natural thinning, that is, dead wood, are cut down in the plantation. Such cuttings are repeated after 5 years.
2.4 Carrying out reforestation
Reforestation - growing forests in areas that have been cut down, fires, etc. Reforestation is used to create new forests or improve the composition of tree species in existing ones. It is carried out on a zonal-typological basis in order to restore cut down and dead forests. Reforestation should ensure the restoration of forest plantations, the conservation of biological diversity and the useful functions of forests. Based on this, it is customary to distinguish three types of reforestation work, which are presented in Figure 4.
Rice. 4. Main types of reforestation
.Natural reforestation is carried out by: preserving, during the felling of forest plantations, a viable generation of main forest tree species that has resumed under the canopy of forest plantations, capable of forming new forest plantations in given natural and climatic conditions, and mineralization of the soil surface (that is, promoting natural restoration).
.Artificial reforestation: carried out by creating forest plantations of the main species by planting seedlings, seedlings or by sowing seeds
.Combined reforestation: carried out by combining natural and artificial reforestation in one forest area.
Reforestation is carried out on clearings, burnt areas, sparse areas, clearings, other lands not covered with forest vegetation or suitable for reforestation. For the purpose of reforestation, an annual accounting of areas of fellings, burnt areas, sparse areas, clearings, other lands not covered with forest vegetation or suitable for reforestation is provided, in which, depending on the state of undergrowth and young growth on them, methods of reforestation are determined. At the same time, the areas of forest plots subject to natural reforestation, artificial reforestation, and combined reforestation are taken into account separately.
Great damage to reforestation is caused by large mammals (especially moose), which feed on the shoots of young woody plants, gnawing at the bark and breaking the top shoots. Poorly organized grazing also brings great harm, especially in forests. mountainous areas. Thus, unregulated grazing many times led to the disappearance of forests over vast areas, the development of erosion of mountain slopes, the deterioration of the water regime of rivers, and many other unpleasant phenomena.
Conclusions on chapter 2
In the second chapter, three main directions for optimizing forest management are studied: the integrated use and processing of wood, the use of thinning and reforestation. The types of processing of raw materials were considered: the production of charcoal and charcoal briquettes, briquetting of wood waste and gasification. Several types of thinnings have been identified: sanitary, lightening, clearing and thinning. The functions of reforestation were considered: natural, artificial and combined reforestation.
forestry felling timber
3. Analysis of the state of the forest fund of the Nizhny Novgorod region
As of January 1, 2011, the total area of forest fund lands in the Nizhny Novgorod region amounted to 3805.6 thousand hectares. Forest fund lands make up 95% of all lands on which forests are located.
The forest cover of the territory of the Nizhny Novgorod region is on average 46.8%, however, within the region, forests are distributed extremely unevenly. The least forested area of the region is Knyagininsky, where the forest cover is 11.6%. 12 districts of the region are among the districts with the given indicator of forest cover. The most densely forested is the Varnavinsky district, the forest cover of which is 83.2%. Forest cover of 51% or more is observed in 20 districts of the region, treeless (with less than 10% forest cover) are 4 administrative district.
Diagram 1. Number of lease agreements for forest plots by type of use (Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources of the Nizhny Novgorod Region. Lease of forest plots)
The composition of the forests of the Nizhny Novgorod region is characterized by a certain ratio of coniferous, hardwood and softwood species. About half of the forest area is occupied by coniferous plantations (47.7%), the main part of which is represented by pine species (81.5%). The area of spruce forests is 18.4% total area conifer plantations. Minor specific gravity in the group of conifers, larch (0.12%), fir and cedar have.
Diagram 2. The species structure of the annual volume of timber harvesting (Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources of the Nizhny Novgorod Region. Compiled according to the table of the species structure of the annual timber volume)
The species structure of the annual volume of timber harvesting is characterized by the predominance of pine, birch and aspen in the plantations.
Table 1. Dynamics of changes in the areas of the main forest-forming species (Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources of the Nizhny Novgorod Region. Categories of forest fund lands)
Main forest-forming species Areas by years of accounting of the forest fund, thousand Ghana 01.01.2003 as of 01.01.2008 as of 01.01.2009 as of 01.01.2010 as of 01.01.2011 ,11704.51707.61638.1- pine1229.21224.11403.21404.71334.5- spruce224.3232.8299.0300.6301.3- larch 1.82.02.02.02.0 Hardwood - total, including : 57.755.586.586.586.6 - tall oak 8.37.27.87.87.9 - short oak 47.446.176.176.176.1 Soft-leaved - total, including: 1360.61366.3 735.41734.21712.2 - birch1023.113192 51317.81296.6- aspen248.5244.3288.7289.3288.7
Hardwood forests, which make up 2.5% of the total area of the main forest-forming species, grow mainly on the right bank of the Volga and Oka and are represented by coppice low-stemmed oak forests.
The area of soft-leaved forest stands is 49.8% of the area of the main forest-forming species. In the structure of softwood plantations, birch forests prevail (75.7%), the share of aspen is 16.7%, linden - 3.2%, black alder - 3.4%. About 1% of the total mass of soft-leaved plantations is occupied by gray alder, poplar and tree-like willows.
Table 2. Dynamics of changes in timber stocks by predominant species for 2003-2010 (Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources of the Nizhny Novgorod Region. Categories of forest fund lands)
Преобладающие древесные породыЗапасы древесины по годам учета лесного фонда, млн м3на 01.01.2003на 01.01.2008на 01.01.2009на 01.01.2009на 01.01.2010ХвойныеСосна187,59202,01237,72237,02227,19Ель26,3826,6941,8441,7841,44Пихта0,050,050,060,060, 06Лиственница0,200,220,210,210,21Итого 214,22228,97279,83279,07268,90ТвердолиственныеДуб высокоствольный1,040,951,031,031,03Дуб низкоствольный7,397,3911,0911,0911,09Ясень0,040,060,080,080,08Клен0,040,030,040,040,04Вяз, ильм и др.0,060,060,090,090,09Итого 8,578, 4912,3312,3312,33МягколиственныеБереза144,83151,04194,37193,63190,90Осина 45,0645,0054,6254,1653,86Ольха серая0,070,070,520,520,52Ольха черная4,334,506,326,346,31Липа7,818,4210,310,2910,27Тополь0,090,100,150,150 ,15Arboreal willow0.090.090.230.230.23Total 202.28209.22266.51265.32262.24Shrubs0.080.070.130.130.13Total:425.15446.75558.8556.85543.60
In each group of species, an increase in wood reserves is observed. Especially intense in coniferous and soft-leaved trees.
Conclusions on chapter 3
In the third chapter, information was analyzed on the area of the forest fund of the Nizhny Novgorod region, which areas have a small and large forest cover, and which forest species dominate. The tables and charts show timber stocks and dominant species between 2003 and 2010.
Conclusion
As a result of the work, the basic concepts of forest management, its types and functions were studied. And also the main problems of irrational use of forest resources were identified, such as: deforestation, loss of biodiversity, increase in fire hazardous areas, etc. An analysis was given of ways to solve emerging problems. Optimization of reforestation includes three main areas: complex processing of raw materials, use of thinnings and reforestation. The state of the forest fund of the Nizhny Novgorod region and the main indicators of forest management for the period 2003 - 2011 were considered.
In conclusion, I would like to note that the forest acts not only as natural resource but also as the wealth of the Earth. The forest has a lot recovery potential which people should value and respect.
List of sources used
1.GOST 18486-87 Forestry
2. GOST 24260-80 Raw wood for pyrolysis and charcoal burning. Specifications
GOST 7.1 - 2003 Bibliographic record. Bibliographic description.
Vorobyov G.I. Forest Encyclopedia / Ch. editor G.I. Vorobyov - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1985. - T. 1. - 563 p.
5. Forest and man: textbook / N.F. Vinokurova, G.S. Kamerilova, V.V. Nikolina, V.I. Sirotin
Commentary on the Forest Code of the Russian Federation (item-by-article) / S.A. Bogolyubov, M.I. Vasilyeva, Yu.G. Zharikov et al. M.: Institute of Legislation and Comparative Law under the Government of the Russian Federation; Prospect, 2009
Rodin A.R. Forest crops: textbook. allowance - M., 2002
Shumakov V.S. Some features of the physical properties of forest soils. Sat. " Scientific works on forest soil science. - M.: Lesn. industry, 1973
Federal Forestry Agency
Features of the use of forest resources in the world and Ukraine
forest resources
Ecological features forests
13. Forest and atmosphere
14. Influence of the forest on the water regime
15. Complex processing of wood raw materials. Utilization of wood waste
16. Types of thinnings
Tutoring
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The term "forest use" or "forest use" means the use of all forest resources, all types of forest resources.
The main forest management is engaged in the harvesting and use of wood products: the main - wood, the secondary - live bait, bark, wood chips, stumps, bast. In Russia, this also includes the harvesting of birch bark, spruce, fir and pine feet. Industrial main forest management is called due to the large scale of work and their setting on an industrial basis.
Secondary forest management uses non-timber products and is similar in character to commercial forest management. A distinctive feature of the two types of nature management is that industrial forest management is characterized by a wide range of environmental problems, and for side management, problems associated with excess visits to forest areas and immoderate withdrawal of forest biological resources are especially significant.
Industrial forest management. The main direction of industrial forest management is timber harvesting. Related to this is the emergence of environmental problems in the areas of mass logging.
One of the main effects of timber harvesting is the replacement of primary forests with secondary forests that are generally less valuable and often less productive. But this is only the first step. Cutting triggers the mechanisms of deep economic changes in the region of deforestation. These changes affect all areas.
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Environmental impact felling methods |
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Negative environmental impacts. |
Positive environmental impact. |
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Clear felling |
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Significant territories are exposed, the natural balance is disturbed, and erosion processes are accelerating. Biocenoses are completely destroyed, flora and fauna are degrading. Growth is destroyed, the conditions for self-restoration of forests become more difficult. |
The complete clearing of the cutting area facilitates planting and caring for forest crops. |
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Selective logging (remedial logging) |
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Work on purposeful reforestation is difficult. During felling and transportation, the forest litter and other trees are damaged, the hydrological regime of the territory and the habitat of plants and animals are disturbed. |
Ripe, low-value, diseased plants are selected, healing takes place, and the composition of the forest improves. Landscapes, biocenoses, typical flora and fauna are mostly preserved. |
The intensity of changes depends on the intensity of logging, and they, in turn, depend on a number of factors: the need for wood, transport accessibility of the harvesting area, and the equipment of work in the cutting area. The composition of species and the age of forests also affect the intensity of felling.
Adverse effects are especially evident in cases where there is overcutting of wood (more is cut down than grows in a year).
During cuttings lagging behind in terms of wood growth, undercutting is observed, which leads to aging of the forest, a decrease in its productivity, and diseases of old trees. Consequently, overcutting leads to the depletion of forest resources in some areas, and undercutting leads to their underutilization in others. In both cases, we are dealing with irrational use of natural resources. Therefore, foresters advocate the concept of continuous forest management, based on a balance between the reduction and renewal of forests and timber resources. However, for the time being, deforestation predominates on the planet.
The emergence of environmental problems is associated not only with the scale of deforestation, but also with the methods of deforestation.
Comparison of positive and negative consequences indicates that selective logging is a more costly form and is characterized by less environmental damage.
Forest resources are renewable resources, but this process takes 80-100 years. This period is lengthened in cases where land is severely degraded after deforestation. Therefore, along with the problems of reforestation, which can be carried out by self-restoration of forest plantations and, to speed up - by creating forest plantations, the problem of careful use of harvested wood arises.
But deforestation is destructive anthropogenic process opposes stabilizing anthropogenic activity - the desire for the full use of wood, the use of gentle methods of logging, as well as constructive activity - reforestation.
Industrial forest management
The term "forest use" or "forest use" means the use of all forest resources, all types of forest resources.
The main forest management is engaged in the harvesting and use of wood products: the main - wood, the secondary - live bait, bark, wood chips, stumps, bast. In Russia, this also includes the harvesting of birch bark, spruce, fir and pine feet. Industrial main forest management is called due to the large scale of work and their setting on an industrial basis.
Secondary forest management uses non-timber products and is similar in character to commercial forest management. A distinctive feature of the two types of nature management is that industrial forest management is characterized by a wide range of environmental problems, and for side management, problems associated with excess visits to forest areas and immoderate withdrawal of forest biological resources are especially significant.
Industrial forest management. The main direction of industrial forest management is timber harvesting. Related to this is the emergence of environmental problems in the areas of mass logging.
One of the main effects of timber harvesting is the replacement of primary forests with secondary forests that are generally less valuable and often less productive. But this is only the first step. Cutting triggers the mechanisms of deep economic changes in the region of deforestation. These changes affect all areas.
The intensity of changes depends on the intensity of logging, and they, in turn, depend on a number of factors: the need for wood, transport accessibility of the harvesting area, and the equipment of work in the cutting area. The composition of species and the age of forests also affect the intensity of felling. Adverse effects are especially evident in cases where there is overcutting of wood (more is cut down than grows in a year).
During cuttings lagging behind in terms of wood growth, undercutting is observed, which leads to aging of the forest, a decrease in its productivity, and diseases of old trees.
Fig.12 Intensity of deforestation
Consequently, overcutting leads to the depletion of forest resources in some areas, and undercutting leads to their underutilization in others. In both cases, we are dealing with irrational use of natural resources. Therefore, foresters advocate the concept of continuous forest management, based on a balance between the reduction and renewal of forests and timber resources. However, for the time being, deforestation predominates on the planet.
The emergence of environmental problems is associated not only with the scale of deforestation, but also with the methods of deforestation.
Comparison of positive and negative consequences indicates that selective logging is a more costly form and is characterized by less environmental damage.
Forest resources are renewable resources, but this process takes 80-100 years. This period is lengthened in cases where land is severely degraded after deforestation. Therefore, along with the problems of reforestation, which can be carried out by self-restoration of forest plantations and, to speed up - by creating forest plantations, the problem of careful use of harvested wood arises.
But deforestation - a destructive anthropogenic process - is opposed by stabilizing anthropogenic activities - the desire for the full use of wood, the use of gentle logging methods, as well as constructive activities - reforestation.
The use of wood in the wood chemical industry.
Forest fires
Fig. 13 Fire in the forest
Among the important abiotic factors influencing the nature of the communities formed in the ecosystem, one should include fires. The fact is that some areas are regularly and periodically exposed to fires. In coniferous forests growing in the southeastern United States, and treeless shrouds, as well as in the steppe zone, fires are a very common occurrence. In forests where fires occur regularly, trees usually have thick bark, which makes them more resistant to fire. The cones of some pines, such as Banks pine, release their seeds best when heated to a certain temperature. Thus, seeds are sown at a time when other plants competing with them for living space are dying in fires. In some cases, the soil after fires is enriched with biogenic elements, such as phosphorus, potassium, calcium, and magnesium. As a result, animals grazing in areas subject to periodic fires receive more complete nutrition. Man, preventing natural fires, thereby causes changes in ecosystems, the maintenance of which requires periodic burnouts of vegetation.
At present, fires have become a very common means of controlling the development of forest areas, although public consciousness hard to get used to this idea.
The number of forest fires in one of the regions of Siberia over two centuries.
The situation with forests is also unfavorable on the European continent. At the forefront here are the problems of atmospheric pollution by industrial emissions, which are already beginning to have a continental character. They affected 30% of the forests of Austria, 50% of the forests of Germany, as well as the forests of Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Germany. Along with spruce, pine, and fir, which are sensitive to pollution, such relatively resistant species as beech and oak began to be damaged. The forests of the Scandinavian countries have been severely affected by acid rain, formed by the dissolution of sulfur dioxide emitted into the atmosphere by the industry of other countries. European countries. Similar phenomena have been noted in Canadian forests from pollution carried from the United States. Cases of forest loss around industrial facilities are also observed in Russia, in particular on the Kola Peninsula and in the Bratsk region.
Doom rainforest. Virtually all types of habitats are being destroyed, but the problem is most acute in tropical rainforests. Every year there is cut down or otherwise exposed to forests on an area equal to approximately the entire territory of Great Britain. If the current rate of destruction of these forests is maintained, in 20-30 years there will be practically nothing left of them. Meanwhile, according to experts, two thirds of the 5-10 million species of living organisms that inhabit our planet are found in tropical forests. Most often, excessive population growth is cited as the main cause of the death of most of the rainforests. This last circumstance in developing countries leads to an increase in the supply of firewood for heating homes and an expansion of areas for slash-and-burn agriculture practiced by local residents. Some experts believe that the accusation is directed to the wrong address, since, in their opinion, the destruction of only 10-20% of forests is associated with the slashing method of cultivating the land. Much of the rainforest is being destroyed due to the massive development of pastoralism and the construction of military roads in Brazil, as well as the growing demand for timber from tropical trees exported from Brazil, Africa and Southeast Asia.
How to stop the loss of tropical forests? A number of organizations, such as the World Bank and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, have put a lot of thought and money into trying to stop the massive loss of tropical forests. For the period from 1968 to 1980. The World Bank has spent $1,154,900 on rainforest restoration programs. But it is not yet clear whether this has had any significant effect on the resolution of the problem. One of the reasons for the ineffectiveness of the measures taken is that much larger amounts are spent on agricultural development projects. When a country's government has the option of choosing between an agricultural development program and reforestation projects, the choice is usually made in favor of the former program, as it promises to quickly meet the population's food needs. Another reason is that loans, such as those provided by the World Bank, actually sometimes increase deforestation. A country may find it more profitable to first generate income from the sale of mature timber, and then, using the loans received, implement a program for the restoration of cut forests. Consequently, as a result of such a statement of the case, the amount of the loan doubles.
Industrial forest management
The term "forest use" or "forest use" means the use of all forest resources, all types of forest resources.
The main forest management is engaged in the harvesting and use of wood products: the main one is wood, the secondary one is live bait, bark, wood chips, stumps, bast. In Russia, this also includes the harvesting of birch bark, spruce, fir and pine feet. Industrial main forest management is called due to the large scale of work and their setting on an industrial basis. Secondary forest management uses non-timber products and is similar in character to commercial forest management. A distinctive feature of the two types of nature management is that industrial forest management is characterized by a wide range of environmental problems, and for side management, problems associated with excess visits to forest areas and immoderate withdrawal of forest biological resources are especially significant.
The main direction of industrial forest management is timber harvesting. Related to this is the emergence of environmental problems in the areas of mass logging. One of the main effects of timber harvesting is the replacement of primary forests with secondary forests that are generally less valuable and often less productive. But this is only the first step. Cutting triggers the mechanisms of deep economic changes in the region of deforestation. These changes affect all areas. The intensity of changes depends on the intensity of logging, and they, in turn, depend on a number of factors: the need for wood, transport accessibility of the harvesting area, and the equipment of work in the cutting area. The composition of species and the age of forests also affect the intensity of felling. Adverse effects are especially evident in cases where there is overcutting of wood (more is cut down than grows in a year). During cuttings lagging behind in terms of wood growth, undercutting is observed, which leads to aging of the forest, a decrease in its productivity, and diseases of old trees. Consequently, overcutting leads to the depletion of forest resources in some areas, and undercutting leads to their underutilization in others. In both cases, we are dealing with irrational use of natural resources. Therefore, foresters advocate the concept of continuous forest management, based on a balance between the reduction and renewal of forests and timber resources. However, for the time being, deforestation predominates on the planet.
The emergence of environmental problems is associated not only with the scale of deforestation, but also with the methods of deforestation. Comparison of positive and negative consequences indicates that selective logging is a more costly form and is characterized by less environmental damage. Forest resources are renewable resources, but this process takes 80-100 years. This period is lengthened in cases where land is severely degraded after deforestation. Therefore, along with the problems of reforestation, which can be carried out by self-restoration of forest plantations and, to speed up, by creating forest plantations, the problem of careful use of harvested wood arises. But deforestation - a destructive anthropogenic process - is opposed by stabilizing anthropogenic activities - the desire for the full use of wood, the use of gentle logging methods, as well as constructive activities - reforestation.
Forest fires
Among the important abiotic factors influencing the nature of the communities formed in the ecosystem, one should include fires. In coniferous forests growing in the southeastern United States, and treeless shrouds, as well as in the steppe zone, fires are a very common occurrence. In forests where fires occur regularly, trees usually have thick bark, which makes them more resistant to fire. In some cases, the soil after fires is enriched with biogenic elements, such as phosphorus, potassium, calcium, and magnesium. As a result, animals grazing in areas subject to periodic fires receive more complete nutrition. Man, preventing natural fires, thereby causes changes in ecosystems, the maintenance of which requires periodic burnouts of vegetation. At present, fires have become a very common means of controlling the development of forest areas, although the public consciousness is having difficulty getting used to this idea.
The forests of the Earth are seriously affected by fires. Forest fires destroy 2 million tons of organic matter annually. They cause great harm to forestry: the growth of trees is reduced, the composition of forests is deteriorating, windbreaks are intensifying, soil conditions and windbreaks are deteriorating, soil conditions. Forest fires promote the spread of harmful insects and wood-destroying fungi. World statistics claims that 97% of forest fires are caused by humans and only 3% by lightning, mainly ball lightning. The flames of forest fires destroy both flora and fauna in their path. In Russia, great attention is paid to the protection of forests from fires. As a result of the measures taken in recent years to strengthen preventive fire-fighting measures and the implementation of a set of works for the timely detection and extinguishing of forest fires by aviation and ground-based forest fire units, the forest areas covered by fire, especially in the European part of Russia, have significantly decreased.
