§one. What is the classification of words according to parts of speech?
Morphology studies the grammatical nature of words and classifies them on the basis of their inherent morphological features. In principle, the most possible different classifications: the result depends on what features are the basis. Therefore, when faced with a classification, always think about what it is based on.
Morphological classification of words - this is their division into classes, which are called parts of speech.
This is complex classification. It is built not according to one, but according to three signs:
- grammatical meaning
- set of morphological features
- syntactic role in a sentence
grammatical meaning is the most generalized meaning inherent in the whole class of words. More subtle differences in meaning reflect digits by value, which stand out for a particular part of speech. Let's take a noun as an example.
The grammatical meaning of a noun is "thing". It is expressed in words that answer the questions: Who what?
Examples: Who what? - leg, lamp, son, Moscow, gold, silver, nobility, youth, kindness, greed.
These words, of course, convey different meanings: concrete and abstract, real, collective, proper. It is important for morphology that these differences in meaning are expressed at the morphological level. For example, most nouns with specific meanings usually have singular and plural: leg legs, and all the rest - only one form: either singular or plural: Moscow(own) - singular, gold(real) - unit. h., nobility(collective) - unit. h., good(abstract) - singular But all these words are of the same class. They answer some questions, which distinguishes them from other classes of words, such as verbs that answer questions: What to do?, What to do? and express the grammatical meaning of "action": walk, jump, laugh, fight, learn.
Morphological features -
these are characteristics of the grammatical nature of words. For morphology, it is important:
- words change or not
- what sets of forms does the word have,
- what endings these forms are expressed,
- what these forms express.
Some morphological features are common to several parts of speech, for example case, others are peculiar to only one class of words, for example time. The same feature can be immutable, constant for some class of words and changeable for others, as, for example, genus. Each part of speech has its own set of morphological features. Without knowing them, it is impossible to produce morphological analysis words and understand what unites the words of one part of speech and distinguishes them from the words of other parts of speech.
Syntactic role in a sentence - it is the role that words of a certain class play in a sentence. Important:
- whether the word is part of a sentence,
- what is its role in the grammatical structure of the sentence.
§2. Parts of speech
Attention:
The dotted line shows that participles, gerunds and the category of state are not distinguished by all authors. This issue is considered in more detail below.
Part of speech is a class of words united by a common grammatical meaning, a set of morphological features and syntactic role in a sentence. This class of words differs from other classes in a set of characteristics.
The logic of such a classification of Russian words by parts of speech is generally accepted.
It is also common to distinguish:
- interjections and non-interjective classes of words,
- divide non-interjective into auxiliary and independent classes of words,
- distinguish between significant and pronominal words among independent ones,
- significant divided into changing and unchanging (adverbial),
- changing to divide into inflected and conjugated (verbs),
- inclined to divide further by types of declension (nouns, modified by numbers and cases, and others, modified by numbers, cases and genders).
Traditionally allocate 10 parts of speech:
- Nouns
- adjectives
- Numerals
- Pronouns
- Verbs
- Adverbs
- Prepositions
- Unions
- Particles
- Interjection
§3. Why do textbooks have different numbers of parts of speech?
Linguistics is an interpretive science, i.e. explaining.
Specific interpretations linguistic phenomena depends on the point of view of the author.
In the language there are such phenomena that can be interpreted (explained) in different ways.
Participles and participles
Dotted lines in the diagram show the special status of participles and gerunds. Depending on the point of view, they are either considered forms of the verb, and then they enter the part of speech Verb, or isolated as special parts of speech. Why have there been different interpretations?
The peculiarity of participles is that they preserve verb signs, for example, aspect, tense, transitivity, recurrence, conjugation. But at the same time, participles change in a special way, like adjectives. Full participles- by cases and numbers, and in singular- by gender, and short ones - by numbers and in the singular - by gender. And the participles do not change at all.
Interpretation 1
: participle and participle are special forms verbs.
Initial form: verb in infinitive form, i.e. indefinite form verb.
Participle and gerund suffixes are formative suffixes.
Infinitive erect, participles:
and gerunds: erecting- it's just different forms one word erect.
Interpretation 2
: participle and participle are independent parts of speech.
The initial form of the participle: the form of unit. numbers, husband kind.
Participle and gerund suffixes are word-forming suffixes.
Infinitive erect, participles erecting, erecting, erecting and gerund erecting - different words referring to different parts of speech.
The dotted line in the diagram shows the special status of the state category words. The name itself, by the way, is also unlike the names of other parts of speech. Why have there been different interpretations?
It has long been noticed that adverbial words are very diverse. There is, in particular, a group of adverbial invariable words that denote the state of a person. to me cold, and to him hot. This is not the same as: loud scream, quiet laugh. Both the meaning and the role in the sentence of the words: cold, hot - loud quiet differ.
Interpretation 1: all these words are adverbs. Among them, a special subgroup stands out, which has its own characteristics.
Interpretation 2: adverbs and words of the state category are different parts of speech. They have different meaning and different role in a sentence.
Discussing the problem of interpretation
How should students answer teacher questions? How to complete test assignments? How to perform morphological analysis of words? And word-formation analysis, by the way, too?
Nowhere is it said: figure it out yourself and make a choice which of the points of view to adhere to. The textbooks unequivocally state: it is so. Some authors categorically do not accept other points of view and directly declare: the other point of view is erroneous. That is, the adults could not agree among themselves. What should students do? Everyone is ahead of the GIA or the Unified State Examination, and the younger guys have both exams.
Remember:
- how this material is given by the authors of your textbook;
- what textbook are you studying: learn the names of the authors;
- when completing tasks, do not rush between different concepts, act consciously and, most importantly, consistently.
For graduates: be prepared to explain the point of view you share and name the textbook that presents it. No one has the right to consider it unacceptable and lower the mark for it. In case of misunderstandings in assessing your knowledge that have arisen as a result of different interpretations of linguistic phenomena in school textbooks, persistently ask to understand the situation. The necessary information for protection is on this site.
§4. Service - independent parts of speech
Any person who speaks Russian understands that there is important difference between service and independent classes words.
Service parts of speech:
- Prepositions
- Unions
- Particles
Independent parts of speech:
- Noun
- Adjective
- numeral
- Verb
- Adverb
Attention:
Interjection is a special part of speech. It is neither official nor independent.
What is the main difference?
Service parts of speech express not independent values, and relations between members of a sentence or sentences either give words and sentences different shades of meaning. They do not have a set of morphological features and are not members of the sentence.
Independent parts of speech express the grammatical meaning inherent in the whole class of words:
- Nouns - "thing"
- Adjective - "a sign of an object"
- Numeral - "number, quantity, order in counting"
- Verb - "action"
- Adverb - "a sign of a sign, a sign of action"
- Pronoun - "instruction"
Independent parts of speech are divided into significant and pronouns.
Significant parts of speech name objects, signs, actions, numbers, and pronouns just point to them.
test of strength
Check your understanding of the contents of this chapter.
Final test
What classification is based on the grammatical meaning of words, a set of their morphological features and the syntactic role of words in a sentence?
- Offer members
- Parts of speech
Can the same morphological feature be common to words of different parts of speech?
Can the same morphological feature be inflected in some words and invariable in others?
Can words of the same part of speech be different parts of a sentence?
Can words of different parts of speech be the same member of a sentence?
Is it correct to assume that significant words are divided into changeable and unchangeable?
What part of speech is an interjection?
- Self-reliant
- Service
- Neither one nor the other
What parts of speech are interjections opposed to?
- Official
- independent
- Both those and others, that is, all
Do numbers decline?
Do pronouns conjugate?
Are all independent parts of speech significant?
Are all significant parts of speech independent?
Right answers:
- Parts of speech
- Neither one nor the other
- Both those and others, that is, all
- How do words change in Russian? (for high school students and those who want to understand this)
In contact with
Words differ from each other not only in lexical meaning. All of them are usually divided into groups - parts of speech. This gradation takes place on grammatical meanings of words and their special features- morphological.
Morphology - section of the Russian language
Deals with parts of speech whole section science called morphology. Any word has its own characteristics: general meaning, grammatical, also morphological and syntactic signs. The first points to same value specific part of speech. For example, the designation of an object by nouns, its attribute by adjectives, verbs - action, and participles - a sign by action.
Syntactic signs are the role of one or another part of speech in a sentence. For example, verbs, as a rule, are predicates, less often - subjects. Nouns can be objects, circumstances, subjects, and sometimes predicates in a sentence.
What are the morphological features
The group of morphological features, permanent and non-permanent, is much more extensive. The first characterize the word as a specific part of speech. For example, a verb is always determined by conjugation, aspect, transitivity. Variable morphological features indicate that the part of speech has the ability to change. For example, noun changes in cases and numbers - it will not be permanent signs. But the adverb and participle are unchangeable parts of speech, respectively, they only need to indicate constant signs. Same for service units speech and interjections.
Before analyzing the morphological features of parts of speech, it is worth noting that it is necessary to distinguish between a word and its form. Words differ from each other in lexical meaning, and when they change, their forms are formed. For example, the word "plot" has the lexical meaning "fenced part of the area", and its forms will be a change in cases: plot, plot, plot, about the plot.
Noun
Indicating the constant morphological features of a noun, we talk about whether it is a common noun or proper, animate or inanimate, we also determine the type of its declension and gender.
Common nouns designate a set of any objects, without highlighting them individual traits. For example, with the word "river" we denote all rivers: large and small, northern and southern, full-flowing and not very. But if we indicate a specific river, the only one of its kind, for example, the Neva, the noun will be its own.
Living things belong to animate noun, all the rest - to the inanimate. These are constant morphological features of the noun. Dog (who?) - animated; table (what?) - inanimate. Also, the nouns of these categories differ in the forms of accusative and genitive cases. The endings in the genitive and accusative plurals are the same for animate, for inanimate - accusative and nominative.
Let's take an example. Genitive: no (who?) cats; accusative: I see (who?) cats. Compare: I see (what?) chairs; there are (what?) chairs.
The following genders are distinguished: male, female and middle. To determine these morphological features of a noun, it is necessary to substitute the pronouns mine - mine - mine, respectively, for the word.
We present the declension of nouns in the table:
Non-permanent morphological features of a noun are its case and number. These categories form the forms of the word-noun.
Adjective
Just like a noun, the morphological features of the adjective are divided into permanent and non-permanent.
The first are its rank, degree of comparison and form, full or short.
Adjectives are divided into qualitative, relative and possessive. The first may be in the subject to some extent, they can act in full or short form, and also form degrees of comparison. For example: beautiful is an adjective of quality. Let's prove it. It is characterized by such morphological features of the adjective as the degree of comparison (more beautiful, more beautiful) and short form(beautiful). Relative adjectives cannot have these categories (gold, haze, razor). Possessives denote belonging, they answer the question "whose?".
The degrees of comparison are divided into comparative and superlative. The first shows a large or lesser degree any quality: tea more sweet - less sweet - sweeter. Superlatives means the highest or least degree sign: shortest, funniest, smallest.
The full and short forms are inherent in quality adjectives. It should be remembered that short ones do not decline, but they can be changed by numbers and gender: cheerful ( full form) - oars (m. genus, singular) - oars (female, singular h) - oars (plural).
The inconstant morphological features of the adjective are the case forms, number and gender in which it is used. The category of gender can only be determined for adjectives in the singular.
Numeral
Permanent morphological features of the word, which is a numeral, are its category and structure characteristics.
Allocate quantitative and ordinal numerals. The former require an answer to the question "how much?" (ten, fifteen, twenty-five), the second - "what is the number?" (tenth, fifteenth, twenty-fifth).
- Simple (five, second).
- Complex (thirteen, fifteenth).
- Compound (twenty-two, three hundred and forty-one).
The non-permanent signs of the name of the numeral are largely determined by its category. So, quantitative numbers are characterized by a change in cases only. Ordinal numbers are similar in grammatical parameters to adjectives, therefore they can form case forms, change in numbers and genders.
Pronoun
If we talk about a pronoun, then its morphological features largely depend on which part of speech it is close in grammatical meaning. They can gravitate toward a noun, adjective, or numeral. Let's analyze the pronouns and their morphological features in this context.
Pronouns-nouns are characterized by an invariable category of person (personal) and formative gender, number, case.
Pronouns-adjectives can also be changed by gender, number and case. The exception is the words her, him, them- they do not change in cases.
Only case form have pronouns - numerals.
So, when determining what morphological features a pronoun has, it is first necessary to look at the category and, accordingly, indicate the rest of the characteristics.
Verb: constant signs
The constant morphological features of the verb are its form, transitivity, reflexivity and conjugation.
Verbs come in two categories, perfect and imperfect. The first involves the question "what to do?", the second - "what to do?". For example, move (what to do?) - perfect view; shift (what to do?) - imperfect view.
The category of transitivity suggests that the verb governs the noun in the form accusative without a suggestion. All other verbs will be intransitive. Let's give an example: to hate (whom, what?) the enemy, lies, fog - a transitive verb. Go to the house, fly through the sky, jump over a step, get a sore throat - these verbs are intransitive, nouns with prepositions, and the form of the accusative case cannot be made.
The reflexive verb has the suffix -sya (-s): swim, swim (reflexive); bathe - irrevocable.
Verb conjugations present in the table:
Verb: fickle signs
Non-permanent morphological features of the verb are its number, mood, gender, tense and person. These categories are largely defined by others. For example, verbs change at times indicative mood. Imperfective verbs are the only ones that have three forms of tense.
Russian verbs have three mood forms: indicative (I bake, I will bake, I baked), imperative (peki) and conditional (would bake).
Verbs also change by gender: he swam, she swam, it swam. This category is typical for past tense verbs.
Verb face indicates by whom the action is performed: by the speaker himself (I remove), the interlocutor (you remove) or the subject / person of the conversation (she removes).
As with a pronoun, you first need to look at the category and, accordingly, indicate the rest of the characteristics.
Participle
Permanent morphological features of the participle are aspect, transitivity, recurrence, pledge and time.
Just like verbs, participles are perfect and imperfective: working (what to do? work) - imperfective; built (what to do? build) - a perfect look.
If the participle is formed from a transitive or reflexive verb, the same signs will remain with him. For example, the participle "locking" (locking) is formed from the transitive verb "lock" - it also has this category. From the reflexive verb "to lock" the participle "locking" is formed, respectively, also reflexive.
Participles can be real (the sign is made by the object itself: the thinker is the one who thinks) and passive (the object experiences the action of the sign: a written book is a book that is written by someone).
Two forms of tense can be distinguished from participles: present (playing) and past (playing).
Non-permanent morphological features of the participle are similar to the adjective: gender, number, case, form (short or full).
gerund
gerund - unchangeable part speech, therefore, exclusively constant signs are determined in him:
- View. Perfect (doing what? - reading) and imperfect (doing what? - reading).
- Transitivity. Transmitted from the verb: deciding (decide - transitive verb); going (to go is an intransitive verb).
- Recurrence. Spreading out - reflexive participle; distributing - irrevocable.
Adverb
Just like a gerund, an adverb does not form a form. Thus, only constant morphological features are indicated in it: a rank by meaning and if the adverb is qualitative, i.e. formed from the name of an adjective, indicate the degree of comparison.
For example, the adverb "fun" is formed from the adjective cheerful, so the formation of degrees of comparison is possible: fun (positive); more fun (comparative); the most fun of all (excellent).
Morphological features of a word are either formal (types of declension of nouns and adjectives, types of conjugation of a verb) or formal semantic. Mandatory formal semantic features of the word and grammatical forms of the word are usually called morphological categories. The morphological category is understood as the unity of grammatical meaning and its grammatical formal indicators, manifested in all words and word forms of one or another part of speech.
Not every morphological feature can be classified as a category. For example, in verb form read pronounced whole line morphological features, while the relation of the verb to the I conjugation is its purely formal morphological indicator; other features of this verb are formal semantic (categorical). For the verb under consideration, a number of morphological categories must be taken into account: aspect (imperfect), voice (real), mood (imperative), person (2nd) and number (plural).
Morphological features are constant (classification) or variable (inflectional).
For example, the form of a verb is its constant morphological feature (classification morphological category), since the verb does not change by type and in any of its forms belongs to the same form - perfect (say, said, say, said) or imperfect (speak, spoke, speak, spoke). The same are the signs gender and animate/inanimate nouns.
Variable morphological features of a word (i.e., inflectional categories) have a completely different nature: different grammatical forms one word can express different meanings of the same inflectional category. For example, mood is an inflectional category of a verb, since forms of the same verb can express the meanings of different moods: let's go, let's go, let's go. Inflectional categories of the verb are also tense, person, number. For nouns, the inflectional categories are case and number.
Parts of speech
Parts of speech- these are the main grammar classes words, which are established taking into account the morphological properties of words. These word classes are important not only for morphology, but also for lexicology and syntax.
Words belonging to one part of speech have common grammatical features: 1) the same generalized grammatical meaning, called part-of-speech (for example, for all nouns, the meaning of objectivity); 2) the same set of morphological categories (nouns are characterized by the categories of animateness / inanimateness, gender, number and case). In addition, the words of one part of speech have word-formation proximity and perform the same syntactic functions as part of the proposal.
In modern Russian, independent and service parts of speech, as well as interjections, are distinguished.
Independent parts of speech serve to designate objects, signs, processes and other phenomena of reality. Such words are usually independent members of the sentence, carry verbal stress. The following independent parts of speech are distinguished: noun, adjective, numeral, pronoun, verb, adverb.
Within the independent parts of speech, full-significant and non-full-significant words are contrasted. Fully significant words (nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, most of adverbs) serve to name certain objects, phenomena, signs,
And non-significant words (these are pronouns and pronominal adverbs) only indicate objects, phenomena, signs, without naming them.
Another distinction is important within the framework of independent parts of speech: names (nouns, adjectives, numerals, as well as pronouns) as parts of speech that are declined (changed by cases) are opposed to the verb as a part of speech, which is characterized by conjugation (change by moods, tenses, persons) .
Service parts of speech (particles, conjunctions, prepositions) do not name the phenomena of reality, but denote the relationships that exist between these phenomena. They are not independent members of the sentence, usually do not have verbal stress.
Interjection (ah!, wow! etc.) are not included in the number of either independent or service parts of speech, they constitute a special grammatical category words. Interjections express (but do not name) the feelings of the speaker.
jill Morphological analysis the words
Morphological analysis words (analysis by parts of speech) begins with the establishment of the initial (dictionary) form of the analyzed word.
1. Determine the part of speech to which the parsed word belongs.
2. Reveal the permanent morphological features of the word.
3. Give a description of the variable morphological features of the word (not everyone has them, but only the variable parts of speech).
4. Install role given word in a sentence.
When parsing, it should be borne in mind that the language is widespread grammatical homonymy: the same word in different proposals can refer to different parts of speech, show different morphological properties; compare: The swan swims around, pecks the evil kite(P.) - the highlighted word is an adverb; Near the forest, as in a soft bed, you can sleep- peace and space(N.) - near is a suggestion; She wrote a letter to her father thanking
him for help- thanks to is a gerund, it is one of the forms of the verb thank; Thanks to father, my sisters and I know French, German and English(Ch.) - here thanks to is a suggestion.
Independent parts of speech Noun
noun called independent part speech, expressing the part-verbal grammatical meaning of objectivity and having morphological signs of animation / inanimateness, gender, number and case: book, dictionary, student, window, gate.
The grammatical meaning of objectivity differs from the lexical meaning of "subject" (expressed, for example, by the stems of nouns of the type house, stone) since many nouns, especially abstract ones, formed from verbs and adjectives (reading, blue) do not represent objects. However, any noun has the grammatical meaning of objectivity, which is revealed by asking the question who? or what?
noun is one of essential parts speech; almost half of all Russian words belong to it. In a sentence, a noun plays the role of a subject, an object, a nominal part compound predicate, and is also used as a circumstance and an inconsistent definition.
