Seas that flow into the Atlantic Ocean. Underwater world of the Atlantic Ocean

Part of the World Ocean, bounded by Europe and Africa from the east and North and South America from the west. The name comes from the name of the titan Atlas (Atlanta) in Greek mythology.

It is inferior in size only to the Quiet; its area is approximately 91.56 million km2. It is distinguished from other oceans by the strong indentation of the coastline, which forms numerous seas and bays, especially in the northern part. In addition, the total area of river basins flowing into this ocean or its marginal seas is much larger than that of rivers flowing into any other ocean. Another difference Atlantic Ocean is a relatively small number of islands and a complex bottom topography, which, thanks to underwater ridges and uplifts, forms many separate basins.

States of the coast of the Atlantic Ocean-49 countries:

Angola, Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, Bahamas, Barbados, Benin, Brazil, United Kingdom, Venezuela, Gabon, Haiti, Guyana, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Grenada, Democratic Republic Congo, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Ireland, Iceland, Spain, Cape Verde, Cameroon, Canada, Ivory Coast, Cuba, Liberia, Mauritania, Morocco, Namibia, Nigeria, Norway, Portugal, Republic of the Congo, Sao Tome and Principe , Senegal, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Suriname, USA, Sierra Leone, Togo, Trinidad and Tobago, Uruguay, France, Equatorial Guinea, South Africa.

NORTHERN ATLANTIC OCEAN

It is divided into northern and southern parts, the border between which is conditionally drawn along the equator. From an oceanographic point of view, however, the equatorial countercurrent, located at 5–8° N latitude, should be attributed to the southern part of the ocean. The northern boundary is usually drawn along the Arctic Circle. In some places this boundary is marked by underwater ridges.

Borders and coastline

in the northern hemisphere has a heavily indented coastline. Its narrow northern part is connected to the Arctic Ocean by three narrow straits. In the northeast, the Davis Strait, 360 km wide, connects it with the Baffin Sea, belonging to the Arctic Ocean. In the central part, between Greenland and Iceland, there is the Danish Strait, with a width of only 287 km at its narrowest point. Finally, in the northeast, between Iceland and Norway, is the Norwegian Sea, approx. 1220 km. East of Atlantic Ocean two water areas deeply protruding into the land are separated. The more northern of them begins with the North Sea, which to the east passes into the Baltic Sea with the Gulf of Bothnia and the Gulf of Finland. To the south there is a system of inland seas - the Mediterranean and the Black - with a total length of approx. 4000 km.

AT tropical zone in the southwest of the North Atlantic are the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, connected to the ocean by the Strait of Florida. The coast of North America is indented by small bays (Pamlico, Barnegat, Chesapeake, Delaware and Long Island Sound); to the northwest are the Bays of Fundy and St. Lawrence, Belle Isle, Hudson Strait, and Hudson Bay.

CURRENTS

Surface currents in the northern part Atlantic Ocean moving clockwise. The main elements of this big system are north facing warm current Gulf Stream, as well as the North Atlantic, Canary and North Trade Wind (Equatorial) currents. The Gulf Stream follows from the Strait of Florida and the island of Cuba in a northerly direction along the coast of the United States and at about 40 ° N. latitude. deviates to the northeast, changing its name to the North Atlantic Current. This current divides into two branches, one of which follows the northeast along the coast of Norway and further into the Arctic Ocean. The second branch turns south and further southwest along the coast of Africa, forming the cold Canary Current. This current moves to the southwest and joins the North Equatorial Current, which heads west towards the West Indies, where it merges with the Gulf Stream. To the north of the North Equatorial Current is an area of stagnant water, abundant in algae and known as the Sargasso Sea. Along the North Atlantic coast of North America, the cold Labrador Current passes from north to south, following from the Baffin Bay and the Labrador Sea and cooling the coast of New England.

ISLANDS of the Atlantic Ocean

Most major islands concentrated in the northern part of the ocean; these are the British Isles, Iceland, Newfoundland, Cuba, Haiti (Hispaniola) and Puerto Rico. On the eastern edge Atlantic Ocean there are several groups of small islands - Azores, Canaries, Cape Verde. There are similar groups in the western part of the ocean. Examples include the Bahamas, Florida Keys and Lesser Antilles. The archipelagos of the Greater and Lesser Antilles form an island arc surrounding the eastern part of the Caribbean Sea. In the Pacific Ocean, such island arcs are characteristic of regions of crustal deformations. Deep-water trenches are located along the convex side of the arc.

The Atlantic Ocean occupies a huge area - 91 million square meters. km, and is the second largest after the Pacific Ocean. It contains 25% of all water on our planet. Let's get acquainted with a short list of the seas of the Atlantic Ocean, each of which has its own characteristics and features.

Atlantic Ocean basin

The Atlantic Ocean is the most important component of the World Ocean, the average depth of its waters is about 4 kilometers, and the salinity of the waters varies within 35%.

The Atlantic Ocean is characterized by a strongly indented coastline with a pronounced division into water areas. The seas of the Atlantic represent a great scientific interest, since they occupy 16% of total area ocean, that is, approximately 14.7 million square meters. km.

Rice. 1. Atlantic Ocean.

Many seas of the Atlantic are not directly connected to the ocean, and the connection between the basins occurs through bays and seas located nearby. Features of the geographical location and climatic conditions have a great influence on the flora and fauna of the seas of the Atlantic Ocean, which are very diverse.

The Atlantic Ocean was named after mythical hero Ancient Greece- Atlanta, who held the entire sky on his mighty shoulders.

Seas of the Atlantic Ocean

The Atlantic basin includes 28 large and small seas, each of which has its own unique features.

Etymology

The name of the ocean is first encountered in the 5th century BC. e. in the writings of the ancient Greek historian Herodotus, who wrote that "the sea with the pillars of Hercules is called Atlantis (ancient Greek Ἀτλαντίς - Atlantis)". The name comes from the ancient Greek myth of Atlanta, a titan holding the vault of heaven on his shoulders at the extreme western point of the Mediterranean. The Roman scientist Pliny the Elder in the 1st century used the modern name Oceanus Atlanticus (lat. Oceanus Atlanticus) - “The Atlantic Ocean”. At different times, separate parts of the ocean were called the Western Ocean, the North Sea, the Outer Sea. Since the middle of the 17th century, the Atlantic Ocean has become the only name referring to the entire water area.

Physical and geographical characteristics

General information

The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest. Its area is 91.66 million km², the volume of water is 329.66 million km³. It extends from the subarctic latitudes to Antarctica itself. border with Indian Ocean runs along the meridian of Cape Agulhas (20° E) to the coast of Antarctica (Dronning Maud Land). border with Pacific Ocean conduct from Cape Horn along the meridian 68 ° 04 'w. or the shortest distance from South America to the Antarctic Peninsula through the Drake Passage, from Ost Island to Cape Sternek. The border with the Arctic Ocean runs along the eastern entrance of the Hudson Strait, then through the Davis Strait and along the coast of Greenland Island to Cape Brewster, through the Danish Strait to Cape Reidinupur on the island of Iceland, along its coast to Cape Gerpir, then to the Faroe Islands, then to Shetland islands and 61° northern latitude to the coast of the Scandinavian Peninsula. Sometimes the southern part of the ocean, with northern border from 35°S sh. (on the basis of the circulation of water and the atmosphere) up to 60 ° S. sh. (according to the nature of the bottom topography), they are attributed to the Southern Ocean, which is not officially distinguished.

Seas and bays

The area of the seas, bays and straits of the Atlantic Ocean is 14.69 million km² (16% of the total ocean area), the volume is 29.47 million km³ (8.9%). Seas and main bays (clockwise): Irish Sea, Bristol Bay, North Sea, Baltic Sea (Gulf of Bothnia, The Gulf of Finland, Gulf of Riga), Bay of Biscay, Mediterranean Sea (Alboran Sea, Balearic Sea, Ligurian Sea, Tyrrhenian Sea, Adriatic Sea, Ionian Sea, Aegean Sea), Sea of Marmara, Black Sea, Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov, Gulf of Guinea, Riiser-Larsen Sea, the Lazarev Sea, the Weddell Sea, the Scotia Sea (the last four are sometimes referred to as the Southern Ocean), the Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, the Sargasso Sea, the Gulf of Maine, the Gulf of St. Lawrence, the Labrador Sea.

Islands

The largest islands and archipelagos of the Atlantic Ocean: the British Isles (Great Britain, Ireland, the Hebrides, Orkney Islands, Shetland Islands), the Greater Antilles (Cuba, Haiti, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Huventud), Newfoundland, Iceland, the Tierra del Fuego archipelago (Fire Land, Oste, Navarino), Marajo, Sicily, Sardinia, Lesser Antilles (Trinidad, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Curacao, Barbados, Grenada, St. Vincent, Tobago), Falkland (Malvinas) Islands (East Falkland (Soledad), West Falkland (Gran Malvina)), Bahamas (Andros, Grand Inagua, Grand Bahama), Cape Breton, Cyprus, Corsica, Crete, Anticosti, Canary Islands (Tenerife, Fuerteventura, Gran Canaria), Zeeland, Prince Edward, Balearic Islands (Mallorca), South Georgia, Long Island, Moonsund Archipelago (Saaremaa, Hiiumaa), Cape Verde Islands, Euboea, Southern Sporades (Rhodes), Gotland, Funen, Cyclades, Azores, Ionian Islands, South Shetland Islands, B Yoko, Bijagos Islands, Lesbos, Aland Islands, Faroe Islands, Öland, Lolland, South Orkney Islands, Sao Tome, Madeira Islands, Malta, Principe, Saint Helena, Ascension, Bermuda.

History of ocean formation

The Atlantic Ocean was formed in the Mesozoic as a result of the split of the ancient supercontinent Pangea into the southern continent of Gondwana and northern Laurasia. As a result of the multidirectional movement of these continents at the very end of the Triassic, it led to the formation of the first oceanic lithosphere of the current North Atlantic. The resulting rift zone was the western continuation of the rift crack in the Tethys Ocean. The Atlantic basin at an early stage of its development was formed as a connection of two large ocean basins of the Tethys Ocean in the east and the Pacific Ocean in the west. Further growth of the Atlantic Ocean basin will take place due to the reduction in the size of the Pacific Ocean. In the early Jurassic, Gondwana began to split into Africa and South America, and the oceanic lithosphere of the modern South Atlantic was formed. During the Cretaceous, Laurasia split apart, and the separation of North America from Europe began. At the same time, Greenland, shifting to the north, broke away from Scandinavia and Canada. During the last 40 million years and up to the present time, the opening of the Atlantic Ocean basin continues along a single rift axis located approximately in the middle of the ocean. Today, the movement of tectonic plates continues. In the South Atlantic, the divergence of the African and South American plates continues at a rate of 2.9-4 cm per year. In the Central Atlantic, the African, South American and North American plates diverge at a rate of 2.6-2.9 cm per year. In the North Atlantic, the spreading of the Eurasian and North American plates continues at a rate of 1.7-2.3 cm per year. The North American and South American plates move to the west, the African to the northeast, and the Eurasian to the southeast, forming a compression belt in the Mediterranean Sea.

Geological structure and bottom topography

Underwater margins of the continents

Significant areas of the shelf are confined to the northern hemisphere and are adjacent to the coasts of North America and Europe. In Quaternary times, most of the shelf was subjected to continental glaciation, which formed relic glacial landforms. Another element of the relict relief of the shelf is flooded river valleys, which are found in almost all shelf regions of the Atlantic Ocean. Relic continental deposits are widespread. Off the coast of Africa and South America, the shelf occupies smaller areas, but in the southern part of South America it expands significantly (Patagonian shelf). Tidal currents have formed sandy ridges, which are the most widespread of modern subaqueous landforms. They are very characteristic of the shelf North Sea, in in large numbers found in the English Channel, as well as on the shelves of North and South America. In equatorial-tropical waters (especially in the Caribbean Sea, on the Bahamas, off the coast of South America), coral reefs are diverse and widely represented.

Continental slopes in most areas of the Atlantic Ocean are expressed as steep slopes, sometimes having a stepped profile and deeply dissected by submarine canyons. In some areas, continental slopes are supplemented by marginal plateaus: Blake, São Paulo, Falkland on the American submarine margins; Podkupain and Goban on the underwater outskirts of Europe. The blocky structure is the Farrero-Iceland threshold, which extends from Iceland to the North Sea. In the same region is the Rokkol Upland, which is also a submerged part of the underwater part of the European subcontinent.

The continental foot, for most of its length, is an accumulation plain lying at a depth of 3-4 km and composed of a thick (several kilometers) thickness of bottom sediments. Three rivers of the Atlantic Ocean are among the ten largest in the world - Mississippi (solid runoff 500 million tons per year), Amazon (499 million tons) and Orange (153 million tons). The total volume of sedimentary material carried annually into the Atlantic Ocean basin by only 22 of its main rivers is more than 1.8 billion tons. Large fans of turbidity flows are located in certain areas of the continental foot, among them the most significant fans of the submarine canyons of the Hudson, Amazon, Rhone (in the Mediterranean), Niger, Congo. Along the North American continental margin, due to the bottom runoff of cold Arctic waters along the continental foot, giant accumulation landforms are formed in a southerly direction (for example, the "sedimentary ridges" of Newfoundland, Blake-Bahama and others).

transition zone

Transitional zones in the Atlantic Ocean are represented by areas: the Caribbean, the Mediterranean and the area of the Scotia Sea or the South Sandwich.

The Caribbean region includes: the Caribbean Sea, the deep-water part of the Gulf of Mexico, island arcs and deep-sea trenches. The following island arcs can be distinguished in it: Cuban, Cayman-Siera-Maestra, Jamaica-South Haiti, outer and inner arcs of the Lesser Antilles. In addition, the underwater height of Nicaragua, the Beata and Aves ridges are distinguished here. The Cuban arc has a complex structure and has a Laramian age of folding. Its continuation is the northern cordillera of the island of Haiti. The Cayman-Siera Maestra fold structure, which is of Miocene age, begins with the Maya mountains on the Yucatan Peninsula, then continues in the form of the Cayman submarine ridge and the Sierra Maestra mountain range of Southern Cuba. The Little Antilles arc includes a number of volcanic formations (including three volcanoes, for example, Montagne Pele). The composition of the eruption products: andesites, basalts, dacites. The outer ridge of the arc is limestone. From the south, the Caribbean Sea is bordered by two parallel young ridges: the arc of the Leeward Islands and the mountain range of the Caribbean Andes, passing to the east into the islands of Trinidad and Tobago. Island arcs and underwater ridges divide the bottom of the Caribbean Sea into several basins, which are leveled by a thick layer of carbonate bottom sediments. The deepest of them is Venezuelan (5420 m). Here there are also two deep sea trenches- Cayman and Puerto Rico (with the greatest depth of the Atlantic Ocean - 8742 m).

The areas of the Scotia Ridge and the South Sandwich Islands are borderlands - sections of the underwater continental margin, fragmented tectonic movements earth's crust. The island arc of the South Sandwich Islands is complicated by a number of volcanoes. From the east, it adjoins the South Sandwich Deep Trench with maximum depth 8228 m. The mountainous and hilly relief of the bottom of the Scotia Sea is associated with the axial zone of one of the branches of the mid-ocean ridge.

In the Mediterranean Sea, there is a wide distribution of the continental crust. The suboceanic crust is developed only in spots in the deepest basins: Balearic, Tyrrhenian, Central and Cretan. The shelf is significantly developed only within the Adriatic Sea and the Sicilian threshold. The mountainous folded structure connecting the Ionian Islands, Crete and the islands to the east of the latter is an island arc, which is bounded from the south by the Hellenic trench, in turn from the south, framed by the rise of the East Mediterranean shaft. The bottom of the Mediterranean Sea in the geological section is composed of salt-bearing strata of the Messinian stage (Upper Miocene). The Mediterranean Sea is a seismic zone. Several active volcanoes have been preserved here (Vesuvius, Etna, Santorini).

Mid-Atlantic Ridge

The meridional Mid-Atlantic Ridge divides the Atlantic Ocean into eastern and western parts. It begins off the coast of Iceland under the name of the Reykjanes Range. Its axial structure is formed by a basalt ridge, rift valleys in the relief are poorly expressed, but active volcanoes are known on the flanks. At a latitude of 52-53 ° N the mid-ocean ridge is crossed by the transverse zones of the Gibbs and Reykjanes faults. Behind them begins the Mid-Atlantic Ridge with a clearly defined rift zone and rift valleys with numerous transverse faults and deep grabens. At latitude 40°N the mid-ocean ridge forms the Azores volcanic plateau, with numerous above-water (forming islands) and underwater active volcanoes. To the south of the Azores Plateau, in the rift zone, under calcareous muds 300 m thick, basalts occur, and beneath them is a blocky mixture of ultrabasic and basic rocks. In this area, modern violent volcanic and hydrothermal activity is observed. In the equatorial part of the North Atlantic Ridge is broken a large number transverse faults into a number of segments experiencing significant (up to 300 km) lateral displacements relative to each other. Near the equator, the Romansh depression is connected with deep-water faults with depths up to 7856 m.

The South Atlantic Ridge has a meridional strike. Rift valleys are well expressed here, the number of transverse faults is less, so this ridge looks more monolithic compared to the North Atlantic Ridge. In the southern and middle parts of the ridge, the volcanic plateaus of the Ascension, the islands of Tristan da Cunha, Gough, and Bouvet stand out. The plateau is confined to active and recently active volcanoes. From Bouvet Island, the South Atlantic Ridge turns east, goes around Africa and merges with the West Indian Mid-Range in the Indian Ocean.

Ocean bed

The Mid-Atlantic Ridge divides the bed of the Atlantic Ocean into two almost equal parts. In the western part, mountain structures: the Newfoundland Range, the Baracuda Range, the Ceara and Rio Grande rises divide the ocean bed into basins: Labrador, Newfoundland, North American, Guiana, Brazilian, Argentinean. To the east of the mid-ocean ridge, the bed is separated by an underwater base canary islands, the rise of the Cape Verde Islands, the Guinean Rise and the Whale Range to the basins: Western European, Iberian, North African, Cape Verde, Sierra Leone, Guinea, Angolan, Cape. In the basins, flat abyssal plains are widespread, composed mainly of calcareous biogenic, as well as terrigenous material. Over most of the area of the ocean floor, the thickness of precipitation is more than 1 km. Under the sedimentary rocks, a layer was found represented by volcanic rocks and compacted sedimentary rocks.

Abyssal hills are widespread along the periphery of mid-ocean ridges in areas of basins remote from the submarine margins of continents. About 600 mountains are located within the ocean floor. A large group of seamounts is confined to the Bermuda Plateau (in the North American Basin). There are several large submarine valleys, of which the most significant are the Hazen and Maury valleys in the northern part of the Atlantic Ocean floor, stretching on both sides of the Mid-Ocean Ridge.

Bottom sediments

The sediments of the shallow part of the Atlantic Ocean are represented by for the most part terrigenous and biogenic deposits, and occupy 20% of the ocean floor area. Of the deep-sea deposits, calcareous foraminiferal silts are the most common (65% of the ocean floor area). in the Mediterranean and Caribbean Seas, southern zone In the South Atlantic Ridge, pteropod deposits became widespread. Deep-water red clay occupies about 20% of the ocean floor area and is confined to the deepest parts of oceanic basins. Radilarian muds are found in the Angolan Basin. In the southern part of the Atlantic, siliceous diatom deposits are presented with an authigenic silica content of 62-72%. In the zone of the Current of the Western Winds, a continuous field of diatomaceous oozes extends, with the exception of the Drake Passage. In some basins of the ocean floor, terrigenous silts and pelites are significantly developed. Terrigenous deposits at abyssal depths are characteristic of the North Atlantic, Hawaiian, and Argentine basins.

Climate

The variety of climatic conditions on the surface of the Atlantic Ocean is determined by its large meridional extent and the circulation of air masses under the influence of four main atmospheric centers: the Greenland and Antarctic highs, and the Icelandic and Antarctic lows. In addition, two anticyclones constantly operate in the subtropics: Azores and South Atlantic. They are separated by an equatorial region of low pressure. This distribution of baric regions determines the system of prevailing winds in the Atlantic. The greatest influence on the temperature regime of the Atlantic Ocean is exerted not only by its large meridional extent, but also by water exchange with the Arctic Ocean, the seas of the Antarctic and the Mediterranean Sea. Surface waters are characterized by their gradual cooling as they move away from the equator to high latitudes, although the presence of powerful currents causes significant deviations from zonal temperature regimes.

All the climatic zones of the planet are represented in the vastness of the Atlantic. Tropical latitudes are characterized by slight seasonal temperature fluctuations (average - 20 ° C) and heavy rainfall. To the north and south of the tropics are subtropical zones with more noticeable seasonal (from 10 ° C in winter to 20 ° C in summer) and daily temperature fluctuations; Precipitation here falls mainly in summer. Tropical hurricanes are a frequent occurrence in the subtropical zone. In these monstrous atmospheric eddies, wind speeds reach several hundred kilometers per hour. The most powerful tropical hurricanes rage in the Caribbean: for example, in the Gulf of Mexico and the West Indies. West Indian tropical hurricanes form in the western part of the ocean around 10-15°N. and move to the Azores and Ireland. Further to the north and south, the subtropical zones follow, where in the coldest month the temperature drops to 10 ° C, and in winter cold air masses from the polar regions low pressure bring abundant rainfall. In temperate latitudes, the average temperature of the warmest month is kept within 10-15 °C, and the coldest -10 °C. Significant diurnal temperature fluctuations are also noted here. The temperate zone is characterized by fairly even precipitation throughout the year (about 1,000 mm), reaching a maximum in the autumn-winter period, and frequent fierce storms, for which the southern temperate latitudes are nicknamed the "roaring forties". The 10 °C isotherm defines the boundaries of the Northern and Southern Subpolar Belts. In the Northern Hemisphere, this boundary runs in a wide strip between 50°N. (Labrador) and 70°N. (Northern Norway coast). In the Southern Hemisphere, the subpolar zone begins closer to the equator - approximately 45-50°S. The most low temperature(-34 °C) has been recorded in the Weddell Sea.

Hydrological regime

Surface water circulation

Powerful carriers of thermal energy are circular surface currents, located on both sides of the equator: such, for example, are the North Trade Wind and South Trade Wind currents that cross the ocean from east to west. The Northern Tradewind current at the Lesser Antilles is divided: into a northern branch continuing to the northwest along the shores of the Greater Antilles (Antilles Current) and into a southern branch leaving through the straits of the Lesser Antilles into the Caribbean Sea, and then flows through the Yucatan Strait into the Gulf of Mexico, and leaves it through the Florida Strait, forming the Florida Current. The latter has a speed of 10 km / h and gives rise to the famous Gulf Stream. The Gulf Stream, following along the American coast, at 40°N. as a result of the influence of westerly winds and the Coriolis force, it acquires an easterly and then northeasterly direction and is called the North Atlantic Current. The main flow of waters of the North Atlantic Current passes between Iceland and the Scandinavian Peninsula and flows into the Arctic Ocean, softening the climate in the European sector of the Arctic. Two powerful streams of cold desalinated water flow out of the Arctic Ocean - the East Greenland Current, which runs along the eastern coast of Greenland, and the Labrador Current, which envelops Labrador, Newfoundland and penetrates south to Cape Hatteras, pushing the Gulf Stream from the coast of North America.

The South Equatorial Current partially enters the northern hemisphere, and at Cape San Roque it is divided into two parts: one of them goes south, forming the Brazilian Current, the other turns north, forming the Guiana Current, which goes into the Caribbean Sea. The Brazilian Current in the La Plata region meets the cold Falkland Current (an offshoot of the West Wind Current). Near the southern end of Africa, the cold Benguela Current branches off from the West Wind Current and moves along the coast. South West Africa gradually deviates to the west. In the southern part of the Gulf of Guinea, this current closes the anticyclonic circulation of the South Trade Wind Current.

There are several layers of deep currents in the Atlantic Ocean. A powerful countercurrent passes under the Gulf Stream, the main core of which lies at a depth of up to 3500 m, with a speed of 20 cm/s. The countercurrent flows in a narrow stream in the lower part of the continental slope, the formation of this current is associated with the bottom runoff of cold waters from the Norwegian and Greenland seas. In the equatorial zone of the ocean, the Lomonosov subsurface current has been discovered. It starts from the Antilo-Guiana countercurrent and reaches the Gulf of Guinea. The powerful deep Louisiana current is observed in the eastern part of the Atlantic Ocean, formed by the bottom runoff of saltier and warmer Mediterranean waters through the Strait of Gibraltar.

The greatest tide values are confined to the Atlantic Ocean, which are noted in the fjord bays of Canada (in Ungava Bay - 12.4 m, in Frobisher Bay - 16.6 m) and Great Britain (up to 14.4 m in Bristol Bay). The highest tide in the world is recorded in the Bay of Fundy, on the east coast of Canada, where the maximum tide reaches 15.6-18 m.

Temperature, salinity, ice formation

The temperature fluctuation of Atlantic waters during the year is not large: in the equatorial-tropical zone - no more than 1-3 °, in the subtropics and temperate latitudes - within 5-8 °, in subpolar latitudes - about 4 ° in the north and not more than 1 ° on South. The warmest waters are in the equatorial and tropical latitudes. For example, in the Gulf of Guinea, the temperature in the surface layer does not drop below 26 °C. In the northern hemisphere, north of the tropics, the temperature of the surface layer decreases (at 60 ° N it is summer time 10°C). In the southern hemisphere, temperatures rise much faster and by 60°S. hover around 0°C. In general, the ocean in the southern hemisphere is colder than in the northern. In the northern hemisphere, the western part of the ocean is colder than the eastern one, and vice versa in the southern hemisphere.

The highest salinity of surface waters in open ocean observed in the subtropical zone (up to 37.25 ‰), and the maximum in the Mediterranean Sea is 39 ‰. In the equatorial zone, where maximum amount precipitation, salinity decreases to 34 ‰. A sharp desalination of water occurs in the estuarine areas (for example, at the mouth of La Plata 18-19 ‰).

Ice formation in the Atlantic Ocean occurs in the Greenland and Baffin Seas and Antarctic waters. The main source of icebergs in the South Atlantic is ice shelf Filchner in the Weddell Sea. On the Greenland coast, icebergs are produced by outlet glaciers, such as the Jakobshavn Glacier near Disko Island. Floating ice in the northern hemisphere reaches 40°N in July. In the southern hemisphere floating ice are present throughout the year up to 55°S, reaching their maximum distribution in September-October. The total removal from the Arctic Ocean is estimated at an average of 900,000 km³/year, from the surface of Antarctica - 1630 km³/year.

water masses

Under the influence of wind and convective processes, vertical mixing of water occurs in the Atlantic Ocean, covering a surface thickness of 100 m in the southern hemisphere and up to 300 m in the tropics and equatorial latitudes. Below the layer of surface waters, outside the subantarctic zone, in the Atlantic there is Antarctic intermediate water, which is almost universally identified with an intermediate minimum of salinity and is characterized by a higher content compared to the overlying waters. nutrients, and extends to the north to the area of 20°N. at depths of 0.7-1.2 km.

A feature of the hydrological structure of the eastern part of the North Atlantic is the presence of an intermediate Mediterranean water mass, which gradually descends to a depth of 1000 to 1250 m, turning into a deep water mass. In the southern hemisphere, this water mass descends to 2500-2750 m and wedged south of 45°S. main feature these waters - high salinity and temperature in relation to the surrounding waters. In the bottom layer of the Strait of Gibraltar, salinity is up to 38 ‰, temperature is up to 14 °C, but already in the Gulf of Cadiz, where Mediterranean waters reach the depths of their existence in the Atlantic Ocean, their salinity and temperature, as a result of mixing with background waters, decrease to 36 ‰ and 12-13°C, respectively. At the periphery of the distribution area, its salinity and temperature are, respectively, 35 ‰ and about 5°C. Under the Mediterranean water mass in the northern hemisphere, the North Atlantic deep water is formed, which sinks as a result of winter cooling of relatively saline waters in the North European Basin and the Labrador Sea to a depth of 2500-3000 m in the northern hemisphere and to 3500-4000 m in the southern hemisphere, reaching to about 50°S The North Atlantic deep water differs from the above and below Antarctic waters in its increased salinity, temperature and oxygen content, as well as a reduced content of nutrients.

The Antarctic bottom water mass is formed on the Antarctic slope as a result of mixing of cold and heavy Antarctic shelf water with lighter, warmer and more saline Circumpolar deep waters. These waters, spreading from the Weddell Sea, passing through all orographic obstacles up to 40 ° N, have a temperature of less than minus 0.8 ° C in the north of this sea, 0.6 ° C near the equator and 1.8 ° C near Bermuda. The Arctic bottom water mass has lower salinity values compared to the overlying waters, and in the South Atlantic it is characterized by an increased content of biogenic elements.

Flora and fauna

The bottom flora of the northern part of the Atlantic is represented by brown (mainly fucoids, and in the subtidal zone - kelp and alaria) and red algae. In the tropical zone, green (caulerpa), red (calcareous lithotamnia) and brown algae (sargasso) predominate. In the southern hemisphere, bottom vegetation is mainly represented by kelp. Phytoplankton of the Atlantic Ocean has 245 species: peridine, coccolithophorids, diatoms. The latter have a clearly defined zonal distribution, their maximum number lives in the temperate latitudes of the northern and southern hemispheres. The most dense population of diatoms is in the strip of the Current of the Western Winds.

The distribution of the fauna of the Atlantic Ocean has a pronounced zonal character. In the subantarctic and antarctic waters, notothenia, blue whiting and others are of commercial importance from fish. Benthos and plankton in the Atlantic are poor in both species and biomass. In the subantarctic zone and in the adjacent zone of the temperate zone, the biomass reaches its maximum. In zooplankton, copepods and pteropods predominate; in nekton, whales (blue whales), pinnipeds, and their fish are nototheniids. In the tropical zone, zooplankton is represented by numerous species of foraminifera and pteropods, several species of radiolarians, copepods, larvae of mollusks and fish, as well as siphonophores, various jellyfish, large cephalopods (squids), and octopuses among benthal forms. Commercial fish are represented by mackerel, tuna, sardines, in areas of cold currents - anchovies. Corals are confined to tropical and subtropical zones. The temperate latitudes of the northern hemisphere are characterized by abundant life with a relatively small variety of species. Of the commercial fish, the most important are herring, cod, haddock, halibut, and sea bass. The most common zooplankton species are foraminifera and copepods. The greatest abundance of plankton is in the area of the Newfoundland Bank and the Norwegian Sea. The deep-sea fauna is represented by crustaceans, echinoderms, specific fish species, sponges, and hydroids. Several species of endemic polychaetes, isopods, and holothurians have been found in the Puerto Rico Trench.

Environmental problems

The Atlantic Ocean has been a place of intensive sea fishing and hunting since time immemorial. A sharp increase in capacity and a revolution in fishing technology have led to alarming proportions. With the invention of the harpoon gun in the North Atlantic, whales were largely exterminated as early as late XIX century. In connection with the massive development of pelagic whaling in Antarctic waters in the middle of the 20th century, whales here were also close to complete extermination. Since the 1985-1986 season, the International Whaling Commission has introduced a complete moratorium on commercial whaling of any kind. In June 2010, at the 62nd meeting of the International Whaling Commission, under pressure from Japan, Iceland and Denmark, the moratorium was suspended.

The explosion on the Deepwater Horizon oil platform, owned by the British company BP, which occurred on April 20, 2010 is considered the largest environmental catastrophe that has ever taken place at sea. As a result of the accident, about 5 million barrels of crude oil spilled into the waters of the Gulf of Mexico, polluting 1,100 miles of coastline. The authorities introduced a ban on fishing, more than a third of the entire water area of the Gulf of Mexico is closed for fishing. As of November 2, 2010, 6,814 dead animals have been collected, including 6,104 birds, 609 sea turtles, 100 dolphins and other mammals, and 1 other reptile. According to the Office of Protected Resources National Administration Oceanic and Atmospheric Administrations in 2010-2011 recorded an increase in mortality of cetaceans in the northern Gulf of Mexico by several times compared to previous years(2002-2009).

A large garbage patch of plastic and other waste has formed in the Sargasso Sea, formed ocean currents, gradually concentrating in one area the garbage thrown into the ocean.

In some areas of the Atlantic Ocean, radioactive contamination is observed. Wastes from nuclear power plants and research centers are dumped into rivers and coastal waters of the seas, and sometimes into deep oceans. The waters of the Atlantic Ocean heavily contaminated with radioactive waste include the North, Irish, Mediterranean Seas, the Gulf of Mexico, the Bay of Biscay and the Atlantic coast of the United States. In 1977 alone, 7180 containers from 5650 tons were dropped into the Atlantic. radioactive waste. The US Environmental Protection Agency has reported seabed contamination 120 miles east of the Maryland-Delaware border. For 30 years, 14,300 cemented containers were buried there, which contained plutonium and cesium, radioactive contamination exceeded "expected" by 3-70 times. In 1970, the United States sank the Russell Brig, 500 km off the coast of Florida, carrying 68 tons of nerve gas (sarin) placed in 418 concrete containers. In 1972, in the waters of the ocean north of the Azores, Germany flooded 2,500 metal drums with industrial waste containing potent cyanide poisons. There are cases of rapid destruction of containers in the relatively shallow waters of the North and Irish Seas and the English Channel with the most detrimental consequences for the fauna and flora of the waters. 4 nuclear submarines sank in the waters of the North Atlantic: 2 Soviet (in the Bay of Biscay and the open ocean) and 2 American (off the US coast and in the open ocean).

States of the Atlantic Ocean

On the shores of the Atlantic Ocean and its constituent seas there are states and dependent territories:

In Europe (North to South): Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russian Federation, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Federal Republic of Germany, Denmark, Netherlands, Belgium, United Kingdom, Ireland, Isle of Man (UK), Jersey (UK possession), France, Spain, Portugal, Gibraltar (UK possession), Italy, Malta, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Albania, Greece, Turkey, Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, Abkhazia (not recognized by the UN), Georgia;
In Asia: Cyprus, the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (not recognized by the UN), Akrotiri and Dhekelia (possession of Great Britain), Syria, Lebanon, Israel, the Palestinian Authority (not recognized by the UN);
In Africa: Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Saharan Arab Democratic Republic (not recognized by the UN), Mauritania, Senegal, Gambia, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Côte d'Ivoire , Ghana, Togo, Benin, Nigeria, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Sao Tome and Principe, Gabon, Republic of the Congo, Angola, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Namibia, Republic of South Africa, Bouvet Island (Norwegian possession), Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha (UK possession);
AT South America(from south to north): Chile, Argentina, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (UK possession), Falkland Islands(possession of Great Britain), Uruguay, Brazil, Suriname, Guyana, Venezuela, Colombia, Panama;
In the Caribbean: American Virgin Islands(United States), Anguilla (UK), Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, British Virgin Islands (UK), Haiti, Grenada, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Cayman Islands (UK), Cuba, Montserrat (UK) ), Navassa (US possession), Puerto Rico (US possession), Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Turks and Caicos (UK possession), Trinidad and Tobago, Jamaica;
In North America: Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Guatemala, Belize, Mexico, United States of America, Bermuda (UK), Canada.

History of the exploration of the Atlantic Ocean by Europeans

Long before the era of great geographical discoveries, numerous ships plied the Atlantic. As early as 4000 BC, the peoples of Phoenicia were engaged in maritime trade with the inhabitants of the islands of the Mediterranean Sea. At a later time, from the 6th century BC, the Phoenicians, according to the Greek historian Herodotus, made campaigns around Africa, and through the Strait of Gibraltar and around Iberian Peninsula reached the British Isles. By the 6th century BC, Ancient Greece, having a military merchant fleet that was huge at that time, sailed to the shores of England and Scandinavia, in the Baltic Sea and to west coast Africa. In X-XI Art. new page the Vikings entered the study of the northern part of the Atlantic Ocean. According to most researchers of pre-Columbian discoveries, the Scandinavian Vikings were the first to cross the ocean more than once, reaching the shores of the American continent (they called it Vinland) and discovering Greenland and Labrador.

In the 15th century, Spanish and Portuguese navigators began to make long voyages in search of routes to India and China. In 1488 a Portuguese expedition Bartolomeu Dias reached the cape Good Hope and circled Africa from the south. In 1492, the expedition of Christopher Columbus mapped many islands of the Caribbean and the huge mainland, later called America. In 1497, Vasco da Gama passed from Europe to India, rounding Africa from the south. In 1520, Ferdinand Magellan, during the first circumnavigation of the world, passed through the Strait of Magellan from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. At the end of the 15th century, the rivalry between Spain and Portugal for dominance in the Atlantic escalated so much that the Vatican was forced to intervene in the conflict. In 1494, an agreement was signed, which along the 48-49 ° west longitude established the so-called. papal meridian. All lands to the west of it were given to Spain, and to the east - to Portugal. In the 16th century, as the colonial wealth was being developed, the waves of the Atlantic began to regularly surf the ships carrying gold, silver, precious stones, pepper, cocoa and sugar to Europe. Weapons, fabrics, alcohol, food and slaves for cotton and sugar cane plantations were delivered to America in the same way. It is not surprising that in the XVI-XVII centuries. piracy and privateering flourished in these parts, and many famous pirates, such as John Hawkins, Francis Drake and Henry Morgan, entered their names into history. The southern border of the Atlantic Ocean (the continent of Antarctica) was discovered in 1819-1821 by the first Russian Antarctic expedition of F. F. Bellingshausen and M. P. Lazarev.

The first attempts to study the seabed were made in 1779 off the coast of Denmark, and the beginning of a serious scientific research put in 1803-1806 the first Russian round the world expedition under the command of naval officer Ivan Kruzenshtern. Temperature measurements at various depths were carried out by J. Cook (1772), O. Saussure (1780), and others. Participants of subsequent trips measured the temperature and specific gravity of water at different depths, took samples of water transparency and established the presence of undercurrents. The collected material made it possible to draw up a map of the Gulf Stream (B. Franklin, 1770), a map of the depths of the northern part of the Atlantic Ocean (M.F. Maury, 1854), as well as maps of the winds and currents of the ocean (M.F. Maury, 1849-1860) and to carry out other research.

From 1872 to 1876, the first scientific ocean expedition took place on the English sailing-steam corvette Challenger, new data were obtained on the composition of the ocean waters, on the flora and fauna, on the bottom topography and soils, the first map of the depths of the ocean was compiled and the first collection was collected. deep-sea animals, as a result of which extensive material was collected, published in 50 volumes. It was followed by expeditions on the Russian sail-propeller corvette "Vityaz" (1886-1889), on the German ships "Valdivia" (1898-1899) and "Gauss" (1901-1903) and others. The most important work was carried out on the British ship Discovery II (since 1931), thanks to which oceanographic and hydrobiological studies were carried out in the open part of the South Atlantic at great depths. As part of the International Geophysical Year (1957-1958) international forces(especially the USA and the USSR) studies were carried out, as a result of which new bathymetric and marine navigation charts Atlantic Ocean. In 1963-1964, the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission conducted a major expedition to explore the equatorial and tropical zones of the ocean, in which the USSR took part (on the ships Vityaz, Mikhail Lomonosov, Akademik Kurchatov and others), the USA, Brazil and others countries.

AT recent decades numerous measurements of the ocean have been made with space satellites. The result was released in 1994 by the American National Center geophysical data bathymetric atlas of the oceans with a map resolution of 3-4 km and a depth accuracy of ±100 m.

Economic importance

Fishing and marine industries

The Atlantic Ocean provides 2/5 of the world catch and its share decreases over the years. In subantarctic and antarctic waters, notothenia, blue whiting and others are of commercial importance, in the tropical zone - mackerel, tuna, sardine, in areas of cold currents - anchovies, in temperate latitudes of the northern hemisphere - herring, cod, haddock, halibut, sea bass. In the 1970s, due to overfishing of some fish species, the volume of fishing fell sharply, but after the introduction of strict limits, fish stocks are gradually recovering. Several international fisheries conventions operate in the Atlantic Ocean basin, which aim at the efficient and rational use of biological resources, based on the application of scientifically based measures to regulate fishing.

Transport routes

The Atlantic Ocean occupies a leading position in world shipping. Most of the routes lead from Europe to North America. The main navigable straits of the Atlantic Ocean: the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles, Gibraltar, the English Channel, Pas de Calais, the Baltic straits (Skagerrak, Kattegat, Øresund, Greater and Lesser Belt), Danish, Florida. The Atlantic Ocean is connected to the Pacific Ocean by the artificial Panama Canal dug between North and South America along the Isthmus of Panama, as well as to the Indian Ocean by the artificial Suez Canal through the Mediterranean Sea. Major ports: St. Petersburg (general cargo, oil products, metals, timber, containers, coal, ore, chemical cargo, scrap metal), Hamburg (machinery and equipment, chemical products, raw materials for metallurgy, oil, wool, timber, food), Bremen , Rotterdam (oil, natural gas, ores, fertilizers, equipment, food), Antwerp, Le Havre (oil, equipment), Felixstowe, Valencia, Algeciras, Barcelona, Marseille (oil, ore, grain, metals, chemicals, sugar, fruits and vegetables, wine), Gioia-Tauro, Marsaxlokk, Istanbul, Odessa (raw sugar, containers), Mariupol (coal, ore, grain, containers, oil products, metals, timber, food), Novorossiysk (oil, ore, cement, grain, metals, equipment, food), Batumi (oil, general and bulk cargo, food), Beirut (export: phosphorites, fruits, vegetables, wool, timber, cement, import: cars, fertilizers, pig iron, building materials, food) , Port Said, Alexandria (export: cotton, rice, ores, import: ob ore, metals, oil products, fertilizers), Casablanca (export: phosphorites, ores, citrus fruits, cork, food, import: equipment, fabrics, oil products), Dakar (groundnut, dates, cotton, livestock, fish, ores, import: equipment , oil products, food), Cape Town, Buenos Aires (export: wool, meat, grain, leather, vegetable oil, linseed, cotton, import: equipment, iron ore, coal, oil, manufactured goods), Santos, Rio de - Janeiro (export: iron ore, pig iron, coffee, cotton, sugar, cocoa beans, lumber, meat, wool, leather, import: oil products, equipment, coal, grain, cement, food), Houston (oil, grain, sulfur , equipment), New Orleans(ores, coal, building materials, automobiles, grain, rolled products, equipment, coffee, fruit, food), Savannah, New York (general cargo, oil, chemicals, equipment, pulp, paper, coffee, sugar, metals), Montreal (grain, oil, cement, coal, timber, metals, paper, asbestos, weapons, fish, wheat, equipment, cotton, wool).

Leading role in passenger traffic between Europe and North America air traffic plays across the Atlantic Ocean. Most of the transatlantic lines run in the North Atlantic through Iceland and Newfoundland. Another message goes through Lisbon, Azores and Bermuda. The air route from Europe to South America passes through Lisbon, Dakar and further through the narrowest part of the Atlantic Ocean in Rio de Janeiro. Airlines from the US to Africa pass through the Bahamas, Dakar and Robertsport. On the coast of the Atlantic Ocean there are spaceports: Cape Canaveral (USA), Kourou (French Guiana), Alcantara (Brazil).

Minerals

Mining, primarily oil and gas, is carried out on the continental shelves. Oil is produced on the shelves of the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, the North Sea, the Bay of Biscay, the Mediterranean Sea, and the Gulf of Guinea. There is also production on the shelf of the North Sea natural gas. Sulfur is commercially mined in the Gulf of Mexico, and iron ore off the island of Newfoundland. Diamonds are mined from sea placers on the continental shelf of South Africa. The next largest group mineral resources form coastal deposits of titanium, zirconium, tin, phosphorites, monazite and amber. Coal, barite, sand, pebbles and limestone are also mined from the seabed.

Tidal power plants have been built on the shores of the seas of the Atlantic Ocean: La Rance on the Rance River in France, Annapolis in the Bay of Fundy in Canada, and Hammerfest in Norway.

Recreational resources

The recreational resources of the Atlantic Ocean are characterized by considerable diversity. The main countries of formation of outbound tourism in this region are formed in Europe (Germany, Great Britain, France, Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium, Austria, Sweden, the Russian Federation, Switzerland and Spain), North (USA and Canada) and South America. Main recreational areas: Mediterranean coast Southern Europe and North Africa, the coasts of the Baltic and Black Seas, the Florida peninsula, the islands of Cuba, Haiti, the Bahamas, areas of cities and urban agglomerations Atlantic coast North and South America.

Recently, the popularity of such Mediterranean countries as Turkey, Croatia, Egypt, Tunisia and Morocco has been growing. Among the countries of the Atlantic Ocean with the largest flow of tourists (according to 2010 data from the World Tourism Organization) stand out: France (77 million visits per year), USA (60 million), Spain (53 million), Italy (44 million), Great Britain (28 million), Turkey (27 million), Mexico (22 million), Ukraine (21 million), Russian Federation (20 million), Canada (16 million), Greece (15 million), Egypt (14 million), Poland (12 million ), Netherlands (11 million), Morocco (9 million), Denmark (9 million), South Africa(8 million), Syria (8 million), Tunisia (7 million), Belgium (7 million), Portugal (7 million), Bulgaria (6 million), Argentina (5 million), Brazil (5 million).

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Location: Between the Balkan Peninsula, the peninsula Asia Minor and the island of Crete.

Area: 191 thousand square meters km.

Average depth: 377 m.

Maximum depth: 2,529 m.

Salinity: 38-38.5 ‰.

Currents: mostly counterclockwise at a speed of 0.5-1 km/h.

Inhabitants: sardines, mackerel, sponges, octopuses.

Additional information: The Aegean Sea was formed about 20 thousand years ago as a result of the sinking of the land (Egenides), from which numerous islands now remain on the surface, the largest of them are Euboea, Crete, Lesbos, Rhodes.

Area: 422 thousand sq. km.

Average depth: 1,240 m.

Maximum depth: 2210 m.

Bottom relief: The Black Sea is a depression, divided in the middle by an uplift, which is a continuation of the Crimean peninsula.

Salinity: 17-18‰.

Inhabitants: mullet, anchovies, mackerel, horse mackerel, pike perch, bream, sturgeon, herring, haddock, sea ruff, red mullet and others, dolphins, mussels, oysters, crabs, shrimps, sea anemones, sponges; about 270 species of green, brown and red algae.

Currents: circular circulations in anticyclonic direction.

Additional information: The Black Sea was formed approximately 7,500 years ago as a result of a rise in the level of the World Ocean, before that the sea was a huge freshwater lake; The waters of the Black Sea at a depth of more than 200 m are saturated with hydrogen sulfide, so only anaerobic bacteria live there.

Location: off the coast of Antarctica between the Antarctic Peninsula and Coates Land.

Area: 2,796 thousand sq. km.

Average depth: 3,000 m.

Maximum depth: 6,820 m.

Average temperatures: all year round the sea is covered with ice.

Inhabitants: whales, seals.

Additional Information: most the sea is covered with drifting ice and numerous icebergs; the sea was discovered in 1823 by the English explorer J. Weddell, renamed in his honor in 1900.

Location: part of the Mediterranean Sea, located between the Apennine Peninsula and the islands of Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica.

Area: 214 thousand square meters. km.

Average depth: 1,519 m.

Maximum depth: 3,830 m.

Bottom relief: the sea is a basin surrounded by a chain of underwater mountain peaks and active volcanoes (Vesuvius, Stromboli).

Salinity: 37.7-38‰.

Currents form a general cyclonic circulation.

Inhabitants: sardines, tuna, swordfish, eel and others.

Further information: The sea is named after ancient tribe Tirov, who lived in the days of Ancient Greece on the Apennine Peninsula.

Location: between Europe and Africa.

Area: 2,500 thousand sq. km.

Average depth: 1,541 m.

Maximum depth: 5,121 m.

Bottom relief: Algiers-Provencal basin with depths over 2800 m, Central basin with depths of about 5100 m, Levantine basin (4380 m); depressions of the Alboran, Balearic, Ligurian, Tyrrhenian, Adriatic, Ionian, Aegean and Marmara seas, Central Basin.

Salinity: 36-39.5‰.

Currents: Canarian, Levantine.

Inhabitants: white-bellied seal, sea turtles, 550 species of fish (sharks, mackerels, herrings, anchovies, mullets, dolphins, tunas, bonitos, horse mackerels), 70 species of endemic fish, including rays, species of anchovies, gobies, blennies, wrasse and needlefish; oyster, Mediterranean-Black Sea mussel, sea date; octopus, squid, sepia, crabs, spiny lobster; numerous species of jellyfish, siphonophore; sponges and red coral.

Additional information: in the Mediterranean Sea, the Alboran, Balearic, Ligurian, Tyrrhenian, Adriatic, Ionian, Cretan, Aegean seas are distinguished; in addition, the Mediterranean Sea basin includes the Sea of Marmara, the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov. The Mediterranean Sea is one of the warmest and saltiest seas in the world ocean.

Location: northeastern part of the Atlantic Ocean, between the islands of Great Britain, the Orkney and Shetland Islands, the Scandinavian and Jutland Peninsulas and the coast of Europe.

Area: 544 thousand square meters. km.

Average depth: 96 m.

Bottom relief: predominantly flat with many small banks, depressions (Northern, Severodatskaya, English), small sand and gravel ridges are often found in the southwest.

Salinity: 31-35‰.

Currents: warm, coming from the Atlantic Ocean between the Shetland Islands and the island of Great Britain, through the Pas de Calais.

Inhabitants: herring, mackerel, cod, sea flounder, haddock, pollock, mackerel, sprats, rays, sharks, mussels, scallops, oysters.

Additional information: There are about 300 plant species and over 1,500 animal species in the North Sea.

Sargasso Sea

Location: part of the Atlantic Ocean, between the Canary, North Equatorial, North Atlantic currents and the Gulf Stream.

Area: 6-7 million square meters km (depending on the seasonal boundaries of the currents).

Average depth: 6,000 m.

Maximum depth: 6,995 m.

Average water temperatures: 18-23 °С in February, 26-28 °С in August.

Salinity: 36.5-37‰.

Currents: Gulf Stream, North Atlantic, Canary, North Tradewind currents.

Inhabitants: mackerel, flying fish, needlefish, crabs, sea turtles and others.

Additional information: the name of the sea comes from Portuguese word Sargaso, which means "a bunch of grapes" in translation, in addition, large accumulations of floating brown algae "sargasso" are found in the sea; sea surface is almost 1 m above sea level.

Location: between Europe and Asia Minor.

Area: 11,472 sq. km.

Average depth: 259 m.

Maximum depth: 1,389 m.

Bottom relief: off the coast there are many underwater reefs.

Salinity: 16.8-27.8‰.

Inhabitants: fish (mackerel, herring, anchovies, mullet, tuna, horse mackerel, bonito, rays, gobies and others), oysters, mussels, squids, crabs, spiny lobsters and others.

Additional information: the sea got its name due to the island, on which there were rich developments of white marble, in ancient times it was called Propontis.

Location: Western part of the Atlantic Ocean, between Central and South America.

Area: 2,754 thousand square meters km.

Average depth: 2,491 m.

Maximum depth: 7,680 m (Cayman Trench).

Bottom relief: deep-sea ridges (Cayman, Aves, Beata, Marcelino threshold), basins (Grenada, Venezuelan, Colombian, Bartlet, Yucatan).

Salinity: 35.5-36‰.

Currents move from east to west, when they leave the Gulf of Mexico they give rise to the Gulf Stream.

Inhabitants: sharks, flying fish, sea turtles and other species of tropical fauna; there are sperm whales, humpback whales, seals and manatees.

Additional information: The Caribbean Sea borders the Gulf of Mexico, the shortest sea route passes through it, connecting the ports of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans through the Panama Canal.

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