The concept of method in sociology

The next component of the methodological part of the program is the substantiation of the main methods sociological research that they will be used in the process of sociological analysis of a particular social problem. To choose a method of collecting sociological information, emphasizes S. Vovkanych, means to choose one or another way of obtaining new social information to complete the task. The word "method" comes from the Greek. - "the way to something." AT method of sociology - this is a way to obtain reliable sociological knowledge, a set of applied techniques, procedures and operations of empirical and theoretical knowledge social reality.

At the level of everyday ideas of ordinary people, sociology is associated primarily with the conduct of questioning. In fact, however, a sociologist may use such diverse research procedures as experiment, observation, document analysis, expert assessments, sociometry, interviews etc.

Rules for defining methods

As Russian sociologists rightly point out, when determining the methods of sociological research of a social problem, a number of significant points should be taken into account:

Efficiency and economy of research should not be achieved at the expense of data quality;

None of the methods is universal and has its own clearly defined cognitive capabilities. Therefore, there are no "good" or "bad" methods at all; e methods that are adequate or inadequate (that is, suitable and inappropriate) for the goal and objectives;

The reliability of the method is ensured not only by its validity, but also by compliance with the rules for its application.

Submitting further a more detailed description of the main methods of obtaining sociological information, we chose from them those that most correspond to the disclosure of the causes of conflicts in the enterprise between workers and administration. It is these methods that should be included in the programs of sociological research; they should be used in accordance with the goals and objectives of the study. They should be the basis for testing the correctness or falsity of the hypotheses put forward.

Among the methods of collecting primary sociological information, there are also those that are not specifically sociological. it observation and experiment. they have their roots in the natural sciences, but at present they are successfully used in the social and humanitarian sciences, including sociology.

Method of observation in sociology

Observation in sociology - this is a method of purposeful, systematic, fixed in a certain way the perception of the object that is being studied. It serves certain cognitive purposes and can be subjected to control and verification. Most often, the method of observation is used in the study of the behavior of individuals and groups and forms of communication, that is, with the visual coverage of a certain social action. It can be used in the study of conflict situations, because many of them manifest themselves precisely in actions and events that can be recorded and analyzed. positive traits of this method are:

Implementation of observation simultaneously with the deployment and development of phenomena, they are investigated;

Possibility direct perception human behavior in specific conditions and in real time;

The possibility of a wide coverage of the event and a description of the interaction of all its participants;

Independence of the actions of the objects of observation from the sociologist-observer. To shortcomings of the observation method include:

The limited and partial nature of each situation that is observed. This means that the findings can only be generalized and extended to larger situations with great care;

Difficulty, and sometimes simply the impossibility of repeated observations. Social processes are irreversible, they cannot be forced to repeat again for the needs of the sociologist;

Impact on the quality of primary sociological information subjective assessments the observer, his attitudes, stereotypes, etc.

Observation types

Exists several types of observation in sociology. the most popular among modern researchers - included surveillance, when the sociologist enters directly into the social process and social group, that they are studied, when he contacts and acts together with those whom he observes. This allows you to explore the phenomenon from the inside, to delve deeply into the essence of the problem (in our case, the conflict), to understand the reasons for its occurrence and aggravation. Field observation occurs in natural conditions: in workshops, services, construction, etc. Laboratory observation requires the creation of specially equipped premises. There are systematic and random observations, structural (that is, such that they are carried out according to a plan developed in advance) and non-structural (for which only the object of the survey is determined).

Method of experiment in sociology

Experiment as a method of research developed primarily in natural science. L. Zhmud believes that the first experiment recorded in the scientific literature belongs to the ancient philosopher and scientist Pythagoras (c. 580-500 BC). He used a monochord - an instrument with one string stretched over a ruler with 12 marks - in order to find out the relationship between the pitch of a musical tone and the length of the string. Thanks to this experiment, Pythagoras invented mathematical description harmonic musical intervals: octaves (12:c), quarts (12:9) and fifths (12:8). V. Grechikhin is of the opinion that the first scientist who put experiment on a scientific basis was Galileo Galilei (1564-1642), one of the founders of exact natural science. On the basis of scientific experiments, he came to the conclusion about the correctness of the teachings of M. Copernicus about the structure of the Universe. Sentenced by the Inquisition, G. Galileo exclaimed: "And yet it rotates!", referring to the rotation of the Earth around the Sun and around its own axis.

The idea of ​​the possibility of using the experiment in the social sciences was put forward by the French scientist P.-S. Laplace (1749-1827) 1814 in the book "The Philosophical Experience of Probability". In the study of society, in his opinion, it is possible to apply such methods of the probabilistic approach as sampling, creating parallel control groups etc. Therefore, it is possible to develop methods quantitative description society and social problems and phenomena.

Discussion around the experimental method

However, V. Comte, E. Durkheim, M. Weber and others denied attempts to use experimental method in the study of social problems. In their opinion, main difficulties The use of experiment in sociology are:

Complexity, multifactoriality and diversity of social processes;

Difficulties, and even impossibility of their formalization and quantitative description;

The integrity and consistency of dependencies, the difficulty of clearly elucidating the effect of any one factor on a social phenomenon;

The mediation of external influences through the human psyche;

The inability to provide an unambiguous interpretation of the behavior of a person or a social community, etc.

However, since the 1920s, the scope of experiment in the social sciences has gradually expanded. This is associated with the rapid growth of empirical research, the improvement of survey procedures, the development of mathematical logic, statistics and probability theory. Now the experiment is right for recognized methods sociological research.

scope, purpose and logic of the experiment

An experiment in sociology - this is a means of obtaining information about quantitative and qualitative changes in the performance and behavior of an object as a result of the impact on it of certain factors (variables) that can be controlled and controlled. As V. Grechikhin notes, the use of an experiment in sociology is advisable when it is necessary to perform tasks related to the response of a particular social group to internal and external factors that are introduced from the outside in artificially created and controlled conditions. The main purpose of its implementation is to test certain hypotheses, the results of which have direct access to practice, to a variety of management decisions.

General the logic of the experiment consists in:

Selecting a specific experimental group;

Placed her in an unusual experimental situation, under the influence of a certain factor;

Tracking the direction, magnitude and constancy of variables, which are called control and occurred due to the action of the introduced factor.

Varieties of experiments

Among varieties of experiment can be called field (when the group is in the natural conditions of its functioning) and laboratory (when the experimental situation and groups are artificially formed). There are also experiments linear (when the same group is analyzed) and parallel (when two groups participate in the experiment: control with constant characteristics and experimental with modified characteristics). According to the nature of the object and the subject of research, sociological, economic, legal, socio-psychological, pedagogical and other experiments are distinguished. According to the specifics of the task, experiments are divided into scientific (they are aimed at increasing knowledge) and applied (they are aimed at obtaining a practical effect). By the nature of the experimental situation, there are controlled experiments and those where control is not exercised.

In our case, with a conflict situation in production, it is possible to carry out an applied field controlled experiment with the selection of two groups of workers according to the age criterion. This experiment will reveal the dependence of labor productivity on the age of workers. Its implementation will show whether the dismissal of young workers is justified due to insufficient production experience and lower performance indicators than middle-aged workers.

Document analysis method

Method document analysis in sociology is one of the mandatory ones, with which almost all research begins. Documents are divided into statistical (in numerical terms) and verbal (in text form); official (of an official nature) and informal (which do not have official confirmation of their correctness and effectiveness), public and personal etc.

In our case, we can use official statistical and verbal documents of public importance, which record data on sexual and age structure employees, their level of education, professional training, marital status, etc., as well as the results of the production activities of various groups of employees. Comparison of these documents makes it possible to establish the dependence of the economic efficiency of workers on their socio-demographic, professional and other characteristics.

Surveys and its scope

The most widespread and frequent in sociology is the method interview. It covers the use of research procedures such as questionnaires, mail surveys, and interviews. A survey is a method of direct or indirect collection of primary verbal (i.e., transmitted in verbal form) information. There are correspondence and direct, standardized (according to a pre-developed plan) and non-standardized (free), one-time and multiple surveys, as well as expert surveys.

The polling method is used in such cases:

When the problem that is being investigated is not sufficiently provided with documentary sources of information (for example, situations of conflict in an enterprise are rarely recorded in a systematic form in official documentation);

When the subject matter or individual characteristics it is impossible to observe in full and during the entire existence of this phenomenon (for example, it is possible to observe a conflict situation predominantly in the moment of its exacerbation, and not at the beginning of its occurrence);

When the subject of research is the elements of collective and individual consciousness - thoughts, stereotypes of thinking, etc., and not direct actions and behavior (for example, in the event of a conflict, you can monitor it behavioral manifestations, but it will not give an idea of ​​the motives of people's participation in the conflict, their reasoning about the legitimacy of the actions of both sides of the conflict);

When the survey complements the ability to describe and analyze the studied phenomena and checks the data obtained using other methods.

Questionnaire

Among the types of surveys, a prominent place is occupied by questioning, the main instrument of which is a questionnaire, or questionnaire. At first glance, there is nothing easier and simpler than the development of a questionnaire on any topic related to the problem situation. Each of us in everyday practice constantly asks questions to others, solving many life problem situations with their help. However, in sociology, the question performs the function of a research tool, which puts forward special requirements for its formulation and the reduction of questions into a questionnaire.

Questionnaire structure

First of all, these are the requirements for questionnaire structure, its components should be:

1. Introduction (appeal to respondents with a summary of the topic, purpose, tasks of the survey, the name of the organization or service that carries it out, with instructions on the procedure for filling out the questionnaire, with reference to the anonymity of the survey and the use of its results only for scientific purposes).

2. Blocks simple questions, neutral in content (except for the cognitive purpose, they provide easier entry of respondents into the survey process, arouse their interest, form psychological attitude for cooperation with researchers, introduce them into the circle of discussed problems).

3. Blocks of more complex questions that require analysis and reflection, memory activation, increased concentration and attention. It is here that the core of the study is contained, the main primary sociological information is collected.

4. Final questions that should be quite simple, relieve the psychological tension of the respondents, enable them to feel that they took part in important and necessary work.

5. "Passport", or a block with questions that reveal socio-demographic, vocational, educational, ethnic, cultural and other characteristics of respondents (gender, age, marital status, place of residence, nationality, native language, attitude to religion, education, professional training place of work, length of service, etc.).

Questionnaire blocks

The questions of the questionnaire are combined into blocks according to the thematic and problematic principle based on the "tree" and "branches" of interpretation of the main concepts (see the description of the methodological part of the program in Part 1 of the sociological workshop). In our case, the block that concerns the socio-demographic and other personal characteristics of workers and managers should be placed in the "passport", while other blocks are placed in the main part of the questionnaire. These are blocks:

Attitude to work and results of production activities;

The level of social activity;

Level of awareness;

Assessment of the quality of planning;

Evaluation of the organization, content and working conditions;

Characteristics of living conditions;

Characteristics of the causes of the conflict;

Finding out possible ways to resolve the conflict, etc.

Requirements for substantive questions of the questionnaire

There are also requirements for meaningful questions of the questionnaire, formulated by N. Panina as follows.

1. Validity (validity), that is, the degree of compliance of the questions of the questionnaire with the indicator that is being investigated and completes the operationalization of the concept (see the previous part of the workshop). In this case, you should be careful about transition from operational levels to the formulation of questions in the questionnaire. For example, sometimes the conflict between workers and managers flares up due to the lack of timely supply of raw materials or semi-finished products. The following questions should then be included in the questionnaire:

"is raw materials/semi-finished products delivered to your workplace on time?";

"If raw materials / semi-finished products are delivered to your workplace on time, then who is responsible for this:

The workers themselves;

supply services;

Sophistical enterprise center;

Transportation Department;

Workshop management;

Enterprise management;

Who else (specify yourself) ____________________________________________

Hard to say;

No answer".

2. conciseness, or a summary of the survey questions. N. Panina rightly points out: every researcher understands what longer have a question, more difficult respondent to understand its content. She adds that experiments in the field interpersonal communication found: for most people 11-13 words in a question is the limit of phrase comprehension without significant distortion of its main content.

3. unambiguity, that is, the same understanding by all respondents of exactly the meaning of the question that the researcher put into it. Most frequent error in this sense is the inclusion in the question of several questions at the same time. For example: "What are the main causes of the conflict between workers and management at your enterprise and what measures can help to resolve this conflict?". It must be remembered that only one thought or statement should be formulated in the question.

Open questions

Question entered in the questionnaire, are divided into different types. It can be open questions when the researcher asks questions and leaves free place for the respondent's own handwritten response. For example:

"Please indicate what, in your opinion, are the main causes of the conflict between the workers and the administration of your enterprise?"

(space for answer)

Advantage open questions is that they are easy to formulate and that they do not limit the choice of answers that the researcher can provide. Complexity and difficulties arise when it is necessary to process all possible answers and group them according to a certain criterion after receiving sociological information.

Closed questions and their varieties

Closed questions - these are those for which the questionnaire contains, to the best of its ability, a complete set of answer options, and the respondent only has to indicate the option that corresponds to his opinion. Alternative closed questions require respondents to choose only one answer, resulting in the sum of the answers to all options is 100%. For example:

"How do you perform production tasks?"

1. Of course, I overfulfill the production rate (7%).

2. Of course, I fulfill the production rate (43%).

3. Sometimes I do not fulfill the production norms (33%).

4. Practically it is not possible to fulfill production norms (17%).

As you can see, the sum of the answers in percent is 100. Non-alternative closed questions allow respondents to choose several answers to the same question, so their sum preferably exceeds 100%. For example:

"What factors, in your opinion, are the causes of a conflict situation in your work team?"

1. Factors related to gender and age of workers (44%).

2. Factors related to the marital status of workers (9%).

3. Factors related to the attitude of workers to work (13%).

4. Factors associated with poor planning quality (66%).

5. Factors associated with imperfect organization of labor on the part of the administration (39%).

As you can see, the sum of the answers in percentage significantly exceeds 100 and indicates the complex nature of the causes of conflicts in the enterprise.

Semi-closed questions - this is their form when all possible answers are listed first, and at the end they leave room for the respondent's own answers, if he believes that none of the given answers reflects his thoughts. In other words, semi-closed questions are a combination of open and closed questions in one.

Question posting forms

Linear form placement of questions involves their wording and hovering below the possible answers, as in the examples given earlier. You can also use at the same time tabular form posting questions and answers. For example: "In your opinion, how have the organization, content and conditions of your work changed during your work at this enterprise?"

There is also such a form of placing questions, which is based on using the scale. For example: "One group of people believes that the main cause of the conflict in the enterprise is the personal characteristics of employees. This thought corresponds to mark 1 on the scale below. Another group of people is convinced that conflicts are due to socio-economic and organizational reasons due to the unsatisfactory performance of the administration. This thought corresponds to a mark of 7 on the scale. What position corresponds to your opinion and where would you place it on this scale?

The responses received give average scores opinions of respondents that can be compared (for example, GPA responses of workers can be 6.3, and representatives of the administration - 1.8). That is, according to the workers, the causes of conflicts with the administration are not in their personal characteristics, but are caused by the unsatisfactory work of management personnel in planning production activities, organizing labor, etc. The opinion of representatives of the administration in this case is the opposite: in their opinion, conflicts arise because workers do not perform production tasks due to their low level of qualification, education, insufficient production experience, systematic absenteeism, etc.

From this, the researcher can make the following assumptions:

There is a different understanding of the causes of conflict situations;

There is a tendency to shift the blame for the conflict situation from oneself to others;

Considering this, there is a need to study the origins of conflict situations at this enterprise using other methods of sociological research: experiment, observation, document analysis, in-depth interviews, focus group discussions to obtain reliable sociological information.

Questionnaire coding rules

When the questionnaire is compiled, it is necessary to encode all the questions and answers contained in it, bearing in mind the further processing of the information received on the computer. For this, they usually choose three-digit code. For example, the first question of the questionnaire receives a digital mark 001, and the answer options (if there are five of them) are encoded with the numbers 002, 003, 004, 005, 006. Then next question will receive the number 007, and the answers to it will be encoded by numerical symbols 008,009,010, etc., which are more distant in order. In the case of using a tabular form for placing questions in the questionnaire, it is worth making sure that each position of the answer has its own code. That is the basic principle coding is to ensure that, without exception, all questions and answers (together with possible answers to open questions) had their respective code.

Qualitative methods of sociological research

Questionnaire is the most common quantitative method obtaining sociological information. However, in sociology there are other, so-called quality methods. American sociologists A. Strause and J. Corbin, in their book on the foundations of qualitative research, understand it as any kind of research in which data is obtained in non-statistical or non-similar ways. They believe that qualitative methods well suited to research on the life histories and behaviors of individuals, organizations, social movements, or interactive relationships. Scholars give the example of a study that attempts to uncover the nature of subjective experience associated with phenomena such as illness, religious conversion, or drug addiction.

A combination of quantitative and qualitative methods

Areas of application of qualitative methods

At the same time, there are many such areas of research that, by their very nature, are more suitable for qualitative types of analysis. Researchers use them when little is known about a particular phenomenon. their importance is great for research within the framework of the whole interpretative paradigm. So, currently popular are conversational analysis within the framework of symbolic interactionism or qualitative study of the meaning of spiritual interactions (phenomenological sociology). Qualitative methods can provide a clearer picture of the intricate details of a phenomenon that are difficult to obtain with quantitative methods.

Interview as a method of qualitative sociological research

The two most common qualitative methods are interview and focus group discussion (hereinafter FCD). Interview refers to the survey methods of qualitative sociology and is briefly referred to as a way of obtaining information using an oral survey (conversation). Russian sociologists consider interviews to be the second most popular method of empirical sociology after questionnaires. The essence of the interview consists in the fact that a conversation takes place according to a pre-planned plan, which involves direct contact between the interviewer (i.e., a specially trained sociologist-executor) and the respondent (the person with whom the researcher conducts this conversation), during which the first scrupulously registers the answers of the second.

Comparing the two most popular methods in sociology - quantitative questioning and qualitative interviewing - Russian scientists determine the advantages and disadvantages of the latter.

Advantages and disadvantages of an interview

The interview is ahead of the survey according to the following parameters:

There are practically no unanswered questions;

Vague or inconsistent answers can be clarified;

Observation of the respondent ensures the fixation of both verbal responses and his direct non-verbal reactions, which enriches sociological information by receiving and taking into account the emotions and feelings of the respondents.

As a result of the foregoing, sociological data obtained through interviews are more complete, deep, versatile and reliable compared to questionnaires, where there is no live dialogue between the researcher and the respondent, since the contact is mediated by the questionnaire.

The main limitations interviewing methods are that it can be used to interview very a large number of respondents, and the number of interviewers should be as large as possible, in addition, they require special education. Added to this is a significant investment of time and money, especially for training interviewers, because different types of interviews require different sets of knowledge and skills.

Types of interview

Russian researchers highlight three typological groups according to criteria such as the degree of standardization of questions, the number of topics discussed and the number of respondents. In turn, they all have intra-group varieties. If the criterion is degree of standardization, the interview is divided into:

1. formalized (conversation according to a detailed program, questions, answer options).

2. semi-structured (when researchers identify only the main questions around which the conversation unfolds with the spontaneous inclusion of previously unplanned questions).

3. informal (that is, a longer conversation on a general program, but without specific questions).

that number, what is being discussed can be highlighted focused (an in-depth discussion of one topic) and unfocused (talk around various topics) interview. And finally, depending on number of respondents stand out individual (or personal) interview with one interviewee face to face, without outside presence, and group interview (that is, a conversation of one interviewer with several people).

Focus group discussion

Group interviews in the form of a focus group quickly emerged as a separate research method in qualitative sociology. D. Stewart and P. Shamdesani believe that they were the first to use a focused interview. which over time was reformatted into a modern focus group discussion, G. Merton and P. Lazarsfeld in 1941 to study the effectiveness of the radio. The essence of the FOM method consists in organizing a group discussion around several related and predetermined questions (no more than 10 in number) in accordance with a predetermined plan, which is conducted by a moderator. Optimal quantity FGD participants are evaluated differently by different scientists: foreign studies this kind usually involves from 6 to 10 people, their number can reach 12, but not more. Due

By this, Russian sociologists believe that the group should not be too large, because then it will become uncontrollable, or the discussion will unfold only between individual participants. At the same time, the group should not be too small to be different from an interview with one person, because the essence of the method is to identify and compare several points of view on the same range of issues. AT one study (as in our case with a conflict situation at the enterprise) 2 to 6 focus group discussions are held. The focus group lasts no more than 1.5-2 hours. For our study, it is advisable to create at least

4 focus groups, which include representatives of the conflicting parties (employees and representatives of the administration), representatives of the trade union or public organization etc. S. Grigoriev and Yu. Rastov formulate a rule: people with different views on the issues that are submitted for discussion should be invited to the same group. The moderator manages the conversation-discussion, which takes place in an arbitrary form, but according to a specific scheme. The process of conducting FGD is recorded on videotape with its subsequent processing, resulting in FOM result - the text of the entire discussion (or transcript).

Rationale for methods

A sociological research program is considered complete when it contains not only a simple list of methods for collecting primary sociological information, but also justification their choice; the connection between the methods of collecting information and the goals, objectives and hypotheses of the study was demonstrated. For example, if survey method, then it is advisable to indicate in the program that in order to solve such and such a problem and confirm such and such a hypothesis, such and such a block of questions of the questionnaire was produced. In our case, it would be appropriate to use various methods research of a conflict situation: observation, experiment, document analysis, survey, etc.; their application will make it possible to analyze the various aspects of the conflict situation in all its complexity, eliminate one-sidedness in the assessment of the conflict, deeply clarify the essence of the reasons that led to its occurrence, possible ways problem solving.

Sociological information processing programs

The program also needs to specify which computer programs primary sociological information will be processed. For example, in the case of a survey, computer processing of the information received can be carried out using two programs:

Ukrainian OCA program (i.e. software processing of sociological questionnaires compiled by A. Gorbachik, which now exists in several versions. This program was developed on the basis of the Kyiv international institute sociology at the University "Kyiv-Mohyla Academy" and it can be considered quite sufficient for the primary processing of the data obtained);

The American program SPSS (i.e., the statistical program for the social sciences. It is used in cases where it is necessary to carry out a deeper analysis of data, mainly by professional sociologists).

Sociological research is currently used very widely. They are increasingly used by management personnel. Publicists refer to them in their materials. The results of sociological surveys and experiments are heard on TV screens. Sometimes television itself organizes sociological surveys. Every year the number of sociological research being conducted increases, the circle of professional sociologists and their active volunteers, who are interested in mastering the wisdom of applied sociology, is expanding.

What is it, a tribute to fashion or an urgent requirement of the time? Undoubtedly, modern society, scientists who study it, people living in it, want to know more about the actual state of things, about the processes and changes that await them in the near future. Applied sociology helps them understand this. The application of applied sociology methods contributes to:

reflection real state social phenomena and determination of factors influencing their change;

clarification of trends in the development of social relations and finding ways and means of their improvement;

substantiation of managerial decisions and evaluation of their effectiveness;

summarizing the experience of innovation and forecasting social situations;

studying social contradictions, conflicts and development of recommendations for their overcoming;

effective control over the state of affairs in various spheres of society.

Thus, the use of sociological research contributes to a deep study of social processes and phenomena, and makes it possible to avoid speculative and superficial conclusions and assessments in the work of a wide variety of organizations and individuals.

Practice shows that tangible help can only be given by sociological research, the conduct of which is strictly subordinated to scientific requirements which is based on the experience accumulated by applied sociology. In order to conduct a methodically competent research, it is necessary to master a certain amount of knowledge about the rules for its preparation and implementation, to understand what it is able to give, and what should not be expected from it.

12.1. Phases of scientific research

The process of scientific research consists of certain phases, within which actions are taken that, to a certain extent, guarantee the truth and objectivity both in the collection of facts and in the formulation of scientific conclusions. Let's consider the main ones.

1. Definition of the subject of research, formulation of goals, objectives, initial hypotheses.

As a subject of research, as a rule, causal relationships between phenomena and processes are considered. real world. Determining the subject of research, first of all, the phenomena to be investigated are singled out, and then their connections to be studied. The study of these connections, the answer to main question set by the researcher, and constitute the purpose of the study. The goal will be achieved with a much greater probability if it is differentiated, divided into separate tasks, each of which will be, as it were, a part of the goal, or a stage on the way to achieving the goal of the study.

Then they begin to formulate the initial hypothesis (hypotheses), which the study must confirm or refute. A scientific hypothesis must meet the following requirements:

build on clear concepts;

refer to objects that can be subjected to empirical verification;

consistent with the relevant research technique.

After that, you can proceed to the next phase of the study - the development of a plan.

2. Development of a research plan.

Drawing up a research plan is a methodological part research work. It should provide methods for collecting, processing and analyzing data; substantiate the selection, distribute forces and means. Central importance in the research plan is the justification of the sample. To do this, the sociologist must clearly understand:

the size of the volume of empirical research (organization, city, region, etc.);

the amount of manpower and resources allocated for the study.

Based on this, he can determine whether the study will be continuous (that is, every member of the organization, a resident of a city, region, etc. will be interviewed) or selective. In the second case, a sociological study must meet the requirements of representativeness.

Representativeness is a property sampling frame reproduce parameters and significant elements population. In this case, the general population is understood as the total sum of all possible social objects to be studied within the framework of a given research program.

A secondary (sample) population, or sample, is a part of the objects of the general population, selected using special techniques to obtain information about the entire population as a whole.

Determining the sample is an important planning task, in solving which sociologists use statistical theory (Table 15).

Source: Mannheim J. Rig R. Political Science. Research methods. M., 1997. S. 518.

In addition to justifying the sample size, the design of the study should include the development of questionnaires and interview plans. Now you can move on to the next phase of the study - data collection.

3. Data collection.

At this stage, information is collected, on the basis of which conclusions are subsequently drawn about the relationships between phenomena and their essence is clarified. However, the collection of data in the course of the study of social phenomena encounters objective difficulties. Let's consider some of them.

A particular difficulty in collecting data on a social phenomenon is associated with their complexity, since it is necessary to pay attention to many factors influencing it and find out their significance both for the phenomenon as a whole and for its individual elements. It is very difficult to do this.

The collection of data is hampered by the fact that a person who collects information about certain social phenomena, about society, is himself integral part society. And the point is not only that people, having learned that their behavior is the subject of research, begin to behave differently, but also that the researcher himself often sees the phenomenon not as it really is, but as it is. he wants to see him.

In order to reduce these and other difficulties in the process of data collection, sociology has many methods (we will consider the main ones below).

4. Organizing and processing the collected data.

After all the necessary information has been collected about the phenomena that are the subject of the study, on the basis of which the phenomena can be objectively and fully investigated, they begin to classify the collected data.

For a classification to truly serve the purpose of organizing the collected data, it must meet the following requirements:

classification should be carried out on the basis of a certain criterion;

it must be consistent, i.e. based on one criterion or similar criteria;

the classification should be complete in order to cover as much as possible the scope of the phenomenon under study;

the classification should provide sufficient distinction between the groups into which the phenomena are distributed.

The collected and classified materials are statistically ordered and expressed in terms of various tables. The tables present in a generalized form (for example, in percentage terms) the answers to each of the questions posed.

5. Scientific explanation and verification.

Scientific explanation is the final phase of research. It includes the study of both the content, structure and functions, as well as the causes, methods of occurrence and development of the phenomena under study. To do this, it is necessary to find a typical among the phenomena under study, to separate the main from the secondary, and also to isolate the primary causes from the multitude of secondary ones.

Verification cannot be strictly separated from scientific explanation, since in the course of scientific explanation, verification of the already made conclusion about the connection between phenomena is always carried out. Validation also plays an important role when a working hypothesis is not confirmed, a new hypothesis is put forward, and new data is collected.

So, in order to conduct a sociological study, it is necessary to determine the subject of the study, formulate the goal, objectives and working hypothesis. Then develop a research plan, collect and process the data obtained. After that, you can proceed to a scientific explanation and verification of the hypothesis put forward. If it is not confirmed, the entire process of scientific research, which consists of five phases, must be repeated.

It should be remembered that the researcher is dealing with facts that are considered both as pieces of being and as pieces of knowledge. Sociological facts can be:

behavior of individuals or groups of people;

products of human activity (material and spiritual);

verbal (oral, verbal) actions of people, i.e. their judgments, assessments, etc.

Facts are collected using special tools - methods.

12.2. Basic methods of sociological research

Sociologists have in their arsenal and use all the variety of methods of scientific research. Let's consider the main ones:

1. Method of observation.

Observation is the direct recording of facts by an eyewitness. Unlike ordinary scientific observation, it has the following features:

subordinate research purposes and tasks;

has a plan, a procedure for collecting information;

observation data are recorded in diaries or protocols according to a certain system. Depending on the position of the observer, there are:

included (participatory) supervision;

simple observation, when social facts are recorded by an observer who is not a direct participant in the events.

2. Study of documentary sources.

Documentary in sociology is any information recorded in printed or handwritten text, on magnetic tape, film, photographic film, computer diskette or any other medium. Documentary sources can be classified in several ways.

in relation to the state:

official, i.e., created and approved by officially existing (registered, accredited, licensed by state bodies for a certain type of activity) organizations and individuals, as well as by state bodies themselves. Materials, resolutions, statements, minutes and transcripts of meetings, state statistics, archives of parties and organizations, financial papers, etc. can serve as official documents;

unofficial documentary sources are documents compiled by persons and organizations not authorized by the state for this type of activity;

in relation to personality:

personal, that is, directly related to a particular individual (for example, individual record cards, characteristics, questionnaires certified by a signature, diaries, letters);

impersonal, not directly related to a specific person (statistical materials, press reports);

in relation to participation in registered events of the person who compiled this document:

primary, i.e., compiled by a participant in the events or the first researcher of this phenomenon;

secondary documentary sources (obtained on the basis of primary ones).

It should be said about the problem of the reliability of documentary sources, which can be deliberately or unintentionally distorted. The reliability or unreliability of documentary sources is determined by:

the setting in which the document was created;

the purpose of the document.

The study of documentary sources is carried out using various techniques. One of the most common and quite simple of them is content analysis. Its essence lies in the translation of textual information into quantitative indicators, while semantic, qualitative and quantitative units are used. The content analysis technique was created by the American sociologist Harold Lasswell during World War II to objectively analyze newspaper and journal articles for their fascist orientation. Based on content analysis in the United States, the pro-fascist position of the True American newspaper was proved, which, despite its patriotic name, conducted fascist propaganda. An illustration of the study of documentary sources using content analysis is the table below. The purpose of the study is to choose from several applicants who could fill a vacant position (Table 16).

Similar tables can be compiled on the basis of documentary sources of all applicants. The applicant with the most points is declared the winner. Of course, before making a final decision, the personnel manager must use other methods of studying applicants.

The reliability of the information obtained through the use of content analysis is provided by:

control with the help of experts;

control by an independent criterion (observation of the control group);

re-encoding text by different encoders. 3. Method of polls.

Polls are an indispensable method of obtaining information about the subjective world of people, about public opinion. The survey method, unlike the previous ones, allows one to more or less objectively model the behavior of people. If we compare it with the two previous methods we have considered, it can be noted that it eliminates such shortcomings as the length of time for collecting data by observation, the difficulty of identifying motives and, in general, internal personal attitudes by analyzing documents. However, there are certain difficulties when using the survey method. Using the survey method, you can ask the question: “How will you behave in this or that situation?”, But it should be borne in mind that when answering such questions, people are always trying to present themselves in the most favorable light, and not at all give you an objective information about your behavior.

Sociologists in their research activities use different kinds surveys.

12.3. Types and technique of surveys

1. An interview is a conversation conducted according to a specific plan, involving direct contact between the interviewer and the respondent (respondent).

The equivalent of such a conversation is the so-called free interview - usually a long conversation not according to a strict plan, but according to an exemplary program (interview guide).

According to the depth of insight into the essence of the problems, clinical (deep) and focused interviews are distinguished. The purpose of the first is to obtain information about the internal motives, inclinations of the respondent, the second is to find out the reaction to a given impact. According to the nature of the organization, interviews are divided into:

group, which are rarely used (for example, a group conversation with a discussion);

individual, which, in turn, are divided into personal and telephone.

2. The second type of survey is a questionnaire survey, which involves a rigidly fixed order, content and form of questions, a clear indication of the form of the answer. Questionnaires can be conducted either in the form of a direct survey, which is conducted in the presence of the questionnaire, or in the form of an absentee survey.

To conduct any questionnaire survey, a questionnaire is required. What types of questions might it include?

Open question. The answer is given in free form.

Closed question. Respondents answer it either “yes” or “no”, i.e., the answer options are provided in advance.

Semi-closed question (combines the previous two).

There is also such a kind of questionnaire survey as a lightning survey (poll-vote, probing of public opinion). It is used in public opinion surveys and usually contains only 3-4 questions related to the main (of interest) information, plus several questions related to the demographic and social characteristics of the respondents.

Questionnaires are used to study a variety of problems. Therefore, they are very diverse in their subject matter and content, for example:

event profiles;

aimed at clarifying value orientations;

statistical questionnaires;

timing of time budgets, etc.

It should be noted that the depth and completeness of the information reflected in the questionnaire, significantly depend on common culture and outlook of the respondent.

The reliability of information can be determined using so-called trap questions. For example, in one of the regions of Russia, during a questionnaire survey of readers, the following trap question was asked: “Did you like the book by science fiction writer N. Yakovlev “The Long Twilight of Mars”?” And although such a book and writer does not exist, nevertheless, 10% of the respondents "read" this book and most of them "did not like" it.

The English sociologist Eysenck uses the so-called "lie scale" - a series of questions that help expose insincere respondents. He imperceptibly intersperses these questions in the questionnaire. Among them are such as:

Are you completely free from all prejudices?

Do you like to brag sometimes?

Do you always answer emails?

Have you ever told a lie?

Individuals who fall into the "trap" are suspected of insincerity, and their profiles are not taken into account when processing the collected data.

Concluding the consideration of survey methods, let us dwell at least briefly on the technique of conducting them.

An ideal interview resembles a lively and relaxed conversation between two people who are equally interested in it, however, according to the English sociologist W. Good, this is a pseudo-conversation, since the interviewer acts as a professional researcher imitating the role of an equal interlocutor. His task is to collect information about his "interlocutor". To do this, he uses certain techniques.

Psychological contact with the respondent provides many advantages. Obtaining inaccessible information through a questionnaire does not provide the depth and completeness that is achieved through personal communication during an interview. On the other hand, the reliability of the data is higher in the case of a questionnaire survey.

During the interview, there is a danger of the interviewer's influence on the respondent, since the first one drives the second one under certain type personality and voluntarily or involuntarily begins to ask appropriate questions. It is necessary to strive to overcome stereotyping by playing different hypotheses of the respondent's perception.

When conducting an interview, the following simple rules should be observed:

it is best to start a conversation with a neutral topic that does not relate to the problems that will be raised in the interview;

act relaxed and natural;

do not put pressure on the respondent;

the rate of speech "adjust" to the pace of the respondent's speech;

remember that the best result is obtained when the interviewer and the respondent are about the same age and of the opposite sex;

try to create an atmosphere psychological comfort(talk while sitting, indoors, in the absence of outsiders);

it is better when the conversation is led by one, and the notes by the other; the presence of a notebook, recording equipment constrains both the respondent and the interviewer.

In the very general view The interview process might look like this:

establishing contact (introducing yourself, getting to know each other);

consolidation of contact (show the importance of the information received, interest in it; respect for the respondent);

move on to the main interview questions.

In addition to sociological research methods proper, sociology also uses other methods borrowed, for example, from psychology, such as psychological tests and sociometry. Thus, to collect the necessary information, sociology uses both sociological methods (observation, study of documents, surveys), and methods of psychology and other sciences.

With these methods sociologists collect social facts. However, sociological research does not end with the collection of information. Its next stage (phase) is the analysis of empirical data.

12.4. Analysis of empirical data

At this stage, they use special methods analysis. These methods of analysis are:

grouping and typology of information;

search for relationships between variables;

social experiment.

Let's take a closer look at these methods.

1. Method of grouping and typology of information.

Grouping is the classification or ordering of data according to one attribute. The linking of facts into the system is carried out in accordance with the scientific hypothesis and the tasks to be solved.

For example, if you have to find out how the level of knowledge and experience affects the ability of people to manage, then the information collected can be grouped according to the criteria for the quality of education and term of work.

Typologization is the search for stable combinations of the properties of social objects considered in several dimensions at the same time.

2. Search for relationships between variables.

We will illustrate this method of analysis with a specific example. Suppose, during the rationalization work in the company, certain data were collected. If you summarize them in a table, you can see a certain relationship between the percentage of participation in rationalization work (the first variable) and educational level, qualification (second variable) (Table 17).

3. Sociological experiment.

The sociological experiment is most often seen as a method of testing scientific hypothesis. For example, the famous Hawthorne experiment, when the dependence of the illumination of the workplace and labor productivity was tested (for more details, see pp. 144-145). Despite the fact that the hypothesis was not confirmed, the experiment discovered a completely new effect - the human factor of production. This is an example of the so-called natural experiment. However, it is not always possible to conduct a natural experiment. For example, no one will decide on such a method, exploring social relations operators in the liquidation of a nuclear accident. In such difficult situations, sociologists conduct a thought experiment - they operate with information about past events and predict their possible consequences.

These are the main methods of sociological research and the ways in which they are applied.

Questions for self-control

Name the phases of scientific research.

What requirements must a scientific hypothesis satisfy?

What does the study plan include?

What are the objective difficulties of collecting data in sociological research?

What are the requirements for scientific classification?

What scientific explanation and verification of sociological research?

What are social facts?

List the main methods of sociological research.

What is scientific observation?

Describe the study of documentary sources as a method of sociological research.

What is content analysis?

What types of polls do you know?

What is open and closed question?

How is the accuracy of information verified in surveys?

List the main methods of conducting a survey.

What is grouping and typology of information?

Name the types of sociological experiments.

Literature

Batygin G. S. Lectures on the methodology of sociological research. M., 1995.

Voronov Yu. P. Methods of collecting information in sociological research. M., 1974.

Zdravomyslov A.G. Methodology and procedure of sociological research. M., 1969.

Ivanov VN Actual problems of sociological research at the present stage. M., 1974.

How to conduct a sociological study / Ed. M. K. Gorshkova, F. E. Sheregi. M., 1990.

Markovich D. General sociology. Rostov, 1993. Ch. 2.

Yadov V. A. Sociological research: methodology, program, methods. M., 1988.

Essence of sociological research. Public life constantly poses many questions to a person, which can only be answered with the help of scientific research, in particular sociological. However, not every study of a social object is properly sociological research. Sociological research - this is a system of logically consistent methodological, methodological and organizational procedures, subject to a single goal: to obtain accurate and objective data about the studied social object, phenomenon and process. Sociological research should be based on the use of special sociology-specific scientific methods, techniques and procedures.

For a clear and precise understanding of the essence of the process of sociological research, it is necessary to understand the system and essence of the concepts that are most often used in the process of sociological research.

Methodology - the doctrine of the principles of construction, forms and methods of scientific knowledge and the transformation of reality. It is divided into general, applied by any science, and private, reflecting the specifics of the knowledge of a particular science.

Method of sociological research is a way of constructing and substantiating a system of knowledge. In sociology as a method are and general scientific theoretical methods, (abstraction, comparative, typological, systemic, etc.), and specific empirical methods (mathematical and statistical, methods of collecting sociological information: survey, observation, analysis of documents, etc.).

Any sociological research involves several stages :

Study preparation. This stage consists in considering the goal, drawing up a program and plan, determining the means and timing of the study, as well as choosing methods for analyzing and processing sociological information.

Collection of primary sociological information. Collection of non-generalized information in various forms (records of researchers, answers of respondents, extracts from documents, etc.).

Training collected information to the processing and actual processing of the information received.

Analysis of the processed information, preparation of a scientific report based on the results of the study, as well as the formulation of conclusions, the development of recommendations and proposals for the customer.

Types of sociological research.

According to the way of knowing, according to the nature of the obtained sociological knowledge, they distinguish:

theoretical studies . A feature of theoretical research is that the researcher does not work with the object (phenomenon) itself, but with concepts that reflect given object(phenomenon);

empirical research . The main content of such studies is the collection and analysis of actual, real data about the object (phenomenon).

By using end results distinguish between studies:

Most empirical research has applied character , i.e. the obtained results find practical application in various spheres of public life.

Sociologists also fundamental research , which

fundamental - aimed at the development of science. These studies are carried out at the initiative of scientists, departments, universities and are carried out by academic institutions to verify theoretical hypotheses and concepts.

applied - aimed at solving practical tasks. Most often, the customers of empirical research are commercial structures, political parties, government agencies, and local governments.

Depending on the repeatability of studies, there are:

one-time - allow you to get ideas about the state, position, statics of any social object, phenomenon or process at the moment;

repeated - are used to identify the dynamics, changes in their development.

By the nature of the goals and objectives set, as well as in terms of the width and depth of the analysis of a social phenomenon or process, sociological research is divided into:

intelligence (pilot, probing). With the help of such a study, it is possible to solve very limited problems. In fact, this is a “running in” of the toolkit. Toolkit in sociology, documents are called, with the help of which the collection of primary information is carried out. These include a questionnaire, an interview form, a questionnaire, a card for recording the results of observation.

descriptive. A descriptive study is carried out according to a complete, sufficiently developed program and on the basis of proven tools. Descriptive research is usually used when the object is a relatively large community of people with different characteristics. This may be the population of a city, district, region, where people of different age categories, level of education, marital status, financial support, etc.

analytical. Such research aims to in-depth study phenomena when it is necessary not only to describe the structure and find out what determines its main quantitative and qualitative parameters. According to the methods used to collect sociological information, the analytical study is complex. In it, complementing each other, can be used various forms questioning, analysis of documents, observation.

Program of sociological research. Any sociological research begins with the development of its program. The program of sociological research can be considered in two aspects. On the one hand, it is the main document of scientific research, by which one can judge the degree of scientific validity of a particular sociological study. On the other hand, the program is a certain methodological model of research, which fixes the methodological principles, the purpose and objectives of the study, as well as ways to achieve them.

Sociological Research Program is a scientific document that reflects a logically substantiated scheme for the transition from theoretical understanding of the problem to the tools of a specific empirical study. The program of sociological research is the main document of scientific research, containing the main methodological and methodological research procedures.

1. Formulation of the problem situation . The reason for conducting a sociological study is a contradiction that has actually arisen in the development of a social system, between its subsystems or individual elements of these subsystems, such contradictions constitute essence of the problem.

2. Definition of the object and subject of research. The formulation of the problem inevitably entails the definition of the object of study. An object - this is a phenomenon or process to which sociological research is directed (the area of ​​social reality, the activities of people, the people themselves). The object must be the carrier of the contradiction. The object must be characterized by:

clear designations of the phenomenon, according to such parameters as professional affiliation (industry); spatial limitation (region, city, village); functional orientation (industrial, political, household);

a certain time limit;

possibility of its quantitative measurement.

Subject – that side of the object that is directly subject to study. Usually the subject contains the central question of the problem, connected with the assumption of the possibility of discovering a regularity or a central tendency of the contradiction under study.

After substantiating the problems, defining the object and subject, it is possible to formulate the purpose and objectives of the study, the basic concepts are defined and interpreted.

Target research - the general direction of the study, the project of action, which determine the nature and systemic order of various acts and operations.

The task of the study is this is a set of specific targets aimed at analyzing and solving a problem, i.e. what needs to be done specifically to achieve the goal of the study.

Interpretation of basic concepts – it is a procedure for searching for empirical values ​​of the main theoretical provisions of the study, a process of transition to simpler and fixed components.

The sociologist builds a preliminary explanation of the problem, i.e. formulates hypotheses. Hypothesis of sociological research ovaniya - a scientific assumption about the structure of social objects, about the nature and essence of the connection between social phenomena.

Hypothesis function: obtaining new scientific statements that improve or generalize existing knowledge.

After solving the problems related to the implementation of the methodological section of the program, they proceed to the methodological section. The creation of a methodological section of the program contributes to the concretization of the entire sociological study, as well as the transition from methodology to the practical solution of the tasks set. In the structure of the methodological section of the program, the following components are distinguished: the definition of the population under study or the construction of a sample, the rationale for the methods and techniques for collecting sociological information, the description of the methods of analysis and the logical scheme of data processing, the preparation of a working research plan, the development of a strategic research plan.

Sampling method in sociology. At present, not a single mass sociological survey is complete without the use of sampling. This is an extremely important stage in the development of the methodological section of the research program.

The sample did not always play such a role in sociological research. Only since the 1930s the scale of surveys conducted began to expand up to nationwide, which entailed a significant increase in material costs for surveys. The basic principle of surveys conducted at that time was simple: the more respondents were surveyed, the better and more accurate the result would be. However, starting from the first half of the 30s of the 20th century, the study of public opinion began to be carried out using strict methods scientific analysis. At this time, the theory of probability arose and began to actively develop. math statistics. Even then, the researchers found that, based on the laws of probability theory, it is possible to form an idea of ​​the whole from a relatively small sample population, and with a fairly high degree of accuracy.

In 1933, an unknown at that time researcher J. Gallup conducted a series of experimental sample surveys in the United States to study the readability of newspapers and magazines. In 1934, he tested his methods on a larger scale, during the elections to the US Congress, where he accurately predicted the victory of the Democrats. In 1935, he created the American Gallup Institute. In 1936, on the basis of his selective polls, he predicted the victory in the presidential election of T. Roosevelt. The sample size was 1500 people. Since 1936, the sampling method has also been actively used in market research.

The main idea of ​​a sample survey is that if there is a set of independent random variables, then it can be judged by a relatively small part. For example, a box contains 10,000 equally red and green balls. If you mix them up and randomly pull out 400, it turns out that by color, they were distributed approximately equally. If this operation is repeated many times, the result will be almost unchanged. Statistics allows you to set the percentage of inaccuracy, which depends on the sample size.

The most important thing in the sampling method is that the structure of the entire studied population is taken into account. Meanwhile, it must be borne in mind that a sample survey is a poll with an error. In most studies, an error of 5% is quite acceptable. The larger the sample size, the smaller the error.

Sampling method research allows to draw a conclusion about the nature of the distribution of the studied characteristics population(a set of elements that are the object of sociological research.) on the basis of consideration of only some of its parts, called the sampling set, or sample. Sample population – this is a reduced copy of the general population, or its micromodel, selected according to strictly specified rules and containing all its most important features and characteristics as a whole. The property of a sample population to recreate the characteristics of the general population is called representativeness.

Let us consider the main methods of selecting a population in a sample, which determine the typology, or species diversity of the sampling method.

1. Random (probability) sampling – it is a sample constructed in such a way that any person or object within the general population has an equal opportunity to be selected for analysis. Thus, this is a stricter definition of randomness than the one we use in everyday life, but it is almost the same as choosing by lottery.

Types of probability sampling:

simple random - built using a table of random numbers;

systematic - carried out through an interval in the list of objects;

serial - units random selection are certain nests, groups (families, collectives, residential areas, etc.);

multi-stage - random, in several stages, where the unit of selection changes at each stage;

2. Non-random ( targeted) sample – this is a selection method in which it is impossible to calculate in advance the probability of each element falling into the composition of the sample population. With this approach, it is impossible to calculate the representativeness of the sample, so sociologists prefer a probabilistic sample. At the same time, situations often arise when a non-random sample is the only possible option.

Types of non-random sampling:

purposeful - typical elements are selected according to established criteria;

quota - is built as a model that reproduces the structure of the general population in the form of quotas for the distribution of features of the studied objects. Most often, this takes into account gender, age, education, employment;

spontaneous - a sample of the “first comer”, where the criteria are not defined (an example is a regular mail survey of TV viewers, readers of newspapers or magazines. In this case, it is practically impossible to indicate in advance the structure of the sample, i.e. those respondents who fill out and send questionnaires by mail Therefore, the conclusions of such a study can be extended only to a certain population).

Each of the types sampling method different levels of accuracy, has its own specific features, which allows you to optimally solve specific problems of sociological research.

Methods and means of collecting sociological information. When collecting primary data, four main methods are used:

Interview (questionnaire or interview);

Document Analysis (qualitative and quantitative);

Observation (not included and included);

Experiment (scientific and practical).

Interview - a sociological method of obtaining information, in which respondents (people who are being interviewed) are asked in written or oral form specially selected questions and are asked to answer them.

The survey is the most common type of sociological research and at the same time the most widely used method of collecting primary information. It collects from 70% to 90% of all sociological data.

There are two types of sociological survey:

1. Questioning. During the survey, the respondent himself fills out the questionnaire with or without the presence of the questionnaire. The survey can be individual or group. In the form of a survey, it can also be full-time and part-time. The most common forms of the latter are mail surveys and newspaper surveys.

2. Interviewing. It involves direct communication between the interviewer and the respondents. The interviewer asks questions and records the answers. According to the form of conducting it can be direct or indirect, for example, by telephone.

Depending on the source of information, there are:

1. Mass polls. The source of information is representatives of large social groups(ethnic, religious, professional, etc.).

2. Specialized (expert) surveys. The main source of information is competent persons (experts) who have the professional and theoretical knowledge necessary for a researcher, and life experience that allows them to make authoritative conclusions.

The difference between a sociological survey and other surveys:

The first distinguishing feature is the number of respondents (hundreds and thousands of people are interviewed from sociologists and get a public opinion, and the rest of the polls interview one or more people and get a personal opinion).

The second distinguishing feature is reliability and objectivity. It is closely related to the first: by interviewing hundreds and thousands, the sociologist gets the opportunity to process the data mathematically. He averages various opinions and as a result receives much more reliable information than, for example, a journalist.

T third distinguishing feature- the purpose of the survey is to expand scientific knowledge, enrich science, clarify typical empirical situations (in sociology), and not reveal individual characteristics and deviations (in journalism, medicine, investigation). The scientific facts obtained by sociologists are universal and have a universal character.

Document analysis. A document in sociology is a specially created object designed to transmit or store information.

The range of sociological documents reflecting various aspects of social life is so wide that any empirical sociological research must begin with an analysis of the information available on the problem of interest to the researcher.

According to the form of fixation, documents are:

1. Written documents- these are archive materials, statistical reporting, scientific publications; press, personal documents (letters, autobiographies, memoirs, diaries, etc.).

2. Iconographic documents- these are works of fine art (paintings, engravings, sculptures), as well as films, video and photographic documents.

3. Phonetic documents- these are discs, tape recordings, gramophone records. They are interesting as a reproduction of past events.

There are two main types of documentation analysis:

Traditional Analysis- this is an interpretation of the content of the document, its interpretation. It is based on the mechanism of understanding the text. Traditional analysis allows you to cover the deep, hidden sides of the content of the document. Weak point this method is subjective.

Formalized analysis- quantitative method of document analysis (content analysis). The essence of this method is to find such easily calculated features, features, properties of the document (for example, the frequency of the use of certain terms), which would necessarily reflect certain essential aspects of the content. Then the content becomes measurable, accessible to exact computational operations. The results of the analysis become sufficiently objective.

Observation in sociological research, it is a method of collecting primary information about the object under study by direct perception and direct registration of all facts relating to the object under study.

Surveillance is rarely the main method of collecting social information. It is usually used along with other methods and serves specific purposes.

Depending on the degree of participation of the observer in the studied social situation, there are:

1. Non-included (external) surveillance. The researcher or his assistants are outside the studied object. They observe ongoing processes from the outside, do not interfere in their course, do not ask any questions - they simply register the course of events.

2. Included Surveillance, in which the observer is directly involved in the process being studied to some extent, is in contact with the observed people and takes part in their activities.

Experiment in sociology - a way of obtaining information about an object as a result of the impact on it of certain controlled and regulated factors. According to the specifics of the task, there are:

research experiment. In the course of this experiment, a hypothesis is tested that contains new information of a scientific nature that has not yet found its sufficient confirmation or has not been proven at all.

2. Practical experiment- includes numerous processes of experimentation in the field of social relations. This refers to the processes of experimentation that take place in the course, for example, of improving the system of education and training.

The division of experiments into scientific research and practical is conditional, since a practical experiment often allows you to obtain new scientific information, and a scientific experiment ends with practical recommendations in a particular area of ​​public life.

Sociology, unlike other social sciences, actively uses empirical methods: questionnaires, interviews, observation, experiment, analysis of statistical data and documents. Sociological research- this is a process consisting of logically consistent methodological, methodological and organizational and technical procedures, connected by a single goal - obtaining reliable data on the phenomenon under study for subsequent practical application.

There are three main types of sociological research: intelligence (probe, pilot), descriptive and analytical.

intelligence research- this is the simplest type of sociological analysis that allows you to solve limited problems. In fact, when using this type, there is a test of tools (methodological documents): questionnaires, questionnaires, cards, study of documents, etc.

The program of such a study is simplified, as is the toolkit. The surveyed populations are small - from 20 to 100 people.

Intelligence research, as a rule, precedes a deep study of the problem. In the course of it, goals, hypotheses, tasks, questions and their formulation are specified.

Descriptive research is more complex view sociological analysis. With its help, they study empirical information, which gives a relatively holistic view of the social phenomenon under study. Object of analysis- a large social group, for example, labor collective big enterprise.

In a descriptive study, one or more methods of collecting empirical data may be applied. The combination of methods increases the reliability and completeness of information, allows you to draw deeper conclusions and substantiate recommendations.

The most serious type of sociological research is analytical research. It not only describes the elements of the phenomenon or process under study, but also allows you to find out the reasons underlying it. It studies the totality of many factors that justify a particular phenomenon. Analytical studies, as a rule, complete exploratory and descriptive studies, during which information was collected that gives a preliminary idea of ​​certain elements of the social phenomenon or process being studied.

In a sociological study, three main stages can be distinguished:

1) development of the program and methods of research;

2) conducting an empirical study;

3) processing and analysis of data, drawing conclusions, drawing up a report.

All of these steps are extremely important and require special attention. The first stage will be discussed in detail in the next lecture. The second stage depends on the chosen type of sociological research and methods. Therefore, let us dwell in more detail on the stage of compiling a report on a sociological study.

The results of the analysis of the information obtained in the course of an empirical study are reflected, as a rule, in a report that contains data of interest to the customer. The structure of the report on the results of the study most often corresponds to the logic of the operationalization of the main concepts, but the sociologist, preparing this document, follows the path of deduction, gradually reducing sociological data into indicators. The number of sections in the report usually corresponds to the number of hypotheses formulated in the research program. Initially, a report is given on the main hypothesis.

Typically, the first section of the report contains brief rationale the relevance of the social problem under study, the characteristics of the research parameters (sample, methods of collecting information, the number of participants, the timing, etc.). The second section characterizes the object of study according to socio-demographic characteristics (gender, age, social status and etc.). Subsequent sections include a search for answers to the hypotheses put forward in the program.

Sections of the report can be divided into paragraphs if necessary. It is advisable to end each paragraph with conclusions. The conclusion of the report should be presented in the form practical advice based on general conclusions. The report can be presented on 30-40 or 200-300 pages. It depends on the amount of material, goals and objectives of the study.

The appendix to the report contains methodological and methodological documents research: program, plan, tools, instructions, etc. In addition, tables, graphs, individual opinions, answers to open questions that were not included in the report are most often taken out in the application. This can be used in future research programs.

2. Program of sociological research

The program of sociological research is one of the most important sociological documents, which contains the methodological, methodological and procedural foundations for the study of a social object. A sociological research program can be viewed as a theory and methodology for a specific study of a particular empirical object or phenomenon, which is the theoretical and methodological basis for the procedures for all stages of research, collection, processing and analysis of information.

It performs three functions: methodological, methodological and organizational.

The methodological function of the program allows you to clearly define the issues under study, form the goals and objectives of the study, determine and conduct preliminary analysis the object and subject of the study, to establish the relationship of this study to previously performed or parallel studies on this issue.

The methodological function of the program makes it possible to develop a general logical research plan, on the basis of which the research cycle is carried out: theory - facts - theory.

The organizational function ensures the development of a clear system of division of responsibilities between the members of the research team, allows you to ensure the effective dynamics of the research process.

The program of sociological research as a scientific document must meet a number of necessary requirements. It reflects a certain sequence, phasing of sociological research. Each stage - a relatively independent part of the cognitive process - is characterized by specific tasks, the solution of which is connected with the general goal of the study. All components of the program are logically connected, subject to the general meaning of the search. The principle of strict phasing puts forward special requirements for the structure and content of the program.

The sociological research program consists of two main parts: methodological and procedural. Ideally, the program contains the following sections: problem statement, goals and objectives of the study, object and subject of study, interpretation of basic concepts, research methods, research plan.

The relationship between the problem and the problem situation depends on the type of research, on the scale and depth of the sociological study of the object. Determining the object of empirical research involves obtaining spatio-temporal and qualitative-quantitative indicators. In a real-life object, some property is distinguished, defined as its side, which is determined by the nature of the problem, thereby designating the subject of research. Subject means the boundaries within which a particular object is studied in this case. Next, you need to set the goals and objectives of the study.

Target focuses on the end result. Goals can be theoretical and applied. Theoretical - to give a description or explanation of the social program. Realization of the theoretical goal leads to an increase in scientific knowledge. Applied goals are aimed at developing practical recommendations for further scientific development.

Tasks- separate parts, research steps that contribute to the achievement of the goal. Setting goals means, to some extent, a plan of action to achieve the goal. Tasks formulate questions that must be answered in order to achieve the goal. Tasks can be basic and private. The main ones are a means of solving the main research questions. Private - to test side hypotheses, solve some methodological issues.

In order to use a single conceptual apparatus in the program of sociological research, the main concepts are defined, their empirical interpretation and operationalization, during which the elements of the main concept are detected according to strictly specified criteria that reflect the qualitative aspects of the subjects of research.

The whole process of logical analysis is reduced to the translation of theoretical, abstract concepts into operational ones, with the help of which tools are compiled for collecting empirical data.

Preliminary system analysis object is the modeling of the problem under study, dividing it into elements, detailing the problem situation. This allows you to more clearly present the subject of research.

An important place in the development of the research program is the formulation of hypotheses, which concretizes its main methodological tool.

Hypothesis- this is a probabilistic assumption about the causes of the phenomenon, the relationship between the studied social phenomena, the structure of the problem under study, possible approaches to solving social problems.

The hypothesis gives the direction of the research, influences the choice of research methods and the formulation of questions.

The study must confirm, reject or correct the hypothesis.

There are several types of hypotheses:

1) main and output;

2) basic and non-basic;

3) primary and secondary;

4) descriptive (assumption about the properties of objects, about the nature of the relationship between individual elements) and explanatory (assumption about the degree of closeness of relationships and causal relationships in the studied social processes and phenomena).

Basic requirements for the formulation of hypotheses. Hypothesis:

1) should not contain concepts that have not received an empirical interpretation, otherwise it is unverifiable;

2) should not contradict previously established scientific facts;

3) should be simple;

4) should be verifiable at a given level of theoretical knowledge, methodological equipment and practical research capabilities.

The main difficulty in formulating hypotheses lies in the need to comply with their goals and objectives of the study, which contain clear and precise concepts.

The procedural part of the program of sociological research includes the methodology and technique of research, i.e., a description of the method of collecting, processing and analyzing information from sociological research.

Empirical studies are carried out on a sample population.

The type and method of determining the sample directly depends on the type of study, its goals and hypotheses.

The main requirement for samples in an analytical study, i.e., representativeness: the ability of a sample population to represent the main characteristics of the general population.

The sampling method is based on two principles: the relationship and interdependence of the qualitative characteristics of the object and the study, and the legitimacy of the conclusions as a whole when considering its part, which in its structure is a micromodel of the whole, i.e., the general population.

Depending on the specifics of the object, the choice of methods for collecting sociological information is carried out. The description of information collection methods involves the rationale for the selected methods, fixing the main elements of the toolkit and techniques work with them. The description of information processing methods implies an indication of how this will be done using application computer programs.

After drawing up the research program, the organization of the field research begins.

The program of sociological research is a document that organizes and directs research activities in a certain sequence, outlining the ways of its implementation. The preparation of a sociological research program requires highly qualified and time costs. The success of empirical sociological research largely depends on the quality of the program.

3. Methods of sociological research

Method- the main way of collecting, processing or analyzing data. Technique - a set of special techniques for the effective use of a particular method. Methodology- a concept that denotes a set of techniques associated with this method, including private operations, their sequence and relationship. Procedure- the sequence of all operations, the general system of actions and the method of organizing the study.

As the main methods used in social empirical research, the following can be distinguished.

Observation– purposeful perception phenomena of objective reality, during which the researcher gains knowledge about the external aspects, states and relations of the objects that are being studied. Forms and methods of fixing observation data can be different: an observation form or diary, a photo, film or television camera, and other technical means. A feature of observation as a method of collecting information is the ability to analyze versatile impressions about the object under study.

There is the possibility of fixing the nature of behavior, facial expressions, gestures, expression of emotions. There are two main types of observation: included and non-included.

If the behavior of people is studied by a sociologist as a member of a group, then he conducts participant observation. If a sociologist studies behavior from the outside, then he conducts uninvolved observation.

The main object of observation is both the behavior of individuals and social groups, and the conditions of their activity.

Experiment- a method, the purpose of which is to test certain hypotheses, the results of which have direct access to practice.

The logic of its implementation is to follow the direction, magnitude and stability of changes in the characteristics of interest to the researcher by choosing a certain experimental group (groups) and placing it in an unusual experimental situation (under the influence of a certain factor).

There are field and laboratory experiments, linear and parallel. When selecting participants in the experiment, methods of pairwise selection or structural identification, as well as random selection, are used.

The planning and logic of the experiment includes the following procedures:

1) the choice of the object used as the experimental and control groups;

2) selection of control, factor and neutral features;

3) determining the conditions of the experiment and creating an experimental situation;

4) formulating hypotheses and defining tasks;

5) the choice of indicators and a method for monitoring the progress of the experiment.

Document Analysis one of the widely used and effective methods collection of primary information.

The purpose of the study is to search for indicators that indicate the presence in the document of a topic that is significant for analysis and reveal the content of textual information. The study of documents allows you to identify the trend and dynamics of changes and development of certain phenomena and processes.

The source of sociological information is usually text messages contained in protocols, reports, resolutions, decisions, publications, letters, etc.

A special role is played by social statistical information, which in most cases is used for the characteristics and specific historical development of the phenomenon or process being studied.

An important feature of information is the aggregated nature, which means correlation with a certain group as a whole.

The selection of sources of information depends on the research program, and methods of specific or random selection may be used.

Distinguish:

1) external analysis of documents, in which the circumstances of the occurrence of documents are studied; their historical and social context;

2) internal analysis, during which the content of the document is studied, everything that the text of the source testifies to, and those objective processes and phenomena that the document reports about.

The study of documents is carried out by qualitative (traditional) or formalized qualitative and quantitative analysis (content analysis).

Interview- method of collecting sociological information - provides for:

1) oral or written appeal of the researcher to certain population people (respondents) with questions, the content of which represents the problem under study at the level of empirical indicators;

2) registration and statistical processing received answers, their theoretical interpretation.

In each case, the survey involves addressing the participant directly and is aimed at those aspects of the process that are little or not amenable to direct observation at all. This method sociological research is the most popular and widespread.

The main types of survey, depending on the written or oral form communication with respondents are questionnaires and interviews. They are based on a set of questions that are offered to respondents and the answers to which form an array of primary data. Questions are asked to respondents through a questionnaire or a questionnaire.

Interview- a purposeful conversation, the purpose of which is to get answers to the questions provided for by the research program. The advantages of an interview over a questionnaire: the ability to take into account the level of culture of the respondent, his attitude to the topic of the survey and individual problems, expressed intonation, to flexibly change the wording of questions, taking into account the personality of the respondent and the content of previous answers, to put the necessary additional questions.

Despite some flexibility, the interview is conducted in accordance with a specific program and research plan, in which all the main questions and options for additional questions are recorded.

The following types of interviews can be distinguished:

2) according to the technique of conducting (free and standardized);

3) according to the procedure (intensive, focused).

Questionnaires are classified according to the content and design of the questions asked. Distinguish between open-ended questions, when respondents speak in free form. In a closed questionnaire, all answers are provided in advance. Semi-closed questionnaires combine both procedures.

There are three main stages in the preparation and conduct of a sociological survey.

At the first stage, the theoretical prerequisites for the survey are determined:

1) goals and objectives;

2) problem;

3) object and subject;

4) operational definition of initial theoretical concepts, finding empirical indicators.

During the second stage, the sample is justified, the following is determined:

1) the general population (those strata and groups of the population to which the results of the survey are supposed to be extended);

2) rules for the search and selection of respondents at the last stage of the sample.

At the third stage, the questionnaire (questionnaire) is substantiated:

2) substantiation of the questionnaire regarding the possibilities of the surveyed population as a source of the required information;

3) standardization of requirements and instructions for questionnaires and interviewers on organizing and conducting a survey, establishing contact with a respondent, registering answers;

4) provision of preliminary conditions for processing the results on a computer;

5) ensuring organizational requirements for the survey.

Depending on the source (carrier) of primary information, mass and specialized surveys are distinguished. In a mass survey, the main source of information is representatives of various social groups whose activities are directly related to the subject of analysis. Participants in mass surveys are called respondents.

In specialized surveys, the main source of information is competent persons whose professional or theoretical knowledge and life experience allow authoritative conclusions to be drawn.

The participants in such surveys are experts who are able to give a balanced assessment of the issues of interest to the researcher.

Hence, another widely used name in sociology for such surveys is the method of expert assessments.

Sociological research is a kind of system of organizational and technical procedures, thanks to which one can obtain scientific knowledge about social phenomena. This is a system of theoretical and empirical procedures that are collected in the methods of sociological research.

Research types

Before proceeding to consider the main methods of sociological research, it is worth examining their varieties. They are divided into three large groups: by goals, by duration and depth of analysis.

According to the goals, sociological research is divided into fundamental and applied. Fundamental define and study social trends and patterns community development. The results of these studies help solve complex problems. In turn, applied studies study specific objects and solve certain problems that are not of a global nature.

All methods of sociological research differ from each other in their duration. Yes, there are:

• Long-term studies that last more than 3 years.
• Medium-term validity period from six months to 3 years.
• Short-term last from 2 to 6 months.
• Express studies are carried out very quickly - from 1 week to 2 months maximum.

Also, studies are distinguished by their depth, while dividing into search, descriptive and analytical.

Exploratory research is considered the simplest, they are used when the subject of research has not yet been studied. They have a simplified toolkit and program, most often used in the preliminary stages of larger studies in order to set guidelines on what and where to collect information.

Through descriptive research, scientists gain a holistic view of the phenomena being studied. They are conducted based on the full program of the chosen method of sociological research, using detailed tools and a large number of people to conduct surveys.

Analytical studies describe social phenomena and their causes.

About methodology and methods

Reference books often contain such a concept as methodology and methods of sociological research. For those who are far from science, it is worth explaining one fundamental difference between them. Methods are methods of using organizational and technical procedures designed to collect sociological information. Methodology is the totality of all possible research methods. Thus, the methodology and methods of sociological research can be considered related concepts, but by no means identical.

All methods that are known in sociology can be divided into two large groups: methods that are designed to collect data, and those that are responsible for their processing.

In turn, the methods of sociological research responsible for collecting data are divided into quantitative and qualitative. Qualitative methods help the scientist understand the essence of the phenomenon that has occurred, while quantitative methods show how massively it has spread.

The family of quantitative methods of sociological research includes:

• Poll.
• Content analysis of documents.
• Interview.
• observation.
• Experiment.

Qualitative methods of sociological research are focus groups, case studies. It also includes unstructured interviews and ethnographic research.

As for the methods of analysis of sociological research, they include all kinds of statistical methods, such as ranking or scaling. To be able to apply statistics, sociologists use a special software such as OSA or SPSS.

opinion poll

The first and main method of sociological research is considered to be a social survey. A survey is a method of collecting information about an object under study during a survey or interview.

With the help of a sociological survey, you can get information that is not always displayed in documentary sources or cannot be noticed during the experiment. A survey is resorted to when the necessary and only source of information is a person. Verbal information obtained through this method is considered more reliable than any other. It is easier to analyze and turn into quantitative indicators.

Another advantage of this method is that it is universal. During the interview, the interviewer records the motives and results of the individual's activities. This allows you to get the information that is not able to give any of the methods of sociological research. In sociology great importance has such a thing as the reliability of information - this is when the respondent gives the same answers to the same questions. However, under different circumstances, a person can answer in different ways, so how the interviewer knows how to take into account all conditions and influence them is of great importance. It is necessary to maintain in a stable state as many factors that affect reliability as possible.

Each begins with an adaptation phase, when the respondent receives a certain motivation to answer. This phase consists of a greeting and the first few questions. The content of the questionnaire, its purpose and the rules for completing it are explained to the respondent beforehand. The second stage is the achievement of the goal, that is, the collection of basic information. During the survey, especially if the questionnaire is very long, the respondent's interest in the task may fade. Therefore, the questionnaire often uses questions whose content is interesting for the subject, but may be absolutely useless for research.

The last stage of the poll is the completion of the work. At the end of the questionnaire, easy questions are usually written, most often this role is played by the demographic map. This method helps to relieve tension, and the respondent will be more loyal to the interviewer. After all, as practice shows, if you do not take into account the condition of the subject, then the majority of respondents refuse to answer questions already in the middle of the questionnaire.

Content analysis of documents

Also to sociological methods research refers to the analysis of documents. In terms of popularity, this technique is second only to opinion polls, but in some areas of research, it is content analysis that is considered the main one.

Content analysis of documents is widespread in the sociology of politics, law, civil movements, etc. Very often, by examining documents, scientists derive new hypotheses, which are later tested by a survey method.

A document is a means of assuring information about facts, events or phenomena of objective reality. When using documents, it is worth considering the experience and traditions of a particular field, as well as related humanities. During the analysis, it is necessary to be critical of the information, this will help to correctly assess its objectivity.

Documents are classified according to different features. Depending on the ways of fixing information, they are divided into written, phonetic, iconographic. If we take into account the authorship, then the documents are official and personal origin. Motives also influence the creation of documents. So, provoked and unprovoked materials are distinguished.

Content analysis is the precise study of the content of a text array in order to determine or measure the social trends described in these arrays. This is a specific method of scientific and cognitive activity and sociological research. It is best used when there is a large amount of unorganized material; if the text cannot be examined without total scores or when needed high level accuracy.

For example, literary critics have been trying for a very long time to establish which of the finals of the "Mermaid" belongs to Pushkin. With the help of content analysis and special computing programs, it was possible to establish that only one of them belongs to the author. Scientists made this conclusion, basing their opinion on the fact that each writer has his own style. The so-called frequency dictionary, that is, the specific repetition of various words. Having compiled the writer's dictionary and comparing it with the frequency dictionary of all possible endings, we found out that it was the original version of "Mermaid" that was identical to Pushkin's frequency dictionary.

The main thing in content analysis is to correctly identify semantic units. They can be words, phrases and sentences. Analyzing documents in this way, a sociologist can easily understand the main trends, changes and predict further development in a particular social segment.

Interview

Another method of sociological research is the interview. It means personal communication between the sociologist and the respondent. The interviewer asks questions and records the answers. The interview can be direct, that is, face to face, or indirect, such as by phone, mail, online, etc.

According to the degree of freedom, interviews are:

• Formalized. In this case, the sociologist always clearly follows the research program. In the methods of sociological research, this method is often used in indirect surveys.
• Semi-formalized. Here, the order of the questions and their wording may change depending on how the conversation is going.
• Unformalized. Interviews can be conducted without questionnaires, depending on the course of the conversation, the sociologist chooses questions himself. This method is used in pilot or expert interviews when it is not necessary to compare the results of the work done.

Depending on who is the carrier of information, polls are:

• Mass. Here the main sources of information are representatives of various social groups.
• Specialized. When only people who are knowledgeable in a particular survey are interviewed, which allows you to get completely authoritative answers. This survey is often referred to as an expert interview.

In short, the method of sociological research (in a particular case, interviews) is a very flexible tool for collecting primary information. Interviews are indispensable if you need to study phenomena that cannot be observed from the outside.

Observation in sociology

This is a method of purposeful fixation of information about the object of perception. In sociology, scientific and ordinary observation are distinguished. The characteristic features of scientific research are purposefulness and regularity. Scientific observation is subject to certain goals and is carried out according to a pre-prepared plan. The researcher records the results of the observation and controls their stability. There are three main features of observation:

1. The method of sociological research assumes that the knowledge of social reality is closely connected with the personal preferences of the scientist and his value orientations.
2. The sociologist emotionally perceives the object of observation.
3. It is difficult to repeat the observation, since objects are always subject to various factors that change them.

Thus, when observing, the sociologist faces a number of difficulties. subjective because he interprets what he sees through the prism of his judgments. Concerning objective problems, then here we can say the following: not all social facts can be observed, all observable processes are limited in time. Therefore, this method is used as an additional method for collecting sociological information. Observation is used if you need to deepen your knowledge or when it is impossible to obtain the necessary information by other methods.

The monitoring program consists of the following steps:

1. Definition of goals and objectives.
2. The choice of the type of observation that most accurately meets the tasks.
3. Identification of the object and subject.
4. Selecting a data capture method.
5. Interpretation of the received information.

Types of observation

Each specific method of sociological observation is classified according to various criteria. The observation method is no exception. According to the degree of formalization, it is divided into structured and not structured. That is, those that are carried out according to a pre-planned plan and spontaneously, when only the object of observation is known.

According to the position of the observer, experiments of this kind are included and not included. In the first case, the sociologist is directly involved in the object under study. For example, contacts with the subject or participates with the studied subjects in one activity. When observation is not included, the scientist simply watches how events unfold and fixes them. According to the venue and conditions of observation, there are field and laboratory. For the laboratory, candidates are specially selected and some kind of situation is played out, and in the field, the sociologist simply watches how individuals act in their natural environment. There are also observations systematic, when carried out repeatedly to measure the dynamics of change, and random(i.e. disposable).

Experiment

For sociological research methods, the collection of primary information plays a paramount role. But it is not always possible to observe a certain phenomenon or find respondents who have been in specific social conditions. So sociologists start experimenting. This specific method is based on the fact that the researcher and the subject interact in an artificially created environment.

An experiment is used when it is necessary to test hypotheses regarding the causes of certain social phenomena. Researchers compare two phenomena, where one has a hypothetical cause of the change, and the second does not. If, under the influence of certain factors, the subject of the study acts as previously predicted, then the hypothesis is considered proven.

Experiments happen research and confirming. Research helps to determine the cause of the occurrence of certain phenomena, and confirming ones establish how true these reasons are.

Before conducting an experiment, a sociologist must have all the necessary information about the research problem. First you need to formulate the problem and define key concepts. Next, designate the variables, in particular external ones, which can significantly affect the course of the experiment. Particular attention should be paid to the selection of subjects. That is, take into account the characteristics of the general population, modeling it in a reduced format. Experimental and control subgroups should be equivalent.

During the experiment, the researcher provides direct influence on the experimental subgroup, while the control subgroup is not affected. The resulting differences are independent variables, from which new hypotheses are subsequently derived.

Focus group

Among the qualitative methods of sociological research, focus groups have long been in the first place. This method of obtaining information helps to obtain reliable data without requiring lengthy preparation and significant time costs.

To conduct a study, it is necessary to select from 8 to 12 people who were not previously familiar with each other, and appoint a moderator, the one who will conduct a dialogue with those present. All participants in the study should be familiar with the research problem.

A focus group is a discussion of a specific social problem, product, phenomenon, etc. The main task of the moderator is not to let the conversation come to naught. It should encourage participants to express their opinion. To do this, he asks leading questions, quotes or shows videos, asking for comments. At the same time, each of the participants must express their opinion without repeating the remarks that have already been made.

The whole procedure lasts approximately 1-2 hours, is recorded on video, and after the participants leave, the received material is reviewed, data is collected and interpreted.

case study

Method No. 2 of sociological research in modern science is cases, or special cases. It originated in the Chicago School in the early twentieth century. Literally translated from English, case study means "case analysis". This is a kind of research, where the object is specific phenomenon, occasion or historical figure. Researchers pay close attention to them in order to be able to predict the processes that may take place in society in the future.

There are three main approaches to this method:

1. Nomothetic. A single phenomenon is reduced to a general one, the researcher compares what happened with the norm and concludes how likely the mass distribution of this phenomenon is.
2. Ideographic. The singular is considered unique, the so-called exception to the rule, which cannot be repeated in any social environment.
3. Integrated. The essence of this method is that during the analysis the phenomenon is considered as unique and as general, this helps to find the features of the pattern.

Ethnographic research

Ethnographic research plays a significant role in the study of society. The main principle is the naturalness of data collection. The essence of the method is simple: the closer to Everyday life there will be a research situation, the more real the results will be obtained after the collection of materials.

The task of researchers who work with ethnographic data is to describe in detail the behavior of individuals under certain conditions and to give them semantic load.

The ethnographic method is represented by a kind of reflective approach, in the center of which is the researcher himself. He studies materials that are informal and contextual. These can be diaries, notes, stories, newspaper clippings, etc. On their basis, the sociologist must create a detailed description of the life world of the public under study. This method of sociological research makes it possible to obtain new ideas for research from theoretical data previously not taken into account.

It depends on the problem of study which method of sociological research the scientist chooses, but if this is not found, a new one can be created. Sociology is a young science that is still developing. Every year there are more and more new methods of studying society, which allow predicting its further development and, as a result, preventing the inevitable.