Fact- (from the Latin word factum done, accomplished). A synonym for the concepts of truth, event, result. Something concrete, singular as opposed to abstract and general. Facts include results of observation, specific events and positions. knowledge in the form of statements, the validity of which cannot be challenged.

Theoretical statement is a statement derived from general theory, which does not contradict all other provisions of the theory. Theoretical Provisions abstract, based on the application special terminology, declaring general scientific statements. For example, it can be a definition of a concept, a description of an idealized object.

Value judgments contain the author's assessment. A person who cognizes social facts develops a certain attitude towards them, expressed in agreement, censure, denial, approval, support, doubt, etc. As a rule, a value judgment in a text contains the following speech turns: “in our opinion”, “in your opinion”, “from our point of view”, “apparently”, “it was believed”, “it seemed”, “as stated”, “as he said”, “as noted”, “ bad, good, obviously.

Sentence A is actual character(the bank revoked the license)

Sentences B, C, D are in the nature of value judgments, this can be seen from the style of the sentence "take a closer look", "better check", "without a doubt".

Proposal E is theoretical in nature, it represents the definition of the bank as the most important financial institution.

Answer: 1 2 2 2 3.

Vistunova Irina Alekseevna

How likely is it to rain today? Is it suitable this person on some
position? What are the chances of a loved one football team win
in the final match? How confident am I in the correctness of the decision made?
niya? What is the real price of this car, are there too many
does the seller pay for it? Is it dangerous to walk at night in this area?
kind? What is the probability of entering this university at this faculty? In ca-
How much can you trust this person?

Each of us often has to answer to similar questions. Answer-
Tami on them are value judgments(in English literature -
judgment). A value judgment is a subjective, or psi-
chological, measurement. Making a value judgment, a person classifies
cites, ranks, assigns certain numerical values ​​to objects
there, events or people. For example, when asked if a given
applicant for work in this position, you can answer "yes" or "no",
you can compare it with other applicants, or you can assess the degree of
position responsibility in percent. In the first case it will be a simple class
classification into suitable and unsuitable for the position, in the second - the procedure
stupid ranking, and in the third - attribution numerical value. But
in all these cases we are dealing with a value judgment.

Value judgments can rightly be categorized as
nitivnye processes or processes of information processing. However
value judgments have a certain specificity. Its essence lies in
that they stand (so to speak) on the "edge" of the multitude of cog-
nitive processes. On the one hand, in value judgments, use
everything that is purchased on primary stages information processing
tsii - sensory and perceptual; on the other hand, it is precisely the evaluative
deniya completes the process of information preparation of the action,
precisely on their basis and under them direct influence deploy-
there are so-called regulatory processes: decisions are made,
Goal-setting occurs and behavior is planned. By virtue of the said
(“marginal”) specific value judgments in more than, say-
we feel, sensations and perceptions are “tied” to motivational and emotional
physical processes. Value judgments reflect not only (but other
and not so much) reality, but also the needs and goals of the individual himself.

Chapter 11

Psychological research value judgments began in the 50s
das of the 20th century in the framework of decision-making problems. In 1954 Ward Edwards
published a review of decision making research
conducted by economists, mathematicians and philosophers. In 1955, another
renowned researcher Herbert Simon formulated principle
concept of bounded rationality, the essence of which was that
limited cognitive abilities of a person, his evaluative judgments
and solutions differ significantly from rational ones, they are suboptimal
we are full of mistakes. Since then, the efforts of psychologists working in the field
studies of value judgments were aimed at identifying
more and more errors in subjective measurements. An error in this
considered everything that does not correspond normative model- mathematical
decision-making model developed by mathematicians or economists
mi. It came almost to the tragic intensity of passions. More and more
the belief that human value judgments have
highly unstable, inconsistent and fuzzy character, they are evil
things distort reality, their rationality is inevitably violated by many
gesture various factors: the specifics of the task, context, individual
real qualities of a person making a value judgment, his emotional
the rational state, etc. . The picture turned out to be
a person in his assessments of reality and decisions - almost completely
irrational being. The situation is paradoxical. From one
On the other hand, we have rational, normative models, theories,
telling a person how he should act, on the other hand, irrational
onal human behavior. Moreover, the author of both the first (theories) and
the second (real behavior) was the same humanity.

This situation led to a turning point in the interpretation of rational behavior.
Denia. This happened around the mid 90s. In this sense ha-
the review on value judgments and decision making is
niya, published in 1998 . The authors about
Zorah note that psychologists have become increasingly aware of the limitations
traditional approach to the study of value judgments.

What was the essence of this approach and what needs to be revised in it?
The only criterion optimalityevaluative behavior was his great-
fortitude. At the same time, correctness was understood as how accurately in assessing
nighttime judgment reflects reality. If, for example, a person believes that
his chances of getting a job in this city equal to 25%, and special
objective data confirm this assessment, then the judgment can be considered
correct. If a person systematically overestimates (or underestimates)
f) their chances of getting a job, then this kind of value judgments
law can be considered erroneous, and therefore suboptimal.

However, many years of research have convinced psychologists that the
fortitude is not the only criterion, which is guided
person when making a value judgment. If you need to buy one
disposable lighter, then you will not spend long hours studying technical
characteristics of these very inexpensive devices, for a survey of experimental

Unrealistic optimism

new users and structured interviews with sellers. Let you
mistakenly consider one of the lighters more reliable and convenient in
use, let your evaluative behavior and subsequent choice be
are wrong in the strict sense of the word, but they will be optimal-
mi in terms of the criterion of saving, or minimizing, efforts. Let
football players will overestimate their chances of winning before the game, let them evaluate
nighttime judgments will be wrong, but they will be optimal with
in terms of the quality of the upcoming game, because by doing so they both
would program themselves to win. Even if they don't win, but
surely they will play better than if they initially expected to lose.
Let you be mistaken in thinking that, do not enter this university and did not receive
just this education, you would have been tormented all your life by what you
it's not your business. Let, from the point of view of "absolute" truth, this
it’s not like that for everyone, but cats don’t scratch your soul, speaking in a stricter language
com, evaluating your past as a relatively favorable outcome, you
provide yourself with a comfortable emotional state.

So, paradoxical as it may sound, a value judgment can be
wrong, but optimal. Accuracy of reflection of reality is not-
being the only criterion for the optimality of value judgments. From the time of-
scientific studies of evaluative behavior make it possible to single out at least
at least three more criteria. it saving, or minimizing, cognitive effort
(see, for example,); improving the efficiency of
next action; improvement emotional state (see, for example,
). The optimality criterion is essentially a cognitive
tive meta-purpose, or, more simply, that for the sake of which, in the name of which the evaluative
judgment is made. Behavior can generally be considered optimal if
it maximizes, contributes to the achievement of the optimality criterion. Ana-
logical evaluative behavior is optimal if it contributes to the achievement
cognitive metagoal or is consistent with the optimality criterion.

To explain many, if not all, of the so-called biases
night judgments from reality is possible by what the subject uses in his
evaluative behavior, along with the criterion of accuracy of reflection of reality
criteria for minimizing cognitive effort, increasing efficiency
follow-up action or criterion for improving the emotional state.

Next, we will consider the main facts obtained in the study.
value judgments, as well as their possible interpretations in terms of critical
optimality theories used by the subject of evaluative behavior.

The nature of value judgments is a subjective assessment of past, present and future events. It is usually expressed in the form of a personal attitude or prognosis.

All judgments by their nature are divided into three parts.

1. Actual. So it is customary to call the real accomplished events. A fact is something that is fixed by a group of people or devices. The fact can be captured in the form of a handwritten, printed document, as well as a photo and video. A factual judgment may be based on own experience or obtained from other media. A judgment of a factual nature can be tied to specific place and measure the timing. Often, events that did not occur in reality are also referred to as factual judgments. They are described in literary works and shown in films. For example, the fact that the Hobbit went back and forth is a fact. The same factual character is also the judgment that Harry Potter studied at the school of wizardry. The second reality is also a reality.
2. Value judgments are always subjective, even if they are spoken on behalf of a group of people or whole country. Such judgments always contain an assessment of the fact.
3. A theoretical judgment is a description of an object or phenomenon based on the knowledge gained by previous generations or contemporaries. At the same time, the subject of this judgment may have nothing to do with science, but bases his statements on knowledge of a scientific nature.

For clarification it is necessary to define scientific knowledge. These are facts, models, theories described and formed according to certain methods and with the help of special tools. Knowledge only becomes scientific when it is published, that is, replicated in special editions.

Do not confuse a theoretical statement and a factual one. A fact may be scientific, but it still remains a fact, and a theory describes a model of processes in accordance with the developed picture of the world.

Types of value judgments

The hallmark of value judgments is their subjectivity.

A person always evaluates himself, even if this assessment is imposed on him. public opinion, the authority of another person or habit. However, despite this, value judgments can be:

• correct;
• wrong:
• adequate;
• inadequate;
• optimal;
• suboptimal.

This division is based on the analysis of subjective value judgments. For the one who expressed the judgment, it is always correct and adequate. At the same time, the subject can be sincerely mistaken, or he can play a trick, convincing himself that this is how it should be, because I really want it to be so.

In this case, adequacy is understood as correspondence to the facts, and correctness means the presence of causal relationships between the value judgment and the logic of the development of events.

The inadequacy and incorrectness of judgments can be determined by comparing them with facts. The subject of the judgment can also do this, which will serve as the basis for making another value judgment.

The optimality of value judgments is the degree of their usefulness for the subject of the statement. Often such judgments may contain outright lies. That this is a lie is understood by the subject himself. However, his goal is not so much to deceive the people around him, but to deceive himself.

Oddly enough, such self-deception can be optimal, because it sets a person to achieve a certain goal.

For example, some sad event happened: a person was fired from a job or expelled from a university. It would seem that there is no place positive evaluation. However severe stress causes a person to change his attitude to the event.

He can evaluate it with the phrase: "Well, okay, there is a blessing in disguise, but people live without a diploma, and they live well." Applied to lost job a person can rejoice that he will no longer see a harmful boss.

Such an inadequate judgment important function: self-deception can lead to a rise in self-esteem and the achievement of previously unattainable goals.

Value judgment function

Forming an assessment of everything that exists and happens, a person controls the world, and most importantly, himself. Listening to our interlocutors, we are often surprised by their inadequacy and outright falsity of statements. However, those who listen to your judgments may also come to the same conclusion. As a result, everyone is right and everyone is wrong.

Developing the thought of Mark Twain, we can say that there is another form of lying: a value judgment. Its function is not only to search for truth and truth, to justify their actions.

Any assessment is an analysis and forecast, in accordance with which a person builds a strategy for his life, behavior and actions. Moreover, it affects own attitude to something, that is, to a future assessment. Mentally healthy people tend to overestimate their self-esteem. By evaluating yourself above average, a person gets a chance to remain at least at an average level. We are not talking about hypertrophied forms that develop into megalomania when too a high self-evaluation throws a person out of society into the category of mentally abnormal.

This function of unrealistic optimism, oddly enough, is characteristic not only of individual people but also to society, including all mankind. However, the inadequacy of value judgments on global level no longer self-deception for salvation, but the march of the blind into the abyss.

Every person has a desire to be like everyone else. In this position, he feels more secure. This widely replicated desire influences and reinforces value judgments. They reflect not so much personal opinion subject, how much is the opinion of the crowd or political leader.

Thus, the function of value judgments is self-identification, self-management and management both at the level of the individual and, ultimately, at the level of society.

The word "fact" comes from the Latin faktum - "done, accomplished."
Fact is knowledge in the form of a statement, the reliability of which is strictly established. Facts form empirical basis knowledge. Actual judgment fixes real fact, a phenomenon of reality that has already taken place, which took place in real time. Judgments that are factual in nature cannot be challenged.

Science distinguishes three kinds of facts:

1. Actions, deeds of people, individuals or large social groups.

2. Products human activity(material and spiritual).

3. Verbal (verbal) actions: opinions, judgments, evaluations. Examples of such social facts can be: Suvorov's crossing of the Alps, the pyramid of Cheops, the words spoken by Archimedes: "Give me a point of support, and I will move the globe."

The factual nature are those events that really happened and are only material for further analysis, further value judgments. For example, the text states “with increasing consumer income, they are less likely to repair clothes and shoes, preferring to buy new ones, and refuse cheap and not very high-quality food.” The position does not give ratings. The same is true in the sentence - "this regularity was studied by the German economist Ernst Engel" - a fact is stated.

FROM scientific explanation fact is connected and its assessment. The person who knows social phenomena, cannot be indifferent to the facts being studied, he forms his own attitude towards them, positive or negative, that is, he evaluates events in one way or another. Evaluative judgments (statement, opinion about a certain fact, object, phenomenon) express attitude towards facts, evaluate their significance. These judgments may include both purely evaluation component(“bad”, “good”, “immoral”, etc.), and the attitude to the phenomenon in a broader sense, the explanation of its causes with own position or an assessment of its influence on other phenomena (“can be explained”, “is an example”, etc.). As a rule, in the text a value judgment contains the following turns of phrase: “in our opinion”, “in your opinion”, “from our point of view”, “apparently”, “it was believed”, “it seemed”, “as he claimed”, “as he said”, “as he noted”, etc. Therefore, one should carefully analyze the provisions of the text presented in the task, mentally correlating them with a social fact or value judgment.

As paradoxical as it sounds, a value judgment may be wrong, but it is optimal. The accuracy of the reflection of reality is not the only criterion for the optimality of value judgments. Modern research evaluative behavior allow us to distinguish by at least three more criteria. It is the economy, or minimization, of cognitive effort; increasing the effectiveness of the follow-up action; improvement in emotional state. The criterion of optimality is, in fact, that for the sake of which, in the name of which the value judgment is made. In general, behavior can be considered optimal if it maximizes, contributes to the achievement of the optimality criterion.

Facts form the empirical basis of knowledge. A scientifically established fact is the basis of science, it is recognized as a given, as an indisputable truth (one of the meanings of the word "fact" is "true knowledge"). Whereas explanations of the facts, attitudes towards them, assessments of their role may be different.

The biggest misconception human mind when evaluating the facts is the belief in the controllability of the event. The belief that we can somehow influence the outcome (results) is associated with subjective assessment the probability of this event. If the outcome of an event has for us positive value, then the more we believe that we can influence the outcome of an event, the higher we estimate its probability. If the outcome of the event is negative character, then its subjective probability decreases with an increase in belief in the controllability of what is happening. However, often (in 99% of cases) belief in the controllability of the situation turns out to be illusory, while the assessment of the probabilities of events turns out to be initially erroneous - overestimated or underestimated.

What is the specificity of tasks for determining evaluative, factual judgments and the nature of theoretical statements?

Exercise 19

Read the text below, each position of which is indicated a certain letter.
(A) A normal good is a good whose demand increases as the income of buyers increases. (B) It is only natural that the population seeks to acquire more high-quality food, clothing, household appliances, cars. (B) Goods inferior quality buy more if the income of the population falls, and the population refuses to purchase them as the income rises. (D) Thus, with the growth of consumers' incomes, they repair clothes and shoes less often, preferring to buy new ones, refuse cheap and not very high-quality food products. (E) This pattern was studied by the German economist Ernst Engel.

Determine which positions of the text have:
1) actual character;

Let's try to figure out which judgments are factual, which are evaluative, and which statements are theoretical.
The word "fact" comes from the Latin faktum - "done, accomplished."
Fact is knowledge in the form of a statement, the reliability of which is strictly established. Facts form the empirical basis of knowledge. A factual judgment fixes a real fact, a phenomenon of reality that has already taken place, which took place in real time. Judgments that are factual in nature cannot be challenged.

Science distinguishes three kinds of social facts:

Actions, deeds of people, individuals or large social groups. Products of human activity (material and spiritual).
Verbal (verbal) actions: opinions, judgments, evaluations. Examples of such social facts can be: Suvorov's passage through the Alps, the pyramid of Cheops, the words spoken by Archimedes: "Give me a point of support, and I will move the globe."

So, those events that really happened and are only material for further analysis, further value judgments are of an actual nature. For example, the text states “with increasing consumer income, they are less likely to repair clothes and shoes, preferring to buy new ones, and refuse cheap and not very high-quality food.” The position does not give ratings. The same is true in the sentence - "this pattern was studied by the German economist Ernst Engel" - a fact is stated.

Therefore, in our example, the propositions of a factual nature will be judgments (D) and (D).

The scientific explanation of the fact is connected with its evaluation. A person who cognizes social phenomena cannot be indifferent to the facts being studied, he forms his own attitude towards them, positive or negative, that is, he evaluates events in one way or another. Evaluative judgments (statement, opinion about a certain fact, object, phenomenon) express attitude towards facts, evaluate their significance. These judgments can include both a purely evaluative component (“bad”, “good”, “immoral”, etc.), as well as an attitude towards a phenomenon in a broader sense, an explanation of its causes from one’s own position or an assessment of its impact on other phenomena (“can be explained”, “is an example”, etc.). As a rule, in the text a value judgment contains the following speech turns:

“in our opinion”, “in your opinion”, “from our point of view”, “apparently”, “it was believed”, “it seemed”, “as stated”, “as he said”, “as noted” etc. Therefore, one should carefully analyze the provisions of the text presented in the task, mentally correlating them with a social fact or value judgment.Analyzing the above text, we can conclude that provision (B) is of an evaluative nature.

Thus, facts form the empirical basis of knowledge. A scientifically established fact is the basis of science, it is recognized as a given, as an indisputable truth (one of the meanings of the word "fact" is "true knowledge"). Whereas explanations of the facts, attitudes towards them, assessments of their role may be different.

To perform such tasks, many reference books recommend using the following recommendations:

Examples of value judgments are:

arose

It is considered to

include

From the point of view of researchers

Numbers - (volume)

Apparently

decide

I think

Destined

In our opinion

This is (some fact)

Seems

At all times there was

Need to recognize

Provide

According to a number of researchers

Therefore (statement)

From our point of view

accepted, approved

Most likely

However… (some fact)

In our opinion

Have a shape

According to another point of view

Recognizes

It can be assumed

Forbid (statement)

An understatement…unjustifiably

Delivered (fait accompli)

It is quite active (some kind of process)

Entered the top ten

However…

bind

Has a strong tendency to keep

took place

announced a merger

Something tonight is in decline

Graduated from the Institute

All this has a detrimental effect on…

Wasting a lot of time

it greatest conquest civilization

More and more use

This year it got a topical focus

Diagnosed

The level has risen significantly

Experts recorded

This has caused a significant increase

Stock oil company become a "locomotive"

Another International Festival design

It is unlikely that stocks will be stable

In the studytook part 30,000 men

She does the right thing

the date

Habit can lead

Actually happened

It got a topical focus and became more modern

Happened

The level of submitted works has increased significantly

The gap that existed before between the "medal" projects and all the rest could not be considered acceptable

We believe that such distribution of dutiesnegatively affects family relationships

This opinionmay be due to low level of education

A theoretical statement is such an initial statement of a unified general theory or such a statement, deduced in the process of consistent reasoning from previously established statements of this theory, which does not contradict all the initial and derivational statements of a unified general theory adjacent to it.

So the correct answer is:

And now let's decide?

Examples of tasks B5

№1.

(A) B modern society situations arise when a person consciously participates in various cultural traditions. (B) Obviously, they are connected with population migrations, modernization. (C) The consequence may be psychological splitting, the formation of a "split" type of personality. (D) Sociologists call the position of such a person marginal. (E) The danger of being marginalized is the impact on a person contradictory other norms of values.

1) actual character
3) the nature of theoretical statements.

Write in the table under the letter denoting the position, the number expressing its nature.

2. Read the text below, each position of which is indicated by a specific letter.

(A) A group of scientists led by A. Peccei organized the so-called Club of Rome - an international non-governmental organization whose goal is to study problems modern world. (B) Uncontrolled population growth, environmental problems, modern achievements science and technology posed the problem of assessing the direction of quality social progress. (C) The aggravation of global problems indicates, in our opinion, a crisis modern civilization. (D) At the same time, we admit that attempts to solve global problems strengthen the unity of countries and peoples. (E) Experts from different countries take part in the work of the Club of Rome.

1) actual character;
2) the nature of value judgments;
3) the nature of theoretical statements.

Write in the table under the letter denoting the position, the number expressing its nature.

3. Read the text below, each position of which is indicated by a specific letter.

(A) Sociologists identify several factors social mobility. (B) Some of them are objective - the state regime, socio-economic and political situation in society, modernization processes. (C) Some factors are associated with the activity of the individual himself - the level of education, career, etc. (D) But no matter how external circumstances develop, individual mobility is obviously determined by the level of claims and activity of a person. (E) In modern society, a person probably has every chance to realize himself, to achieve a high social position.

Determine what provisions of the text are:
1) actual character;
2) the nature of value judgments;
3) the nature of theoretical statements.

Write in the table under the letter denoting the position, the number expressing its nature.

4. Read the text below, each position of which is indicated by a specific letter.

(A) Ivan successfully passed the interview for a job as a lawyer. (B) But the employer refused to contract with him labor contract upon learning that he is 48 years old. (B) In the advertised vacancy, the age of the applicant was not specifically specified. (D) It would be right for Ivan to appeal this decision in court. (E) Labor disputes are considered by courts of general jurisdiction in the framework of civil proceedings.

Determine what provisions of the text are:
1) actual character;
2) the nature of value judgments;
3) the nature of theoretical statements.

Write in the table under the letter denoting the position, the number expressing its nature.

5. Read the text below, each position of which is indicated by a specific letter.

(BUT) Global problems modern world threaten the survival of mankind as species. (B) Downplaying the danger of a new world war in modern conditions unjustifiably. (B) By official information, there are about 70 thousand units on Earth nuclear weapons. (D) Calculations performed show that this arsenal is capable of completely destroying life on the planet. (E) We believe that an appeal to the world community with a call for disarmament is extremely necessary.

Determine what provisions of the text are:
1) actual character;
2) the nature of value judgments;
3) the nature of theoretical statements.

Write in the table under the letter denoting the position, the number expressing its nature.

6. Read the text below, each position of which is indicated by a specific letter.

(A) Family as social institution ensures the reproduction and primary socialization of new generations. (B) The study involved 1503 people - boys and girls over 18 years old. (B) They were asked various questions: about marriage, divorce and raising children. (D) Every second respondent stated that early marriages often end in divorce. (E) In our opinion, such marriages destabilize society and exacerbate the crisis of family values.

Determine what provisions of the text are:
1) actual character;
2) the nature of value judgments;
3) the nature of theoretical statements.

Write in the table under the letter denoting the position, the number expressing its nature.

7. Read the text below, each position of which is indicated by a specific letter.

(A) The emergence of family legal relations is associated with the official registration of marriage in statutory okay. (B) Adult Ivan and Natalia came to the registry office to apply for state registration marriage. (C) The registry office officer refused to accept this application because Ivan was declared legally incompetent by the court. (D) Natalya, who knew about this and was guided by the desire to register in Ivan's apartment, acted immorally. (E) Ivan's guardians should keep a better eye on him.

Determine which provisions of the text are worn
1) actual character
2) the nature of value judgments
3) the nature of theoretical statements.

Write in the table under the letter denoting the position, the number expressing its nature.

8. Read the text below, each position of which is indicated by a specific letter.

(BUT) Middle class in modern Western societies, this is the most numerous part of society. (B) Apparently, it is impossible to single out a single, universal criterion for belonging to the middle class. (C) Both the level of income, and standards of consumption, and the level of education, and the ability to skilled work are used as criteria. (D) The middle class includes small entrepreneurs, highly skilled workers, service professionals, administrative staff, intellectuals, and other groups. (E) The middle class is seen as the basis for the stable development of society.

Determine what provisions of the text are:
1) actual character;
2) the nature of value judgments;
3) the nature of theoretical statements.

Write in the table under the letter denoting the position, the number expressing its nature.

9. Read the text below, each position of which is indicated by a specific letter.

(A) The process of depreciation of money, i.e. inflation, manifested in a price increase that is not justified by an increase in the quality of goods and services (B) An increase in prices in country Z in winter months turned out to be “more modest” than the forecasts of most economists. (C) Inflation was 2.1% (3.4% over the winter previous year). (D) Most likely, the slowdown in the indicator is facilitated by the decline in oil prices on world markets. trading floors. (E) Perhaps the stabilization of gasoline prices in the domestic market also played a role in the statistics.

Determine what provisions of the text are:
1) actual character;
2) the nature of value judgments;
3) the nature of theoretical statements.

Write in the table under the letter denoting the position, the number expressing its nature.