The number of styles and trends is huge, if not endless. The key feature by which works can be grouped by style is the unified principles of artistic thinking. The change of some ways of artistic thinking by others (alternating types of compositions, techniques of spatial constructions, features of color) is not accidental. Our perception of art is also historically changeable.
Building a system of styles in a hierarchical order, we will adhere to the Eurocentric tradition. The largest in the history of art is the concept of an era. Each era is characterized by a certain "picture of the world", which consists of philosophical, religious, political ideas, scientific ideas, psychological characteristics of the worldview, ethical and moral norms, aesthetic criteria of life, according to which they distinguish one era from another. These are the Primitive Age, the era of the Ancient World, Antiquity, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, the New Age.
Styles in art do not have clear boundaries, they smoothly pass one into another and are in continuous development, mixing and opposition. Within the framework of one historical artistic style, a new one is always born, and that, in turn, passes into the next. Many styles coexist at the same time and therefore there are no “pure styles” at all.
Several styles can coexist in the same historical era. For example, Classicism, Academicism and Baroque in the 17th century, Rococo and Neoclassicism in the 18th century, Romanticism and Academicism in the 19th century. Such styles as, for example, classicism and baroque are called great styles, since they apply to all types of art: architecture, painting, arts and crafts, literature, music.
It should be distinguished: artistic styles, trends, currents, schools and features individual styles individual masters. Within one style, there can be several artistic directions. The artistic direction is made up of both signs typical of a given era and peculiar ways of artistic thinking. The Art Nouveau style, for example, includes a number of trends from the turn of the century: post-impressionism, symbolism, fauvism, and so on. On the other hand, the concept of symbolism as an artistic movement is well developed in literature, while in painting it is very vague and unites artists who are so different stylistically that it is often interpreted only as a worldview that unites them.

Below are the definitions of eras, styles and trends that are somehow reflected in modern fine and decorative arts.

	- art style, formed in the countries of Western and Central Europe in the XII-XV centuries. It was the result of the centuries-old evolution of medieval art, its highest stage and at the same time the first pan-European, international art style in history. It covered all kinds of art - architecture, sculpture, painting, stained glass, book design, arts and crafts. The basis of the Gothic style was architecture, which is characterized by lancet arches soaring upwards, multi-colored stained-glass windows, visual dematerialization of the form. Elements of Gothic art can often be found in modern interior design, in particular, in wall painting, less often in easel painting. Since the end of the last century, there has been a gothic subculture, clearly manifested in music, poetry, and fashion design.
	(Renaissance) - (French Renaissance, Italian Rinascimento) An era in the cultural and ideological development of a number of countries in Western and Central Europe, as well as some countries in Eastern Europe. The main distinguishing features of the Renaissance culture: secular character, humanistic worldview, appeal to the ancient cultural heritage, a kind of "revival" of it (hence the name). Renaissance culture has specific features transitional era from the Middle Ages to the new time, in which the old and the new, intertwined, form a peculiar, qualitatively new alloy. Difficult is the question of the chronological boundaries of the Renaissance (in Italy - 14-16 centuries, in other countries - 15-16 centuries), its territorial distribution and national characteristics. Elements of this style in modern art are often used in wall paintings, less often in easel painting.
	- (from the Italian maniera - technique, manner) a trend in European art of the 16th century. Representatives of mannerism moved away from the Renaissance harmonious perception of the world, the humanistic concept of man as a perfect creation of nature. A sharp perception of life was combined with a programmatic desire not to follow nature, but to express the subjective "inner idea" of the artistic image that was born in the artist's soul. Most clearly manifested in Italy. For Italian Mannerism 1520s. (Pontormo, Parmigianino, Giulio Romano) are characterized by dramatic sharpness of images, tragedy of world perception, complexity and exaggerated expression of postures and motives of movement, elongation of the proportions of figures, coloristic and light and shade dissonances. AT recent times began to be used by art historians to refer to phenomena in contemporary art associated with the transformation of historical styles.
	- historical art style, which was originally distributed in Italy in the middle. XVI-XVII centuries, and then in France, Spain, Flanders and Germany in the XVII-XVIII centuries. More broadly, this term is used to define the ever-renewing tendencies of a restless, romantic worldview, thinking in expressive, dynamic forms. Finally, in every time, in almost every historical artistic style, one can find its own "baroque period" as a stage of the highest creative upsurge, tension of emotions, explosiveness of forms.
	- artistic style in Western European art XVII - early. XIX century and in Russian XVIII - early. XIX, referring to the ancient heritage as an ideal to follow. It manifested itself in architecture, sculpture, painting, arts and crafts. Classicist artists considered antiquity to be the highest achievement and made it their standard in art, which they sought to imitate. Over time, it was reborn into academism.
	- a trend in European and Russian art of the 1820s-1830s, which replaced classicism. Romantics brought individuality to the forefront, opposing the ideal beauty of the classicists to "imperfect" reality. Artists were attracted by bright, rare, extraordinary phenomena, as well as images of a fantastic nature. In the art of romanticism, a sharp individual perception and experience plays an important role. Romanticism liberated art from abstract classicistic dogmas and turned it towards national history and images of folklore.
	- (from lat. sentiment - feeling) - a direction of Western art of the second half of the 18th century, expressing disappointment in a “civilization” based on the ideals of “reason” (the ideology of the Enlightenment). S. proclaims feeling, solitary reflection, simplicity rural life"little man". J. J. Rousseau is considered to be the ideologist of S..
	- a direction in art that strives to display both the external form and the essence of phenomena and things with the greatest truth and reliability. how creative method combines individual and typical features when creating an image. The longest time of existence direction, developing from the primitive era to the present day.
	- direction in European artistic culture of the late XIX-early XX centuries. Arising as a reaction to the domination of the norms of bourgeois "sanity" in the humanitarian sphere (in philosophy, aesthetics - positivism, in art - naturalism), symbolism first of all took shape in French literature of the late 1860s and 70s, and later became widespread in Belgium, Germany , Austria, Norway, Russia. The aesthetic principles of symbolism in many respects went back to the ideas of romanticism, as well as to some doctrines of the idealistic philosophy of A. Schopenhauer, E. Hartmann, partly F. Nietzsche, to the work and theorizing of the German composer R. Wagner. Symbolism contrasted the living reality with the world of visions and dreams. Universal Tool comprehension of the secrets of being and individual consciousness was considered a symbol generated by poetic insight and expressing the otherworldly meaning of phenomena hidden from ordinary consciousness. The artist-creator was considered as an intermediary between the real and the supersensible, finding "signs" of world harmony everywhere, prophetically guessing the signs of the future both in modern phenomena and in the events of the past.
	- (from French impression - impression) a trend in art of the last third of the 19th - early 20th centuries, which arose in France. The name was introduced by art critic L. Leroy, who disparagingly commented on the exhibition of artists in 1874, where, among others, C. Monet's painting “Sunrise. Impression". Impressionism claimed beauty real world, emphasizing the freshness of the first impression, the variability of the environment. The predominant attention to solving purely pictorial problems reduced the traditional idea of ​​drawing as the main component of a work of art. Impressionism had a powerful impact on the art of European countries and the United States, aroused interest in scenes from real life. (E. Manet, E. Degas, O. Renoir, C. Monet, A. Sisley, etc.)
	- a trend in painting (synonymous with divisionism), which developed within the framework of neo-impressionism. Neo-Impressionism originated in France in 1885 and also spread to Belgium and Italy. The neo-impressionists tried to apply the latest advances in the field of optics in art, according to which painting, made by separate points of primary colors, in visual perception gives a fusion of colors and the whole gamut of painting. (J. Seurat, P. Signac, K. Pissarro).
	post-impressionism- conditional collective name of the main directions of French painting to. XIX - 1st quarter. 20th century The art of post-impressionism arose as a reaction to impressionism, which fixed attention on the transfer of the moment, on the feeling of picturesqueness and lost interest in the form of objects. Among the post-impressionists are P. Cezanne, P. Gauguin, V. Gogh and others.
	- style in European and American art at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. Art Nouveau rethought and stylized the features of the art of different epochs, and developed its own artistic techniques based on the principles of asymmetry, ornamentality and decorativeness. Natural forms also become the object of stylization of modernity. Этим oбъяcняeтcя нe тoлькo интepec к pacтитeльным opнaмeнтaм в пpoизвeдeнияx мoдepнa, нo и caмa иx кoмпoзициoннaя и плacтичecкaя cтpyктypa - oбилиe кpивoлинeйныx oчepтaний, oплывaющиx, нepoвныx кoнтypoв, нaпoминaющиx pacтитeльныe фopмы. Closely connected with modernity is symbolism, which served as the aesthetic and philosophical basis for modernity, relying on modernity as a plastic implementation of its ideas. Art Nouveau had different names in different countries, which are essentially synonymous: Art Nouveau - in France, Secession - in Austria, Jugendstil - in Germany, Liberty - in Italy.
	- (from French modern - modern) the general name of a number of art movements of the first half of the 20th century, which are characterized by the denial of traditional forms and aesthetics of the past. Modernism is close to avant-gardism and opposed to academicism.
	- a name that unites the range of artistic movements that were widespread in the 1905-1930s. (Fauvism, Cubism, Futurism, Expressionism, Dadaism, Surrealism). All these areas are united by the desire to renew the language of art, to rethink its tasks, to gain freedom of artistic expression.
	- direction in art to. XIX - present. XX century, based on the creative lessons of the French artist Paul Cezanne, who reduced all forms in the image to the simplest geometric shapes, and color - to contrasting constructions of warm and cold tones. Cézannism served as one of the starting points for cubism. To a large extent, cezannism also influenced the domestic realistic school of painting.
	- (from fauve - wild) avant-garde trend in French art n. 20th century The name "wild" was given contemporary critics a group of artists who spoke in 1905 at the Paris Salon of the Independent, and was ironic. The group included A. Matisse, A. Marquet, J. Rouault, M. de Vlaminck, A. Derain, R. Dufy, J. Braque, K. van Dongen and others. , the search for impulses in primitive creativity, the art of the Middle Ages and the East.
	- deliberate simplification of visual means, imitation of the primitive stages of the development of art. This term refers to the so-called. naive art of artists who did not receive special education, but involved in the overall artistic process of the XIX - early. XX century. The works of these artists - N. Pirosmani, A. Russo, V. Selivanov and others are characterized by a kind of childishness in the interpretation of nature, a combination of generalized form and petty literalness in details. The primitivism of the form by no means predetermines the primitiveness of the content. It often serves as a source for professionals who borrowed forms, images, methods from folk, essentially primitive art. N. Goncharova, M. Larionov, P. Picasso, A. Matisse drew inspiration from primitivism.
	- a direction in art that has developed on the basis of following the canons of antiquity and the Renaissance. Happened in many European schools art from the 16th to the 19th century. Academism turned classical traditions into a system of "eternal" rules and regulations that fettered creative searches, tried to oppose imperfect living nature with "high" improved, extra-national and timeless forms of beauty brought to perfection. Academism is characterized by a preference for subjects from ancient mythology, biblical or historical themes plots from contemporary life to the artist.
	- (French cubisme, from cube - cube) direction in the art of the first quarter of the 20th century. The plastic language of cubism was based on the deformation and decomposition of objects into geometric planes, the plastic shift of form. The birth of cubism falls on 1907-1908 - the eve of the First World War. The undisputed leader of this trend was the poet and publicist G. Apollinaire. This trend was one of the first to embody the leading trends in the further development of the art of the twentieth century. One of these trends was the dominance of the concept over the artistic value of the painting itself. J. Braque and P. Picasso are considered the fathers of cubism. Fernand Léger, Robert Delaunay, Juan Gris, and others joined the emerging current.
	- a trend in literature, painting and cinema that arose in 1924 in France. It contributed greatly to the formation of consciousness modern man. The main figures of the movement are Andre Breton, Louis Aragon, Salvador Dali, Luis Bunuel, Juan Miro and many other artists from all over the world. Surrealism expressed the idea of ​​existence beyond the real, the absurdity, the unconscious, dreams, daydreams acquire an especially important role here. One of the characteristic methods of the surrealist artist is the removal of conscious creativity, which makes him a tool that in various ways extracts bizarre images of the subconscious, akin to hallucinations. Surrealism survived several crises, survived the second world war and gradually, merging with popular culture, intersecting with the transavant-garde, entered as an integral part of postmodernism.
	- (from lat. futurum - future) literary and artistic movement in the art of the 1910s. Oтвoдя ceбe poль пpooбpaзa иcкyccтвa бyдyщeгo, фyтypизм в кaчecтвe ocнoвнoй пpoгpaммы выдвигaл идeю paзpyшeния кyльтypныx cтepeoтипoв и пpeдлaгaл взaмeн aпoлoгию тexники и ypбaнизмa кaк глaвныx пpизнaкoв нacтoящeгo и гpядyщeгo. An important artistic idea of ​​futurism was the search for a plastic expression of the swiftness of movement as the main sign of the pace of modern life. The Russian version of futurism bore the name kybofuturism and was based on a combination of the plastic principles of French cubism and European general aesthetic installations of futurism.

3. AGES AND PERIODS IN THE HISTORY OF HUMANITY

The history of mankind has many hundreds of thousands of years. If in the middle of the XX century. it was believed that man began to stand out from the animal world 600 thousand - 1 million years ago, then modern anthropology, the science of the origin and evolution of man, came to the conclusion that man appeared about 2 million years ago. This is the generally accepted view, although there are others. According to one hypothesis, human ancestors appeared in southeast africa 6 million years ago. These two-legged creatures did not know tools for more than 3 million years. They got their first tool 2.5 million years ago. About 1 million years ago, these people began to settle throughout Africa, and then beyond.

The two-million-year history of mankind is usually divided into two extremely uneven eras - primitive and civilizational (Fig. 2).

civilizational era

primeval era

about 2 million

years BC e.

BC e. frontier

Rice. 2. Epochs in the history of mankind

Epoch primitive society accounts for more than 99% of human history. The primitive era is usually divided into six unequal periods: Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Eneolithic, Bronze Age, iron age.

Paleolithic, ancient stone Age, are divided into the early (lower) Paleolithic (2 million years BC - 35 thousand years BC) and the late (upper) Paleolithic (35 thousand years BC - 10 thousand years BC.). During the early Paleolithic, man penetrated the territory of Eastern Europe and the Urals. The struggle for existence during the Ice Age taught man to make fire, to make stone knives; the proto-language was born and the first religious performances. In the late Paleolithic period, the skilled man turned into a reasonable man; races were formed - Caucasoid, Negroid, Mongoloid. The primitive herd was replaced by more high form organization of society - tribal community. Until the time of the spread of metal, matriarchy dominated.

Mesolithic, the Middle Stone Age, lasted about 5 thousand years (X thousand years BC - V thousand years BC). At this time, people began to use stone axes, bows and arrows, domestication of animals (dogs, pigs) began. This is the time of mass settlement of Eastern Europe and the Urals.

Neolithic, the new stone age (VI thousand years BC - IV thousand years BC), is characterized by significant changes in technology and forms of production. Polished and drilled stone axes, pottery, spinning and weaving appeared. Various types of economic activity have developed - agriculture and cattle breeding. The transition from gathering, from the appropriating economy to the producing one, began. Scientists call this time neolithic revolution.

During Eneolithic, Copper-Stone Age (IV thousand years BC - III thousand years BC), bronze age (III thousand years BC - I thousand years BC), iron age(II millennium BC - the end of the 1st millennium BC) in the most favorable climatic zone of the Earth, the transition from primitive to ancient civilizations began.

The appearance of metal tools and weapons in different regions of the Earth did not occur simultaneously, so the chronological framework last three periods of the primitive era vary depending on the specific region. In the Urals, the chronological framework of the Eneolithic is determined by the III millennium BC. e. - the beginning of the II millennium BC. e., the Bronze Age - the beginning of the II millennium BC. e. - the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e., Iron Age - from the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e.

During the spread of metal, large cultural communities began to take shape. Scientists believe that these communities corresponded to the language families from which the peoples who currently inhabit our country came out. The largest language family is Indo-European, from which 3 groups of languages ​​have emerged: Eastern (current Iranians, Indians, Armenians, Tajiks), European (Germans, French, English, Italians, Greeks), Slavic (Russians, Belarusians, Ukrainians, Poles, Czechs , Slovaks, Bulgarians, Serbs, Croats). Another large language family is Finno-Ugric (current Finns, Estonians, Karelians, Khanty, Mordovians).

During the Bronze Age, the ancestors of the Slavs (Proto-Slavs) emerged from the Indo-European tribes; Archaeologists find the monuments belonging to them in the region located from the Oder River in the west to the Carpathians in the east of Europe.

Civilization era is about six thousand years old. In this era, a qualitatively different world is being created, although long time he still had many connections with primitiveness, and the transition to civilizations itself was carried out gradually, starting from the 4th millennium BC. e. While part of humanity was making a breakthrough - moving from primitive to civilized, in other areas people continued to be at the stage of the primitive communal system.

civilizational era commonly referred to as world history and divided into four periods (Figure 3 on page 19).

Ancient world began with the emergence of civilization in Mesopotamia or Mesopotamia (in the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers). In the III millennium BC. e. a civilization arose in the valley of the Nile River - the ancient Egyptian. In the II millennium BC. e. Ancient Indian, Ancient Chinese, Hebrew, Phoenician, Ancient Greek, Hittite civilizations were born. In I millennium BC. e. the list of ancient civilizations was replenished: on the territory of Transcaucasia, the civilization of Urartu was formed, on the territory of Iran - the civilization of the Persians, on the Apennine Peninsula - the Roman civilization. The zone of civilizations covered not only the Old World, but also America, where the civilizations of the Maya, Aztecs and Incas developed.

The main criteria for the transition from the primitive world to civilizations:

The emergence of the state, a special institution that organizes, controls and directs the joint activities and relations of people, social groups;

the emergence of private property, the stratification of society, the emergence of slavery;

social division of labor (agriculture, handicraft, trade) and the producing economy;

the emergence of cities, a special type of settlements, centers

Newest

Ancient world Middle Ages Modern times

IV millennium 476

BC e. BC e. XV-XVI 1920s

Rice. 3. Main periods world history

crafts and trade, in which the inhabitants, at least in part, were not engaged in rural labor (Ur, Babylon, Memphis, Thebes, Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa, Pataliputra, Nanyang, Sanyan, Athens, Sparta, Rome, Naples, etc.);

the creation of writing (the main stages are ideographic or hieroglyphic writing, syllabic writing, alpha-sound or alphabetic writing), thanks to which people were able to consolidate laws, scientific and religious ideas and pass them on to posterity;

the creation of monumental structures (pyramids, temples, amphitheaters) that do not have an economic purpose.

The end of the Ancient World is associated with 476 AD. e., the year of the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Back in 330, Emperor Constantine moved the capital of the Roman Empire to its eastern part, on the banks of the Bosphorus, in the place of the Greek colony of Byzantium. The new capital was named Constantinople (an old Russian name for Tsargrad). In 395, the Roman Empire split into Eastern and Western. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Eastern Roman Empire, officially called the "Empire of the Romans", and in literature - Byzantium, became the successor to the ancient world. Byzantine Empire existed for about a thousand years, until 1453 and had a huge impact on Ancient Russia (see Ch. 7).

Chronological framework middle ages, 476 - the end of the 15th century, are determined, first of all, by the events and processes that took place in Western Europe. The Middle Ages is an important stage in the development of European civilization. During this period, many special features which singled out Western Europe among other civilizations and had a huge impact on all of humanity.

Eastern civilizations during this period did not stop in their development. There were rich cities in the East. The East presented the world with famous inventions: a compass, gunpowder, paper, glass, etc. However, the pace of development of the East, especially after the invasion of nomads at the turn of the 1st-2nd millennia (Bedouins, Seljuk Turks, Mongols), was slower compared to the West. But the main thing was that the eastern civilizations were focused on repetition, on the constant reproduction of the old, in antiquity established forms of statehood, social relations, and ideas. Tradition put up solid barriers, holding back change; Eastern cultures resisted innovation.

The end of the Middle Ages and the onset of the third period of world history is associated with the beginning of three world-historical processes - a spiritual upheaval in the life of Europeans, the Great Geographical Discoveries, and manufactory production.

The spiritual upheaval included two phenomena, a kind of two revolutions in the spiritual life of Europe - the Renaissance (Renaissance) and the Reformation.

Modern science sees the origins of the spiritual upheaval in the crusades organized at the end of the 11th - 13th centuries. European chivalry and the Catholic Church under the banner of the struggle against the "infidels" (Muslims), the liberation of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem and the Holy Land (Palestine). The consequences of these campaigns for the then poor Europe were important. Europeans came into contact with a higher culture of the Middle East, adopted more advanced methods of cultivating the land and craft techniques, brought many useful plants from the East (rice, buckwheat, citrus fruits, cane sugar, apricots), silk, glass, paper, woodcuts (woodcut print ).

The centers of the spiritual upheaval were medieval cities(Paris, Marseille, Venice, Genoa, Florence, Milan, Lübeck, Frankfurt am Main). Cities achieved self-government, became centers not only of crafts and trade, but also of education. In Europe, the townspeople have achieved recognition of their rights at the national level, formed the third estate.

rebirth originated in Italy in the second half of the XIV century, in the XV-XVI centuries. spread throughout Western Europe. Distinctive features of the culture of the Renaissance: a secular character, a humanistic worldview, an appeal to the cultural heritage of antiquity, as if “revival” of it (hence the name of the phenomenon). The work of the Renaissance figures was imbued with faith in endless possibilities man, his will and reason. Among the brilliant galaxy of poets, writers, playwrights, artists and sculptors whose names humanity is proud of are Dante Alighieri, Francesco Petrarca, Giovanni Boccaccio, Francois Rabelais, Ulrich von Hutten, Erasmus of Rotterdam, Miguel Cervantes, William Shakespeare, Geoffrey Chaucer, Thomas More, Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael Santi, Michelangelo, Titian, Velasquez, Rembrandt.

Reformation - social movement in Europe in the 16th century, directed against catholic church. Its beginning is considered to be 1517, when the doctor of theology Martin Luther made 95 theses against the sale of indulgences (certificates of the remission of sins). The ideologists of the Reformation put forward theses that actually denied the need for the Catholic Church with its hierarchy and the clergy in general, denied the Church's rights to land and other wealth. Under the ideological banner of the Reformation Peasants' War in Germany (1524-1526), ​​the Netherlands and English revolution.

The Reformation marked the beginning of Protestantism, the third current in Christianity. This trend, which broke away from Catholicism, united many independent churches, sects (Lutheranism, Calvinism, the Anglican Church, Baptists, etc.). Protestantism is characterized by the absence of a fundamental opposition of the clergy to the laity, the rejection of a complex church hierarchy, a simplified cult, the absence of monasticism, celibacy; in Protestantism there is no cult of the Virgin, saints, angels, icons, the number of sacraments is reduced to two (baptism and communion). The main source of doctrine among Protestants is the Holy Scripture (i.e. Old Testament and New Testament).

The Renaissance and the Reformation put the human personality in the center, energetic, striving to transform the world, with a pronounced strong-willed beginning. However, the Reformation had a more disciplinary effect; it encouraged individualism, but placed it within a strict framework of morality based on religious values.

Great geographical discoveries- a complex of the most significant discoveries on land and at sea from the middle of the 15th to the middle of the 17th centuries. The discoveries of the Central and South America(H. Columbus, A. Vespucci, A. Vélez de Mendoza, 1492-1502), sea ​​route from Europe to India (Vasco da Gama, 1497-1499). The first round-the-world trip of F. Magellan in 1519-1522. proved the existence of the World Ocean and the sphericity of the Earth. Great geographical discoveries were made possible by technical discoveries and inventions, including the creation of new ships - caravels. At the same time, distant sea ​​travel stimulated the development of science, technology, manufacturing. The era of colonial conquests began, which was accompanied by violence, robberies and even the death of civilizations (Maya, Incas, Aztecs). European countries seized lands in America (from the beginning of the 16th century blacks began to be imported there), Africa, and India. The wealth of the enslaved countries, as a rule, less developed in socio-economic respect, gave a powerful impetus to the development of industry and trade, and ultimately to the industrial modernization of Europe.

At the end of the XV century. originated in Europe manufactories(from lat. - I do with my hands), large enterprises based on the division of labor and handicraft technology. Often the period of European history from the appearance of manufactories to the start of the industrial revolution is called "manufactory". There were two forms of manufactory: centralized (the entrepreneur himself created a large workshop, in which all operations for the manufacture of a particular product were carried out under his leadership) and much more common - scattered (the entrepreneur distributed raw materials to homeworkers-artisans and received from them a finished product or semi-finished product) . Manufactories contributed to the deepening of the social division of labor, the improvement of production tools, the growth of labor productivity, the formation of new social strata - the industrial bourgeoisie and wage workers (this social process will end during the industrial revolution). Manufactories prepared the transition to machine production.

World historical processes, indicating the end of the Middle Ages, required new ways of transmitting information. This new method was printing. A breakthrough in the technique of book production was made by Johannes Gutenberg. Gutenberg's invention was an overdue and prepared development of the book industry in previous centuries: the appearance in Europe of paper, the technique of woodcutting, the creation in scriptoria (monastic workshops) and universities of hundreds and thousands of handwritten books of predominantly religious content. Gutenberg in 1453-1454 In Mainz, he first printed a book, the so-called 42-line Bible. Typography has become material base for dissemination of knowledge, information, literacy, sciences.

Chronological framework of the third period of world history, new time(beginning of the 16th century - beginning of the 1920s) are defined in the same way as medieval period, first of all, the events and processes that took place in Western Europe. Since in other countries, including Russia, development was slower than in the West, the processes characteristic of modern times began here later.

With the advent of modern times, the destruction of medieval foundations (that is, political and social institutions, norms, customs) and the formation industrial societies a. The process of transition of a medieval (traditional, agrarian) society to an industrial society is called modernization (from French - the latest, modern). This process took about three hundred years in Europe.

Modernization processes took place at different times: they started earlier and proceeded faster in Holland and England; slower these processes were in France; even slower - in Germany, Italy, Russia; special way modernization was in North America (USA, Canada); started in the East in the 20th century. modernization processes are called westernization (from English - western).

Modernization covered all areas of society, it included:

Industrialization, the process of creating large-scale machine production; the beginning of the process of ever-increasing use of machines in production was laid by the industrial revolution (for the first time it began in England in the 1760s, in Russia it began at the turn of the 1830s-1840s);

Urbanization (from Latin - urban), the process of increasing the role of cities in the development of society; the city for the first time gains economic dominance,

pushing the village into the background (already in late XVIII in. the share of the urban population in Holland was 50%; in England, this figure was 30%; in France - 15%, and in Russia - about 5%);

democratization of political life, creation of prerequisites for the formation of a rule of law state and civil society;

Secularization, limiting the influence of the church in the life of society, including the conversion by the state of church property (mainly land) into secular property; the process of dissemination of secular elements in culture was called "secularization" of culture (from the word "worldly" - secular);

Fast, in comparison with the previous period, the growth of knowledge about nature and society.

Big role in the process of modernization, the ideas of the Enlightenment played in the spiritual upheaval. Education, as an ideological trend based on the conviction of the decisive role of reason and science in the knowledge of the "natural order" corresponding to the true nature of man and society, arose in England in the 17th century. (J. Locke, A. Collins). In the XVIII century. Enlightenment spread throughout Europe, the heyday reached in France - F. Voltaire, D. Diderot, C. Montesquieu, J.-J. Rousseau. The French enlighteners, led by D. Diderot, participated in the creation of a unique publication - the Encyclopedia, or Explanatory Dictionary of Sciences, Arts and Crafts, which is why they are called encyclopedists. Enlighteners of the 18th century in Germany - G. Lessing, I. Goethe; in the USA - T. Jefferson, B. Franklin; in Russia - N. Novikov, A. Radishchev. Enlighteners considered ignorance, obscurantism, religious fanaticism to be the causes of all human disasters. They opposed the feudal-absolutist regime, for political freedom, civil equality. The Enlightenment did not call for a revolution, but their ideas played into public consciousness revolutionary role. The 18th century is most often referred to as the Age of Enlightenment.

A huge role in the process of modernization was played by revolutions, cardinal changes in the socio-political system, characterized by a sharp break with the previous tradition, the violent transformation of public and state institutions. In the West in the XVI-XVIII centuries. revolutions swept four countries: Holland (1566-1609), England (1640-1660), USA (War of Independence North American colonies, 1775-1783), France (1789-1799). In the 19th century revolutions engulfed others European countries: Austria, Belgium, Hungary, Germany, Italy, Spain. In the 19th century The West "had been ill" with revolutions, having undergone a kind of vaccination.

The 19th century is called the "age of capitalism" because in this century an industrial society was established in Europe. Two factors were decisive in the victory of industrial society: the industrial revolution, the transition from manufactory to machine production; change in the political and social structure of society, almost complete release from government, political, legal institutions traditional society. For the main differences between industrial and traditional societies, see Table. 1. (p. 27).

The end of modern times is usually associated with the First World War (1914-1918) and revolutionary upheavals in Europe and Asia in 1918-1923.

The fourth period of world history, which began in the 1920s, was called modern times in Soviet historiography. For a long time, the name of the last period of world history was invested with propaganda meaning as the beginning new era in the history of mankind, opened by the October Revolution of 1917.

In the West, the last period of world history is called modernity, modern history. Moreover, the beginning of modernity is mobile: once it began in 1789, then - in 1871, now - from the beginning of the 1920s.

The question of the end of the fourth period of world history and the onset of the fifth period, just like the whole problem of periodization, is debatable. It is quite obvious that in the world at the turn of the XX - XXI century. in. there have been drastic changes. Comprehension of their essence, meaning and consequences for mankind, which entered the III millennium from the Nativity of Christ - the most important task economists, sociologists, historians.

Table 1.

The main features of traditional and industrial societies

signs	Society
	traditional	industrial
Sector dominating the economy	Agriculture	Industry
Fixed means of production	Manual technique	Machine technology
Main Energy Sources	Physical strength of man and animals	natural springs (water, coal, oil, gas)
The nature of the economy (predominantly)	Natural	Commodity-money
Place of residence of the bulk of the settlement
Society structure	class	Social class
social mobility
traditional type of power	hereditary monarchy	Democratic Republic
outlook	Completely religious	Secular
Literacy

Historical periodization is an indispensable thing both in science and in there are certain eras that cover specific time periods. Their names were invented quite recently, after a person was able to look in retrospect, evaluate and divide past events into stages. Now we will consider all the eras in order, find out why they were named that way and how they are characterized.

Why is there a historical chronology?

This technique was developed by researchers for a reason. First, each separate period is characterized by special cultural trends. Each era has its own worldview, fashion, the structure of society, the type of business building, and much more. Considering the epochs of mankind in order, one can also pay attention to the fact that each of them is characterized by separate types of art. This is music, and painting, and literature. Secondly, in the history of mankind there really were so-called turning points When morality changed drastically, new laws were established. This, of course, entailed a change in passions that manifested themselves in art. Such changes could be influenced by revolutions, wars, scientific discoveries, the teachings of the great philosophers and church leaders. And now, before we consider all the historical epochs in order, we note that such radical change our society has experienced quite recently. Scientific and technological progress has completely turned our ideas about communication, sources of information, and even about work. And the reason for this is the Internet, without which ten years ago everyone did, and today it is a part of everyone's life.

antique period

We will omit the history of primitive society, since at that time there was simply no single ideology, religion, or at least a writing system. Therefore, when the epochs of mankind are considered in order, they begin precisely with ancient period, because at that time the first states, the first laws and morality, as well as the art that we are still studying, appeared. The period began around the end of the 8th century BC. e. and lasted until 456 - the date of the fall. At this time, not only a polytheistic religion appeared with a clear fixation of all deities, but also a writing system - Greek and Latin. Also during this period, such a concept as slavery was born in Europe.

Middle Ages

Even when the school considers the eras in order, Special attention devoted to the study of the Middle Ages. The period began at the end of the 5th century, but there is no date for its end, at least an approximate one. Some believe that it ended in the middle of the 15th century, others believe that the Middle Ages lasted until the 17th century. The era is characterized by a huge upsurge of Christianity. It was during these years that the great Crusades. Along with them, the Inquisition was born, which exterminated all opponents of the church. In the Middle Ages, such a form of slavery as feudalism arose, which existed in the world for many centuries later.

Renaissance

It is customary to single out this era as a separate one, but many historians believe that the Renaissance is, so to speak, the secular side of the Middle Ages. The bottom line is that in the end people began to cry out for humanity. Some ancient rules and morality returned, the Inquisition gradually lost its positions. This was manifested both in art and in the behavior of society. People began to attend theaters, there was such a thing as a secular ball. The Renaissance, like Antiquity, originated in Italy, and today numerous monuments of architecture and art are proof of this.

Baroque

When we consider directly the eras of human history in order, the baroque, although it did not last long, took an important branch in the development of art. Below we will consider it in more detail, but for now we note the following. This era was the logical conclusion of the Renaissance. We can say that the craving for secular entertainment and beauty has grown to incredible proportions. An architectural style of the same name appeared, which is characterized by pomposity and pretentiousness. A similar trend manifested itself in music, and in drawing, and even in people's behavior. lasted from the 16th to the 17th century.

Classicism

In the second half of the 17th century, mankind decided to move away from such lush idleness. Society, like the art that it created, became canonized and adjusted to clear rules. Classicism began to appear in the design of buildings and interiors. Right angles are in vogue straight lines, strictness and asceticism. Theater and music, which were at the peak of their cultural development, were also subject to new reforms. There were certain styles that directed the authors in one direction or another. Below we will consider the eras in art in order and learn in more detail what classicism was.

Romantic period

In the 18th century, people seemed to have become infected with a mania for beauty and unearthly fantasies. This period is considered the most mysterious in the history of mankind, ephemeral and original. A trend has appeared in society, according to which each person is a separate spiritual and creative person, with his own inner world, experiences and joys. As a rule, when historians represent cultural epochs in chronological order, one of the most important places is given to romanticism. During this period, which lasted until the 19th century, unique masterpieces of music (Chopin, Schubert, etc.), literature (famous French novels) and painting appeared.

Education

In parallel with romanticism in art, society itself improved. When they list all the eras in order, as a rule, it is the Enlightenment that is put behind classicism. Along with the development of science and art at the end of the 17th century, the level of intelligence began to rise in society at a tremendous speed. This was expressed in the rejection of orthodox religious norms. Instead of sacred knowledge, logic and a bright mind came. This greatly undermined the authority of the aristocracy and ruling dynasties who cited the help of the church in many ways. The Age of Enlightenment marked the birth of a new philosophy based on mathematics and physics. There were a number of astronomical discoveries that refuted many religious dogmas. The Age of Enlightenment touched not only Europe, but also Russia, as well as Far East and even America. During this period, many powers abolished serfdom. It is also worth noting that in the 18-19th centuries, for the first time, women began to take part in scientific and state meetings.

Newest time

We briefly listed all the historical eras in order and came to the 20th century. This period is famous for the flourishing of various numerous coups d'état and changes in power regimes. Therefore, from a historical point of view, this era is called Since the beginning of the 20th century, we can say that society has become completely equal. Slavery was eradicated all over the world, clear borders of states were established. Such conditions have become the optimal environment for the development of not only art, but also science. We now live in this era, therefore, in order to consider it in detail, it is enough just to look around.

Brief summary

After we have presented all the epochs of world history in order, described them, having learned what our society was like in this or that century, we proceed to the study of beauty. Indeed, in parallel with the formation of laws and borders of states, art was formed, which for many is the main determining factor for dividing the history of mankind into separate periods. Below we will present the eras in art in order, characterize them and be able to compare a clear picture of how our society was formed from the very beginning of time. To begin with, we will list the main “eras” in a generalized way, and then we will divide them into separate industries. After all, musical periods do not always coincide in time with the periods of the same name in literature or, say, in painting.

Art: eras in chronological order

• Ancient period. From the moment the first rock paintings appeared, ending with the 8th century BC. e.
• Antiquity - from the 8th century BC. e. until the 6th century AD e.
• Medieval: and Gothic. The first dates from the 6th-10th centuries, and the second - from the 10th-14th centuries.
• Renaissance - famous 14-16th century.
• Baroque - 16-18th century.
• Rococo - 18th century.
• Classicism. It was formed against the background of other directions from the 16th to the 19th century.
• Romanticism - the first half of the 19th century.
• Eclecticism - the second half of the 19th century.
• Modernism - early 20th century. It is worth noting that modern is the general name for this creative era. In different countries and in different areas of art, their own trends were formed, which we will discuss below.

What the pen will tell about ... At the origins of writing

Now consider literary epochs in chronological order: the ancient stage (Antiquity and the East), the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, Classicism, Sentimentalism, Romanticism, Realism, Modernism and modernity. For the first time, literary creations began to appear in Greece, Rome, and also in It was in these powers that the first writing arose. AT ancient world myths began to appear - about Hercules, about Zeus and other gods, about titans and giant birds. Later, the first philosophers, thinkers and writers appeared. This is Homer, Sappho, Aeschylus, Horace. This genre is now called lyrics, but such stories are often referred to as a historical reliable source. The world of the Ancient East is famous only for its instructive poems. However, let's not forget that it was in this part of the world that in ancient times the the most important book mankind - the Bible.

Middle Ages and Renaissance

There is no clear boundary between these periods, and it is not needed. Indeed, in the years when Europe was just beginning to form as a state system, people had no time for art. The first manifestations of creativity in the Middle Ages were stifled by the church. Therefore, the literary heritage that we have inherited since those years is only a knightly epic. Here you can name "The Song of My Sid", "The Song of Roland" and "The Song of the Nibelungen". A few centuries later, the Renaissance comes, and such names as Shakespeare, Dante, Boccaccio, Cervantes become known to the world. Their stories can be called free, since there is no clear structure, and a person and his feelings are in the center of events. That's what it is main characteristic the era of the Renaissance.

Formation of strict canons

When we list the eras in order, century after century, everything falls into place, except for Classicism. It seems to exist outside of time, space, against the background of other currents. From the moment the classics became the basis for the work of European authors, a number of patterns appeared in the writing of literary works. They were clearly divided into satire, tragedy, comedy, epic, fable. We can say that since then the boundaries of creativity have been established, which we still use today (pay attention at least to cinema).

Sentimentalism and romanticism

These two currents seem to complement each other. They are famous for their novels, which describe the experiences of the characters, their state of mind, tastes and interests. Among the authors of romanticism, such names as Balzac, Dickens, Hoffmann, Victor Hugo, the Bronte sisters, Mark Twain, W. Scott and many others are written in red letters. In the later years of Romanticism, authors such as Oscar Wilde and Edgar Allan Poe worked. Their stories are already devoid of sentimentality, but filled with deep philosophy.

Realism and modernism, as well as contemporary literature

At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, many currents in literature appeared. In our country, they were called the Silver Age, in others they were simply named in accordance with the style of a particular work. Symbolism and decadence became the most popular. Representatives of these trends were such authors as Verlaine, Baudelaire, Rimbaud, Blok. Acmeism was very popular in Russia. Its main representative was Anna Akhmatova. Since then, literature has become as realistic as possible. People have given up inner experiences and illusions. From the beginning of the 20th century to the present day, the authors describe any events from the most realistic point of view, taking into account all the innovations of progress.

art

Now it's time to consider all the eras in painting in order. We note right away that there are much more of them here than in the literature, therefore we will turn to each of them briefly and concisely.

• Cave painting.
• Art of Ancient Egypt and the Middle East.
• Cretan-Mycenaean culture.
• Antique drawings and writing.
• Middle Ages: Icon Painting and Gothic Illustrations on Religious Themes.
• Renaissance. Prominent representatives are Michelangelo, da Vinci and others.
• From the 18th century, the Baroque style appeared in painting. Pronounced in the paintings of Caravaggio.
• Classicism, which had been formed in the visual arts since the 16th century, was embodied in the works of Poussin and Rubens.
• Romanticism manifested itself in the paintings of Delacour and Goya.
• Impressionism appeared at the end of the 19th century. Van Gogh is considered its brightest representative, and along with him are Gauguin, Lautrec Munch and others.
• In the 20th century, painting was divided into socialist realism and surrealism. The first trend developed exclusively in Russia. The second conquered the whole world. It is clearly visible in the paintings of S. Dali, P. Picasso and other artists of this time.

Painting, as part of a comprehensive art, cannot exist outside of history; in any case, it correlates with a specific era, time, reflects its main features, conveys specific thoughts, emotions and sensations of the art of that time.

The era of painting - what is it?

First of all, we can say that each era of painting is designed to reflect the features of the time in which it existed. So, according to the painting of one or more periods, the following characteristics of the period in which it was written can be noted:

• spiritual;
• historical;
• political;
• Cultural and more.

The era of painting is a kind of mirror, which reflects the world and its life in a specific historical period. And this is right /, this is interesting and must remain for our descendants, because it is precisely such things that are designed to hold generations together, to make the life that once was the most understandable for those who live in modern world. In addition, it should be noted that each of the eras of art in one way or another affects the lives of people, each of us specifically and, of course, society as a whole.

ancient painting

Painting, like any other kind of real art, had its beginning. At a certain moment, it began to revive in the world, and then to develop and take a firm place in the ladder of all types of art today. If we talk about which era of painting is the most ancient, then we can recall how ancient people loved to draw on the rocks. Can rock paintings be called painting, and even in the sense in which we understand it today? It seems that the answer to the question is rather negative, because in such drawings there are no signs of painting, but they cannot be discounted, because they may have been the forerunners of the appearance of painting. It is possible to say that painting began to emerge only simultaneously with the emergence of such majestic states as, for example, Ancient Egypt, Greece, Rome.

Ancient era of painting

This is a fairly bright layer in the history of all painting, which can be called with a fairly high probability the very first era in which painting began to develop. Speaking about this era, first of all, it can be noted that here painting was represented by painting on stones, interesting frescoes. In order for the images not to deteriorate over time, it was customary to cover them with ordinary resin. It is thanks to this that some of the frescoes are so perfectly preserved to this day. If we talk about the nature of the painting of that period, then it was rather religious.

Middle Ages

This is exactly the period when Christianity began to flourish, which could not but affect the development of painting and the formation of its features.

First of all, from the moment the Middle Ages began, painting becomes an important link in all art, and works of art during this period become more accurate and realistic. This happened due to the fact that artists mastered new drawing techniques during this period, and significant changes took place in the society of that time, which also influenced painting. Such realistic artistic images have become a real platform for a breakthrough in Western European art.

We can also say that the painting of the Middle Ages was distinguished not only by a significant improvement in its quality, but also by the idea of ​​humanism, which was imbued with almost all the creations of that time.

It is important to note that the 13th century also opened up quite good prospects for artists. At that time, every castle, palace, was very boring without decorations in the form of paintings. At first, artists painted their paintings exclusively on religious themes specifically for this occasion, but later their horizons were significantly expanded, which was reflected in the paintings, from that moment on, artists began to decorate palaces with works of a secular nature. Books of that time were also decorated, this happened with the help of miniatures. Of course, it was not typical for ordinary people to have such things, but for princes, kings, books were constantly decorated with miniatures.

It was in the 13th century that artists ceased to live within the walls of monasteries, they became independent and opened their own workshops.

Over time, it begins to develop Wall art, it was mainly used in the decoration of churches. She replaced the mosaic, which was much more difficult to perform and more expensive.

It took the artists quite a long time before the paintings became voluminous, began to resemble the outlines of a particular person. It is important to note that at the end of the 14th century, painters began to come to some particular style in their paintings, which was later called International Gothic. It was in the Middle Ages that such writing styles as Byzantine, Old Russian appeared.

renaissance, romanticism

The Renaissance era has such a name precisely because during this period painting began to change significantly, it began to be saturated with those trends that had already been there, but with the passage of time they became a thing of the past. So, in the Renaissance, humanistic views began to be valued. Other features of painting of this time can be noted:

• Demonstration of attention to ancient times;
• The presence of secular motives.

It was during this period that landscapes and portraits became popular. The result of the continuation of the motives of the Renaissance is the birth of the Baroque. His fans said that it is necessary to bow before everything beautiful, moreover, this is not enough. It is important to bring everything beautiful to such a state that it becomes perfection. This can be traced in those paintings where pretentiousness is noted, the drawing of fantastic shapes and lines. Classicism then returns painting again to the ancient worldview.

When we are talking about romanticism, we mean the stage of painting, when artists opposed creativity, individualism, creation to science and reason in the first place.

Modernity and the past 20th century can be characterized as an era of experiments.

Era name:	Time period of the epoch:	Characteristic features of the era:
one). Ancient world	1st century BC - 5th century AD	Syncretism of art (the inseparable unity of several types of art - dance, music, singing).
2). Middle Ages	5th - 16th centuries.	Theocentrism (God is in charge of everything).
3). rebirth	15th - 16th centuries (in Italy - from the 14th century).	anthropocentrism(the man at the center of everything)
4). Baroque	2nd half of the 17th - first half of the 18th century.	pretentiousness, ingenuity, acceleration of the pace of life, an inverted worldview.
5). Classicism	2nd half of the 18th century - 1st half of the 19th century.	Reason and order at the head of everything.
6). Romanticism	2nd half of the 19th century.	The conflict of the inner world with the outer, admiration nature, self care, heightened sense of the world.
7). Multistyle	XX century.	Plurality of attitudes, distortion of basic human concepts.

Ancient world (1st century BC - 5th century AD).

Music in primitive society : 1). ritual character(accompanied rituals and ceremonies of a peaceful or military nature); music at an early stage of development was mainly of a rhythmic and invocative nature. 2). Syncretic character (indissoluble unity of singing, dance and music).

Music in ancient states played a significant role in the rituals of the church (initiation into rulers, priests, wars) and secular nature (accompanying festivities and funeral processions). O important role Music in ancient states is evidenced, first of all, by frescoes depicting musicians and dancers, and references in the literary sources of those times.

Egypt.

"Passion-mysteries"- the highest achievement of a serious musical art Egypt, telling about Gods and heroes, instructive character. Instruments: brass, percussion, strings (ancestors of the harp).

Greece.

Music functions: 1). accompaniment of ceremonies; 2). accompaniment of theatrical performances; 3). accompanying the reading of poetic texts; 4). music as a medicine of the spirit (certain modes brought up the soul in a certain way); 5). music as part mathematical science(intervals measured the distances between the planets).

The largest musical theorist of antiquity:PYTHAGORAS- invented the monochord (6th century BC) - a single-string instrument for measuring the pitch. Pythagoras developed the theory "harmonies of the heavenly spheres" and the aesthetic impact of music on a person.

ancient theater - the most important cultural achievement of Greece, which gave rise to many theatrical and musical traditions. Features of theatrical performances in Greece: a). the texts were spoken in a chant = later, from the revival of this tradition came opera; b). played only by men who used masks and katurna- shoes on a high platform; in). the names of theater venues gave rise to modern theatrical terms; G). seats for spectators were located in a circle with the elevation of each next row above the previous one.

Theatrical antique terms:

orchestra(a platform where the choir stood, commenting on the events) - an orchestra;

skene(the tent where the actors changed) - the scene.

Famous composers of tragedies (they were also directors and, often, actors of their plays):Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides. Created a category catharsis - purification of the soul through suffering.

Famous comedy writers:Aristotle, Archilochus.

In antiquity, tragedies were much more popular as carrying high moral ideals.

The paradox of ancient musical art: music contains the most references in literary and historical sources, many sculptural and fresco images of people playing music, and musical samples are almost gone. Those that have been deciphered do not give an idea of ​​the greatness of the musical art in Greece.

Middle Ages (5th - 16th centuries).

Worldview, psychology, ideals.

outlook ordinary people developed in line with those moods that the church imposed. Medieval man felt himself worthless before the power of the punishing Creator, he felt his endless sinfulness, which was strengthened by the ministers of the church in their own interests (monetary requisitions).

Attitude to life: as a test, suffering, waiting for the Last Judgment.

Characteristic features of medieval art: 1). asceticism, weak emotionality (especially in the first half of medieval art); 2). symbolism, conventionality (this is especially strongly reflected in the icon painting of the early stages of the Middle Ages) 3). irreconcilable antitheses (good-evil, God-devil); 4). the absence of personality as a creative ideal - everything is created in the name of God (therefore, for a very long time, music and painting of the Middle Ages were anonymous, i.e. without indicating the authors); 5). the introduction of a person to the comprehension of the mysteries of divine being -task of the medieval creator(this influenced the strict selection of genres and means of expression0.

Music in the church.

Strict style - a rigid system of composing a melody (even quarts were considered dissonances and jumps to these intervals were forbidden for a long time). Singing in the church remained for a long time monodic, i.e. monophonic. Later, with the development of musical art, there appeared counterpoints, suggesting the presence of several voices and their rearrangement. The earliest form of polyphony is organum(the end of the 9th century, the masters of this genre are Leonin and Perotin).

Gregorian chant - the most important meta of the Middle Ages, reflecting the unity of consciousness in the face of God. GC is the male choral singing in unison of a detached character in Latin (for a long time, services in the church were held only in this language, incomprehensible to ordinary people). GH were created from a variety of chants that existed at that time, ordered by the pope Gregory 1 at the turn of the 6th-7th centuries.

Sequence "Dies irae" ("Day of Wrath") - genre of medieval monody, expanding strict church melodies. The systematization of sequences is creditedNotker Zaika."Dies irae" appeared around the 13th century as a reflection of the peak of the worldview of the Middle Ages with the expectation of the Last Judgment and formidable retribution for sins. This sequence was very often cited in the world musical literature either as a sign of the Middle Ages, or as a symbol of the inevitable, the inevitable (Rakhmaninov, Tchaikovsky) or even the demonic (Berlioz, "Fantastic Symphony", 5th movement, "The Witches' Sabbath").

Notation.

For a long time, the chorales were not recorded, being in the oral tradition. Then they began to use nevma, denoting not a note, but a whole tune. Gradually, rulers began to appear, the number of which varied from 1 to 18. The stave was improved in the 11th century Guido Aretinsky, which, instead of many options, legalized 4 lines.

The most important genre of the late Middle Ages is Mass( the first of those that have come down to us - 1364. G. de Macho) - a cyclic vocal or vocal-instrumental work based on the texts of the Catholic liturgy of the same name. The 5 parts of the mass are ordinariumand are binding and unchangeable. Parts dedicated to certain holidays and Sundays areproprium- variable part of the mass.Proprium Parts: 1). Kyrie eleison (Kyrie eleison - “Lord, have mercy”);2). Gloria (Gloria - "Glory");3). Gredo (Credo - "I believe");4). Sanctus, Benedictus (Sanctus, Benedictus - "Holy, Blessed");5). Agnus Dei (Agnus Dei - "Lamb of God"). The genre of the mass reached its highest perfection in the work ofO.Lasso and D. Palestrino.

Music in a medieval castle (court culture).

Appealed to a person, cultivated admiration for beautiful lady(the image is often fictional, collective). In line with secular castle art, vocal and instrumental genres developed. courtly love("courteous") - assumed the observance of certain rules of versification, behavior and musical accompaniment.

Genres of courtly culture(poetic and musical): 1). canzone(a kind of lyric poem); 2). server(song about knightly exploits); 3). alba(song at dawn); 4). pasturella or pasturel(a song in the bosom of nature, praising the simple love of a shepherdess); 5). ballata(song epic - narrative content) 6). rondo (round dance song).

The Art of the Vagants, Troubadours and Trouvers.

Art de trobar (the art of inventing) - the art of free singers of love, which originated in Provence in the 11th and 12th centuries.Troubadours were often wealthy people (for example, knights) who wandered around native land and composed songs (albs, canzones, etc.) in honor of the Beautiful Lady. Some troubadours were of humble origin and made a living performing their songs.Trouvers(from root trover - find, invent) appeared in the north of France in the 13th century. About 2000 songs have survived, some of the most famous composers of love songs are known, for example,Adam de la Al. In Germany the singers of love were calledminnesingers.In the work of these singers, in addition to the theme of love, there were also moral and instructive motives. Minnesingers establishedsinging competitions (meistersang), who demonstrated their vocal and poetic skills. He reflected the competition of German singers in his operaR. Wagner "Nuremberg Meistersingers". History knows the names of such German minnesingers asTannhäuser(Wagner has an opera of the same name),Wolfram von Eschenbach, Walther von Vogelweide.

In addition to troubadours and minnesingers, there were wandering singers of a different nature - they werepeople from the people, whose art was acutely social and controversial, condemned politics and the church, the texts of these wandering artists often contained frivolous, vulgar plots, which is explained by the origin of these artists and the fact that they worked for the needs of the public low level. In different countries, these wandering artists were called differently:shpilmans(gamers) in Germany,jugglers in England, buffoonsin Russia. Often a generalized term is used for these musicians -VAGANTS, denoting wandering singers and composers of free poetic texts. Often, half-educated students (schoolchildren) who could not pass difficult exams and left universities, embarked on wanderings, earning their own bread by teaching the acquired wisdom (Latin, mathematics) to those who could pay, often became vagants. But the vagantes could also steal, cheat, and kill, depending on how strong the moral foundations of each of these representatives were. Excommunicated or runaway monks, impoverished nobles also became vagants. Thus, the contingent was predominantly intellectual and observing the underside of life - the greed and deceit of the ministers of the church, racial riots. The life of many brave vagants ended either in prison or at the stake, as, for example,Hugh of Orleans.

Notable works based on texts by Vagants:

"In the French side" in the processing of D. Tukhmanov;

“Carmina Burana” by K.Orff.

rebirth (15th - 16th centuries; in Italy - from the 14th century).

Worldview, psychology, the subject of rebirth.

Revival of ancient forms of art (sculpture, painting. Architecture). Close attention to a person = greater psychology in paintings and sculptures, greater accuracy in the transfer of anatomy and perspective. Time of great discoveries (H. Collumb, Magelan), formation of the European nation.

Art Nova. GREAT NAMES:

Painting, sculpture, architecture:

bernini, Leonardo da Vinci, Rafael Santi, Michelangello Buanorotti, Jan van Eyck, P. Veronese, Giotto, Lucas Cranach, A. Durer, Titian, I. Bosch.

Literature, poetry:

Dante("The Divine Comedy"), petrarch(sonnets), Boccacho (freestyle plays), E. Rotterdam("Praise of stupidity"), T.Mor (poetry), F. Rabelais("Gargantua and Pantagruel"), Lope de Vega (plays, theatrical art).

Music has acquired its own meaning, ceasing to be only applied (that is, to accompany festivities and rituals), music began to appear on its own. As a kind of professional art.

The heyday of Renaissance polyphony in the work of composers of the Dutch school - F. Landino, G. Dufay, Okegema, J. Despres, Obrecht.

Development instrumental performance, the development of genres only for instrumental playing (viola, lute).

Genres of secular musical art:

madrigals, chanson, villanels, frottolas, ballads, motets.

Unusual composer of the Renaissance - Gesualdo da Venosa(late 16th - early 17th century), who created a complex chromatic style and bold tonal juxtapositions that reflected the conflicting moods of the composer's musical compositions. Venosa - the greatest master of the madrigal (songs in mother tongue). The gloomy story of the murder of his wife and child is also connected with him, after which the composer committed suicide. This story was based on the Soviet composer's opera A. Schnittke (opera "Gesualdo").

Baroque (2nd half of the 17th - first half of the 18th century).

The meaning of the term Baroque.

Translated from Portuguese - "pearl irregular shape» - whimsical, strange = invention of new genres and instruments, detailing the nuances of music.

Worldview, psychology.

Characteristic features of the time: one). “The connecting thread has broken. How can I connect the pieces of them? .. "( Shakespeare,"Hamlet") = "torn" picture of the world (invention microscope and telescope expanded people's ideas about the world); 2). acceleration of the pace of life (God is the eternal watchmaker; added tempo dynamic notation into works; Madonnas in the paintings do not sit, but “soar” in chairs); 3). time is understood as an alternation contrast processes; 4). mixture of tragic and comic, violation of the laws of ancient Greek tragedy(Shakespeare's plays, for example. In tragedies they always contain a comic farce, and in comedies there is seriousness); 5).trend to violation of the canons, ingenuity; 6). freedom in the interpretation of any genre.

Features of musical art.

one). destruction of ideas about the logic of the old voice leading, the introduction of parallelisms, tritones, unexpected transitions to distant keys (especially in music J.S. Bach).

2). development polyphonic art (in translation - polyphony) - a type of music in which each of the voices has a certain independent trajectory of movement, and at the same time, obeys certain rules for composing counterpoint;

3). music is proclaimed an independent art.

Composers: J.S. Bach, G.F. Handel(Germany); G.Caccini, C. Monteverdi, O.Chesti (Italy); earlier polyphonic composers: Gabrieli, Frescobaldi, Kunau, Buxtehude, Pahebel.

Genres of musical works:

1). fugue(in translation - “running”) - a genre of polyphonic music in which a certain number of voices (from 3 to 10) consistently carry out a theme, and then begin to rearrange relative to each other according to the rules of contrapuntal technique;

2). toccata(from "tokkare" - to strike) - a genre of prelude-improvisational nature, often an introduction to the strict part of the work (for example, fugue);

3). invention (translated("invent", "invent") - free name of plays of free-imitation construction;

4). opera(in translation - "labor", "creation") - a genre of stage art that combines singing, instrumental performance, ballet, decorative and staging skills.

5). suite(in translation - “row”, “sequence”) - a sequence of mandatory (4 old dances) and optional plays;

6). oratorio(in translation - eloquence) - a monumental work for the choir, soloists and orchestra on a certain plot basis, intended for concert performance;

7). cantata - a composition for singers-soloists, an orchestra and, possibly, a choir, consisting of completed numbers-episodes, intended for concert performance. Cantatas are smaller than oratorios in terms of the scale of the plot and in terms of duration in time;

8). sonata(translated as "to sound") - in the Baroque era - any instrumental work for four instruments with an obligatory keyboard player who performed the basso continua part;

9). concert(in translation - “competition”, “competition”) - a virtuoso work for orchestra and soloist (in the Baroque era, various groups of the orchestra competed - large and small, not all composers had a pronounced solo part of the soloist),

Musical instruments:

clavichord, harpsichord, violin(Amati, Guarneri, Stradivari), viola, cello.

Classicism (2nd half of the 18th century - 1st half of the 19th century).

The direction that has developed in France and has become the leading one for this country and Germany.

Worldview, psychology.

The mind is at the head of everything. Committed to rational decision conflicts, edification in plays, literary works (return to ancient forms of harmony in plays). New forms of city design as a reflection of a new psychology: straight paths, bushes cut to fit certain geometric shapes, etc.

Appearance encyclopedists(J.-J. Rousseau, D. Diderot etc.), who systematized vast knowledge in the first encyclopedias.

Features of musical art.

The orderliness of the form of the main genres, bringing their diversity to a common standard. Classic - translated as "exemplary".

Active development of instrumental genres.

domination sonata form - one of the most complex musical forms, comparable in dramatic complexity to the novel. Sonata form suggests the presence exposure, development and reprises, in which there is a display, development and return of themes to their original tonality.

Genres:

1). symphony(in translation - "consonance") - usually - a 4-part cycle for a symphony orchestra, in which at least one of the parts is written in sonata form.

2). sonata(translated as "to sound") - A 3-movement piece for piano or for solo instrument(s) and piano, in which at least one of the movements is written in sonata form.

3). quartet(in translation - “fourth”) - a 4-part work for 4 instruments (most often these are strings - violin, viola, cello, double bass), in which at least one of the parts is written in sonata form.

4). concert(in translation - "competition", "competition") - a virtuoso 3-part virtuoso work for orchestra and soloist, in which at least one of the parts is written in sonata form.

5). theme with variations a genre designed to demonstrate the virtuoso mastery of a composer or performer in handling a theme (composers or performers often improvised at concerts on a theme given by the audience). The theme could be borrowed from any composition (even from an opera) one's own or someone else's.

Composers:

D. Scarlatti (early classicism), J. Haydn("father" of the genres symphony, sonata and quartet - that is, he brought these genres into an exemplary, classical form), W. Mozart,L. van Beethoven.

Romanticism (2nd half of the 19th century).

Worldview, psychology.

1). A romantic is a person with a heightened perception of the events of the outside world, vulnerable, sensitive, prone to dramatization or idealization of events.

2). The contradiction of the inner and outer worlds;

3). feeling of loneliness;

4). Feeling the hostility of the outside world;

5). Admiration for nature, endowing it with animated qualities;

6). Interest in folk culture (processing of folk melodies, use of folk texts).

Features of musical art.

one). increased emotionality of music or its meditative-reflective character;

2). significant connection with the literary and artistic images(from program headings to leitmotifs with specific figurative expressions);

3). tendency to choose small forms (impromptu, musical moments, ecossaises) = confidence in the statement, designed for a small circle of the closest, understanding people;

4). feeling of improvisation;

5). complex emotional and dramatic basis of music;

6). complication of texture (often of a mixed type with several solo voices in the form of a dialogue - Schumann, Chopin) and harmony (transitions to distant keys, complication of the composition of harmonic functions).

Writers:

G. Heine, E. Hoffman, V.Hugo, O. Balzac, A. Dumas.

Composers:

Early Romanticism: K.-M. Von Weber, F. Mendelssohn, F. Schubert, G. Rossini.

Mature romanticism:R. Schubert, F. Chopin, B. Smetana, R. Wagner, G. Verdi.

Late romanticism:A. Dvorak, R. Wagner, G. Verdi, G. Mahler, G. Puccini.

Multistyle (XX century).

Worldview, psychology.

1. socio-historical cataclysms (World Wars, revolutions);

2. NTCP(scientific and technical progress);

3. plurality of attitudes;

4. pluralism - permissiveness; everything is relative, even the eternal categories of goodness, beauty and truth = cynicism, cruelty of perception;

5. general acceleration of the pace of life.

The difference between directions and style: style manifests itself in all forms of art, direction- in one or more (for example, in literature and painting). Style has a more comprehensive meaning than a direction and can give a name to an entire era (for example, the Middle Ages and the Baroque).

Features of musical art.

1. close connection of all types of art, the transition of the properties of one art to the properties of another(for example, symbolist poets often called their poems music or musical genres);

2. transformation and rethinking (change) of musical genres;

3. invention of new genres and techniques.

Composers:

Foreign:

C. Debussy, M. Ravel, A. Schoenberg, A. Berg, A. Webern, K.Orff, B.Bartok, D. Millau, F. Poulenc, J.Taifer, P. Hindemith, P. Boulez, D. Lighetti, K. Penderetsky.

Domestic:

S. Prokofiev, D. Shostakovich, G. Sviridov, V. Gavrilin, A. Schnittke, S. Gubaidulina, Ustvolskaya.

Modern times (21st century, Ural and Russian composers):

O. Viktorova, V. Yakimovsky, O. Payberdin, V. Kobekin, A. Zhemchuzhnikov, D. Pavlov, L. Tabachnik, L. Gurevich.

The name of this period was given by the historians of the Renaissance, defining the middle "gap" between the ideal Antiquity and the revival of its traditions in the 14-16 centuries. The term "Middle Ages" for a long time had a negative and dismissive character.

Comedy is not in the sense that the text contains something funny, but according to the ancient principle: it starts badly and ends well (in a tragedy it is the other way around).