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Byzantium was, without exaggeration, one of the most grandiose civilizations in the history of mankind. No other empire has lived so long. Byzantium lasted 1120 years. The fabulous riches, beauty and sophistication of the capital of the empire - Constantinople - literally shook the European peoples, who were in the heyday of Byzantium in a state of deep barbarism. Byzantium was the only country in the world that stretched vast space between Europe and Asia - already this geography largely determined its uniqueness.

It is very important that Byzantium by its nature was a multinational imperial power, in which the people felt the state as one of their highest personal values.

In the subsequent era, the influence of Byzantium to one degree or another was experienced by Persia, Transcaucasia, Arab world, Eastern and Western Europe. At the same time, the culture of Byzantium was influenced by the cultures of other peoples. The interweaving of different branches of a single culture of mankind gave a unique flavor to the Orthodox Byzantine civilization: the ancient worldview, the development of pedagogical thought, strong position secular education, the Christian doctrine, which was professed by Hellenistically educated people, the subordination of the church and school to the power of Caesar, the prestige of education - this is not a complete list of the special face of Byzantium, which characterizes the Byzantine phenomenon itself.

The most important feature of Byzantine enlightenment of the period should be considered the gradual replacement of the system of pagan education inherited from the Hellenistic period with a new system created under the auspices of the church in the interests of the monarchy. Trying to eradicate pagan education and replace it with Christian education, the church at the same time borrows the methodology that has developed over hundreds of years in ancient and Hellenistic Greece, that is, knowledge in the Byzantine Empire basically continued and developed the heritage of classical Greece of the Hellenistic and Roman period. This heritage was given a theological orientation, or it was processed in accordance with Christian doctrine. Development scientific theory, however, stopped: after all, the basis ancient science was philosophy, which in the Middle Ages gave way to theology. Due to the fact that “the worldview of the Middle Ages was essentially theological,” and “church dogma was the starting point and basis of all thinking,” secular sciences usually took on a theological coloring in Byzantium, as elsewhere in the Middle Ages; information on natural science, geography, mathematics, history can often be found in theological writings. The peculiarity of the medieval sciences also consisted in the fact that rarely any of the thinkers (the same took place in antiquity) was limited to any one area of ​​​​knowledge: the majority was engaged in science in the broad sense of the word; many wrote essays on philosophy, theology, mathematics, medicine - in a word, on a number of sciences, later differentiated.

The ecclesiastical and religious nature of Byzantine science and education must also be considered a sign of Byzantinism. Just as the whole system of public and private life of the Byzantines bore the imprint of ecclesiastical and religious interests, so Byzantine science, as well as all enlightenment, developed and determined in its composition and direction mainly under the influence of religious motives, under the shadow of the Church, with active cooperation between the Byzantine clergy and monasticism. Byzantine literature is essentially ecclesiastical and theological in nature. Most of works of Byzantine literature belongs to the category of theological, representatives of the highest service Byzantine aristocracy and even emperors stand as theological writers near the hierarchs of the Church and monks, just as few secular writers did not deal with the processing of theological plots. Such a phenomenon was not familiar in the West. The Byzantine Church played a famous positive role. The first Christian schools appeared during the years of persecution of Christianity; but at that time they could only compete with the pagan schools. In the IV century. an active offensive of the Christian church against pagan schools begins. . Schools were opened in Byzantium mainly at churches and monasteries, their leaders and teachers were bishops, clerics and monks, the subjects of instruction were mainly theological sciences: the study of the Psalter, the reading of the Holy Scriptures, the works of the holy fathers and the lives of the saints of God, the rewriting of manuscripts of religious moral content, the singing of church hymns - that is what filled the educational life of the Byzantine schoolchild. In Byzantine schools, secular subjects were also taught - arithmetic, grammar and piitics, but these sciences, if possible, were given an ecclesiastical character, so that all Byzantine school teaching bore an ecclesiastical-religious character. There is nothing to say about the fact that the Byzantine schools were also educational institutions: their entire church and monastic system speaks for this. In general, Byzantine primary schools taught children the fear of God, brought up in the punishment and teaching of the Lord. Church-religious teaching and education was the ideal of the Byzantine school, which is vividly depicted both in the writings of the Byzantine emperors (for example, the Instruction of Basil the Macedonian to his son Leo), and in the works of the Byzantine archpastors (Theophylact of Bulgaria, Patriarch Athanasius of Constantinople), and in historical works ( Anna Komnena, Nikita Choniates), and especially in the lives of Byzantine ascetics. As for the secondary schools that existed both in the capital and in the provincial cities of Byzantium, as well as the higher school, or academy, which, with some intervals, existed in Constantinople from the time of Theodosius II (425) and almost until the fall of Byzantium,88 then and in them the teaching bore the imprint of churchliness, in the sense that theology in its various disciplines was also in the course of the taught sciences, for example, the Holy Scriptures, dogmatics, church jurisprudence, and practical preaching were studied. But one must not think that here theology supplanted the secular sciences, suppressed the secular element. This was only in those schools of the middle type that existed at the bishoprics and monasteries for the training of clergy, while state or state schools and private schools, on the contrary, exalted secular subjects (philosophy, rhetoric, jurisprudence) at the expense of theological ones, which were included in school curriculum side, imparting only a religious coloring to the whole course of study, constituting the final link in common circuit school subjects. Thus, the predominance religious beginning in schooling applicable in all its force only to the lower schools, but to those of the middle ones that pursued special theological tasks.

It is also known that in Byzantium, from the time of Constantine the Great to the last Palaiologos, there was a "Society of Lovers spiritual enlightenment”, in which, under the leadership of the emperors, with the participation of bishops and educated clerics and laity, scholarly meetings took place to discuss theological issues, abstracts were read, speeches were made, a lively exchange of views on subjects of religious knowledge took place, heated disputes took place. This institution was a leading figure in theological education, awakened public religious thought, illuminated the people's self-consciousness, and comprehended the interests of life in the spirit of Christian principles. It could arise and exist for a long time only where enlightenment and science had a strictly religious character.

Primary education consisted of the study of spelling, the basics of arithmetic and grammar, which meant familiarization with the works of classical authors, primarily Homer's Odyssey and Iliad. Over time, along with Homer, they began to read the books of the Old and New Testaments, and especially carefully studied the Psalter, which for many centuries served as the first book to be read not only in Byzantium, but also in Russia.

The general primary stage of education was followed by higher education. The secular sciences studied in higher education according to the system proposed by Plato (in his "Republic") were divided into two groups, namely:

1) "trivium", which included grammar, rhetoric and dialectics,

2) "quadrivium", which consisted of arithmetic, music, geometry and astronomy. However, the range of Byzantine scientific studies was not limited to the branches of knowledge included in these cycles. In addition to them, they studied law, medicine, and theology.

Higher educational institutions were controlled by the imperial power. There were also private schools. According to traditions, teaching was conducted orally, the lesson was improvised by the teacher. Approximately until the 5th century. n. e. the method of reading aloud the studied text, adopted in ancient Greece, was also preserved. Only in the 5th century, in connection with the spread of monasticism, which considered silence one of the highest Christian virtues, did they begin to read silently. The most important teaching method was the exegetical method, i.e., interpretation, commenting on the works chosen for study. In addition to Homer's poems, during the passage of the "trivium" they studied in extracts the works of tragedians - Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, historians - Herodotus and Thucydides, orators - Isocrates and Lysias. During the passage of the "quadrivium" the works of mathematicians - Archimedes, Euclid, physicians - Hippocrates and Galen were interpreted. Individual words or passages of the studied text were subject to interpretation. Exegetical literature was so widespread in Byzantium precisely because it corresponded to the main method of teaching. Quite often, the students wrote down in the classroom behind the teacher his interpretation of the brp tschtzt (from the voice), and then distributed them in the lists.

In Byzantium, theology was the central subject of literary activity and was studied in almost all of its private disciplines. Dogmatics, polemics, apologetics, biblical hermeneutics, asceticism and mysticism, ecclesiastical rhetoric and law, hagiography - these are the main branches of theological science in Byzantium. They got amazing here scientific development and brilliantly presented in numerous literary works, distinguished by the depth, thoroughness and comprehensiveness of the study of theological problems, the free flight of creative theological thought, which, however, did not deviate from the dogma of Orthodoxy, a remarkable flowering of literary productivity.

Occupying a central place in Byzantine science and literature, theology attracted other sciences that flourished in Byzantium into its sphere of interest, imparted a theological coloring to secular disciplines, and introduced church-religious elements into the content of secular literature as well. The dominant position of theology in the field of Byzantine education was reflected primarily in the nature of historical works, which, in their diversity and multiplicity, occupy second place in the literature of Byzantium. Works of this kind are divided into history in the narrow sense of the word and chronography. The difference depends on the material, the education of the author and on the circle of readers for whom the work was intended. The compilers of the chronographs were for the most part monks who had the task of compiling edifying guides to world history for the brethren and pious laity, from the creation of the world to later events. Hence their main point of view on events is the church one: in the foreground they have life and events in the Church, they confirm their views with the texts of Holy Scripture, give moral assessment persons and facts on the basis of Christian commandments and church canons, have in mind polemical and apologetic goals, often introduce moral reflections, instructive teachings, etc. into the text. successors, Patriarch Nicephorus, George Amartol, Simeon Magister and Logothete, Leo the Grammar, John Skylitsi, Kedrin, etc.) is beyond doubt. As for the Byzantine historians, who described contemporary or recently past events in a language close to classical and accessible only to educated people, according to a somewhat critical method, with a careful selection of material, the ecclesiastical element also occupied a prominent place in their writings. As a result of the dominance of ecclesiastical and religious interests throughout the life of Byzantine society, historians, as members of this society and faithful sons of their people, were typical Byzantines in their works. All of them, in their historical writings, also describe church events—they talk about the attitude of emperors towards the Church, about the change and activity of patriarchs, about the life of monks and the organization of monasteries, about dogmatic and religious disputes in general in the depths of the Byzantine Church, etc. The difference between historians in this regard, only that some of them talk more about church life, and others less, some talk about it deliberately, others mention it in passing, others lived in a stormy and fraught with church events, others tell about times of church calm, etc. In a word, the fundamental—religious—character of Byzantinism was reflected in a corresponding way in specialized historical literature.

In Byzantium, philosophy never died down either. But it developed here mainly in alliance with theology, which it helped with its methods in developing dogmatics, polemics and moralizing. A brilliant representative of Byzantine philosophical thought was St. John of Damascus, who in his dogmatic system presented the first experience of combining philosophy with theology. Then, a particularly high rise in the philosophical movement was observed in the 11th-12th centuries, when there was an academy in Constantinople, at the head of which for a long time was the famous Byzantine philosopher and theologian Michael Psellos, who wrote many works of theological, philosophical, historical and natural science content. Psellos was an admirer of Plato, whose ideas, revised in a peculiar way, he applied to the development of the theological system. At the same time, the philosophy of Aristotle was also studied in Byzantium. From the collision of the teachings of Aristotle and Plato on Byzantine soil in the XI century. a peculiar religious and philosophical movement arose, which did not stop even with the fall of Byzantium and passed to the West, where it was revived in the form of humanism. In Byzantium, the participants in this movement were: John Ital (XI century), Nikephoros Vlemmids, Plethon and Gennady Scholarius.

Finally, poetry also developed in Byzantium primarily on ecclesiastical soil and had in mind mainly the needs of Christian worship. Already in the first centuries of Christianity, not only sacred songs borrowed from the books of Holy Scripture, but also hymns newly composed by representatives of the Churches were used at church services. But until the end of the IV century. there was only a preparatory period in the history of church poetry, when Christian poets imitated classical models in versification. From the 5th century the flowering of Christian rhythmic poetry begins, which in the VI and VII centuries. achieved a brilliant development in terms of both the content of poetic works and the form, and enriched church worship with a collection of church hymns. At the head of the Christian songwriters was St. Roman Sladkopevets, this "Pindar of Church Rhythmic Poetry", which made up a large collection Also known are the songwriting works of Patriarchs Sergius and Sophronius, Maximus the Confessor. From the end of the 7th century in Byzantine church poetry a new form of religious creativity arose - the canons, the creator of which was St. Andrew of Crete. His work was continued by Sts. John of Damascus and Cosmas of Jerusalem. From the 9th century and further the Studian monastery in Constantinople served as the center of church poetry, from which a whole host of church songwriters came out. And in general, church poetry did not disappear in Byzantium until its fall, going through periods of prosperity, then decline, depending on general condition Byzantine culture, but always keeping the fire of sacred inspiration.

Byzantine art developed mainly on the basis of the church and had an almost exclusively religious character. Byzantine art, as one specialist of the subject says, must be credited with the merit that for the first time it gave Christian conceptions a completely definite character. And indeed, in all its originality and in all its scope, it is predominantly in the religious field. This is natural, if we take into account to what extent religion was powerful among the Byzantines and how it penetrated into all aspects of life and life. In Byzantine society, the Church watched over the artists and directed their work, early taking them under its protection. Therefore, Byzantine artistic activity manifested itself with the character of churchliness and religiosity in architecture, and in painting, and in sculpture, and in mosaics, and in miniatures, and in enamel.

Same way special role in Byzantium, legal education played, since lawyers were very needed in the state apparatus. Law was one of the main subjects of teaching in the Athens, Alexandria and Beirut schools. The most celebrated of these was the Beirut school, which reached its highest prosperity in the fifth century. The basis of teaching in higher schools of law was the study of the texts of lawyers of the classical era. Criminal law and legal proceedings were not studied. The method of teaching was wholly exegetical and suffered from confusion and incompleteness. As a result of training, students did not receive any practical skills. Meanwhile, the need for knowledgeable practicing lawyers in the empire was very significant, legal education was also required for public service. Need for reform legal education became especially urgent after the completion of work on the codification of law under Justinian. This reform consisted of a categorical prohibition to study anything other than the Corpus juris civilis. It is the new, codified law that has now become the only subject of study. The reform of the teaching of law under Justinian seems to have produced some positive results. Not only did the range of students study legal issues, but teaching became more specific, closer to the needs of legal practice. Since the Corpus juris civilis became the only valid law, it is natural that for an educated judge or lawyer in his practical activities, first of all, it was necessary to master this particular Code of Laws well.

As for history, direct evidence of teaching in the Byzantine educational institutions history as an independent discipline is almost not preserved. Only Theophylact Simocatta, in the preface to his famous essay puts history on a par with philosophy in a single series of sciences and indicates that history was taught at the University of Constantinople. The study of history in educational institutions can also be judged on the basis of numerous brief historical compendia preserved in many medieval manuscripts; such compendiums, apparently, served as teaching aids.

Under the influence of Christianity, not only the view of the purpose of history has changed, but also the content of historical writings. The study of history was based on the Bible; to the material gleaned from the Bible, Christian authors who considered themselves at the same time heirs ancient Hellas, added myths, and transcriptions of Homer's poems, and retellings of the works of ancient tragedians. The presentation of history in accordance with the requirements of the church also entailed the inclusion in the historical writings of information about all the peoples known at that time, it assumed the consideration of the fate of all mankind from the mythical creation of Adam.

Historical knowledge spread in Byzantium not only in historical writings or chronicles. Commentaries on the poems of Homer, on the Bible and other works studied by the Byzantines, contained many historical information, the names of really existing and mythical personalities who were perceived as really living. One of the most important and most common commenting techniques biblical texts there was a comparison of the traditions (or sayings) of the Old Testament with the events mentioned in the New Testament.

The study of the past of Hellas and the comparison of the Old Testament history with the New Testament contributed to the spread of the view of the historical process as the progressive movement of society.

Development philological sciences was closely connected with the needs of education, and took place mainly in the process of studying and commenting on the works of ancient literature, and later also on the works of early Christian literature.

The concept of "philology" did not exist in Byzantium. Grammar meant not only grammar in modern sense of this word, but also lexicography and metrics. There were special grammatical treatises. The most significant of these were written by George Khirovosk, who lectured on grammar at the University of Constantinople at the end of the 6th or the beginning of the 7th century. Lectures by Hirovoska commenting on the works of the grammarians Theodosius of Alexandria and Dionysius of Thrace (both lived around 100 BC) have been preserved; Hirovosk also owns a treatise on prosody and a spelling guide.

During the IV-V centuries. on the territory of the Eastern Roman Empire, the pagan centers of education that had arisen in previous centuries still remained. Christian schools appear for the most part in such cities as Alexandria, Athens, Beirut, Constantinople, that is, in the ancient centers of education. Between prominent centers there was an exchange of scientists; there is even information about what took place in the VI century. "congress" of scientists, at which the philosophers of Athens and Thebes met with the philosophers of Constantinople.

In the first centuries of the existence of the Eastern Roman Empire, the old universities of Athens and Alexandria, which arose in the ancient or Hellenistic era, still retained their former glory. The role of these universities in the period under review was not so much in the creative development of science, but in the preservation scientific heritage past, in the transmission of the culture of pagan Greece and Rome to a new generation, already brought up in the spirit of the Christian faith. Athens, a city remote from the areas where the Christian religion arose, remained the last stronghold of paganism. In Alexandria already in the II century. there is a so-called Alexandrian trend in theology. As the mental center of the empire, this city appears later than Athens. Perhaps it was for this reason that the University of Athens was closed by Justinian in 529, while the University of Alexandria turned out to be more viable and existed until the middle of the 7th century, when the city was occupied by the Arabs. The study of philosophy dominated the University of Athens. In Alexandria, in the 4th and 5th centuries, as before, not only pagan poetry and philosophy flourished, but also mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and theology. privileges and by the VI century. ranked first among other educational institutions of the empire.

The university in Constantinople was organized around 425 by the decree of Theodosius II. The university was designed to train not only scientists, but also government officials. Among the university professors, the most famous are Georgy Hirovosk and Stefan of Alexandria. Both bore the title of "universal teachers".

The center of legal education was in Beirut20 until 551, when the city was destroyed by an earthquake. The Beirut School of Law was founded at the end of the 2nd century BC. or in early III in. Teaching in it was conducted in Latin, only at the end of the 5th century. enters the school Greek language. The so-called Sinai scholia have been preserved, which are interpretations of Beirut professors on some monuments of Roman law.

One of the first medieval universities was the university in the Syrian city of Nisibis, founded at the end of the 5th century. Many teachers from the Edessa school, closed in 489, moved to the Nisibis High School. The statute of the Nishi school, which is the oldest statute of a medieval university known to us, has been preserved in several editions.

In addition to the centers of education mentioned above, there was also a high school in Edessa, a school of rhetoricians and sophists in Gaza, a medical school in Nisibis, a Christian school in Caesarea, founded by Origen in the Syrian city of Amid. Already by the beginning of the 4th century, there was undoubtedly a theological school in Antioch, but information about it is extremely scarce. In any case, there is every reason to assume that the educational work here was well organized: a whole theological and exegetical trend was called the Antioch School.

For the successful development of science in any era, books and book depositories are necessary; book depositories in the Middle Ages were closely associated with writing workshops - scriptoria, since books were acquired mainly through their correspondence. As a writing material in the IV-VII centuries. papyrus and parchment were used. In the sands of Egypt, many fragments of papyrus books, both secular and religious, have been preserved, representing the remains of private libraries. Among the surviving parchment manuscripts of this time, liturgical texts predominate. All higher educational institutions, monasteries and churches had their own libraries. Of the libraries that arose in Byzantium in the 4th-7th centuries, only one has survived to this day - the library of the monastery of St. Catherine at Sinai, and even in that one there are manuscripts of a later time. However, it is known that the books were already in Diocletian's palace in Nicomedia. When Constantine later moved the capital to the shores of the Bosporus, a library was set up in the portico of the imperial palace, consisting of almost seven thousand books. Up to the VI century. there was the famous Library of Alexandria, the largest and best organized library Hellenistic era. There were also private book depositories, for example, the library of the Bishop of Alexandria George, who was killed in 361, which contained books on philosophy, rhetoric, history and theology, or the library of the scientist Tychicus - mathematical and astrological works predominated in it. Despite the fragmentary nature of the sources, it can be reasonably assumed that the book wealth, both in the capital of the empire and in the provincial cities, was significant; this consideration is confirmed by numerous finds of papyri of literary content.

Music occupied a special place in Byzantine civilization. A peculiar combination of authoritarianism and democracy could not but affect the nature of musical culture, which was a complex and multifaceted phenomenon of the spiritual life of the era. In the V-VII centuries. the formation of the Christian liturgy took place, new genres developed vocal art. Music acquires a special civil status, is included in the system of representation of state power. The music of the city streets, theatrical and circus performances and folk festivals, which reflected the richest song and musical practice of many peoples inhabiting the empire, retained a special color. Each of these types of music had its own aesthetic and social meaning and at the same time, interacting, they merged into a single and unique whole. Christianity very early appreciated the special possibilities of music as a universal art and at the same time possessing the power of mass and individual psychological impact, and included it in their cult ritual. It was cult music that was destined to occupy a dominant position in medieval Byzantium.

If we summarize the first period of the existence of Byzantium, we can say that during this period the main features of Byzantine culture were formed. First of all, they should include the fact that Byzantine culture was open to other cultural influences received from outside. But gradually in early period they were synthesized by the main, leading Greco-Roman culture.

The struggle between secular and ecclesiastical cultures is especially characteristic of the first period of the history of Byzantium. In the history of Byzantine culture, the first centuries of the existence of Byzantium were a time of acute ideological struggle, a clash of contradictory tendencies, complex ideological conflicts, but also a time of fruitful searches, intense spiritual creativity, positive development of science and art. These were the centuries when, in the throes of the struggle between the old and the new, the culture of the future medieval society was born.

In the second stage of the development of culture, which fell on the time from the second half of the 7th century. to the XII century, they distinguish the time of iconoclasm (the second quarter of the VIII - the 40s of the IX century, the time of the reign of the emperors of the Macedonian dynasty (the so-called "Macedonian Renaissance": 867-1056, and the reign of the Komnenos ("Comnenos Renaissance": 1081-1185 The defining feature of the spiritual life of the empire by the middle of the 7th century was the undivided dominance of the Christian worldview. Widespread superstition helped the church to dominate the minds of the parishioners, increase its wealth and strengthen its position. In the context of a general rise in spiritual culture, a new direction in scientific and philosophical thought Byzantium was marked in the work of Patriarch Photius, who did more than anyone else before him to revive the development of sciences in the empire. and for reasons of rationalism and practical use and trying through naturally scientific knowledge explain the causes of natural phenomena. The rise of rationalistic thought in the era of Photius, accompanied by a new increase in interest in antiquity, became even more tangible in the 11th-12th centuries. As a result of the second period - Byzantium at that time reached the highest power and the highest point in the development of culture. In the social development and in the evolution of the culture of Byzantium, contradictory trends are evident, due to its median position between East and West.

The second period also saw the flowering of Byzantine aesthetics. The development of aesthetic thought in the VIII-IX centuries. was stimulated by the struggle around cult images. Icon worshipers had to sum up the main Christian concepts of the image and, on their basis, develop a theory of the relationship between the image and the archetype, primarily in relation to the visual arts. The functions of the image in the spiritual culture of the past were studied, a comparative analysis of symbolic and mimetic (imitative) images was carried out, the relation of the image to the word was made meaningful in a new way, the problem of the priority of painting in religious culture was posed.

Most full development received in that era an anti-kissing direction of aesthetics, guided by the ancient criteria of beauty. There was a revival of interest in the physical (bodily) beauty of a person; received new life condemned by religious rigorists and the aesthetics of eroticism; secular art again enjoyed special attention. The theory of symbolism also received new impulses, especially the concept of allegory; gardening art began to be appreciated; The revival also touched on the dramatic art, the comprehension of which was devoted to special works.

The third period (XII-XIV centuries) can be briefly described as highest point development of feudalism and the collapse of the Byzantine Empire. Byzantium lasted 1000 years longer than the Great Roman Empire, it was still conquered in the XIV century by the Seljuk Turks. But, despite this, Byzantium made a huge contribution to the development of world culture. Its basic principles and directions of culture were transferred to neighboring states. Almost all the time, medieval Europe developed on the basis of the achievements of Byzantine culture. Byzantium can be called the "second Rome", because. its contribution to the development of Europe and the whole world is in no way inferior to the Roman Empire.

Thus, based on this text, we can see a long and difficult path, the path of evolution of the Byzantine era of science and enlightenment. From paganism to Christianity, from flourishing to decline, and again to a new flourishing of culture, science, religion ..... This long and difficult path took 1123 years. In this topic, both the church-religious nature and the influence of the church on the development of many sciences are well represented. This Great Empire opened up new disciplines to humanity, gave many famous scientists, orators, architects, thinkers and other representatives of its powerful cultural heritage, and paved a new path for the arrival of Christianity in other states of the Middle Ages, including Russia. We can see traces of the Byzantine Empire in the form of architecture, famous mosaics, works of literature even today, because every piece of papyrus, every pebble in the ruins, every temple or cathedral breathes in the meantime and takes us many centuries into the past, so that at least for a minute touch the universal world heritage, and plunge into that interesting and unique atmosphere of a difficult but interesting time.

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We are not surprised that in Byzantium of the 6th-10th centuries, work on the physics of the Hellenic period was given great attention: After all, these works appeared just then. At that time, physics included the entire body of knowledge about nature, namely physics proper, geography, zoology, botany, mineralogy and medicine.

Historians report that the Byzantines drew information on natural science from books, in particular from the works of Aristotle. But suddenly it turns out that this interest in the works of the classic demanded their new editions; that the sequence of the arrangement of books within individual works was often violated, and their places were confused; that the meaning of a number of texts was obscured, and the content of the lists also did not match; what was done in Byzantium short summaries the main ideas of Aristotle, and these summaries, although they adhered to the text of the originals, were often supplemented with new material, excerpts from the works of later scientists who spoke on the same topic ... According to Simplikius, the texts of Aristotle's "Physics", which remained from his two closest students - Theophrastus and Eudemus, differed significantly from each other.

All this means that in Byzantium the works of Aristotle were not only edited, but, in fact, created anew.

Commentaries by Themistius, Simplicius, John Philopon, Olympiodorus on Aristotle and on the writings of other "ancients" have come down to us. These comments are invaluable; they greatly facilitate the understanding of science, especially the most difficult passages from Aristotle and others. And what does it mean to explain places that are difficult to understand? This means writing your own paper on the topic.

Each of these authors has a different approach to solving the problems facing him. The most famous commentators on the works of Aristotle were the students of Ammonius, professor of the Alexandrian school, Simplicius and John Philopon. They were distinguished by comprehensive and deep education, independence in solving physical problems and clarity of thought. At the same time, Simplicius did not go beyond the framework of the Neoplatonic tradition in his comments. John Philopon was a Christian, but despite this, on some theological issues he expressed opinions that differed significantly from the dogmas of the Christian dogma. In a dispute with the pagan Neoplatonist Olympiodorus, John Philopon denied the eternity of the Universe and proved the identity of the nature of the heavenly bodies and objects of the sublunar world.

Themistius followed Aristotle relentlessly. Like his idol, he considered the air surrounding the thrown body to be both moving and setting in motion. On the contrary, this explanation seemed artificial to Simplicius. He suggested that the throwing projectile communicates movement to it, and not to the air. Nevertheless, Simplicius did not dare to abandon Aristotle's hypothesis.

This concept and a number of other provisions of Aristotle's natural philosophy were criticized by John Philopon. He argued that throwing a stone transmits a certain internal force that maintains the movement of the stone for a certain time, and not air, which brings nothing into motion, and if it does, then very little. Describing this force, John Philopon represented it as incorporeal and having nothing to do with air or any other medium. The speed of the thrown object depends on its value. The resistance of the environment in which he flies can only reduce his speed, which will be maximum in the void. In medieval Latin texts, the force that is communicated to a moving body was called impetus (impulse, pressure, onslaught, striving forward). The idea of ​​impetus was an anticipation of the concepts of momentum and kinetic energy.

It is quite possible that John Philopon conducted some experiments with falling objects in various environments. Simplicius also experimented. Studying the question raised by Aristotle about the change in body weight as it approaches its “natural” place, he, on the basis of his experiments, denied the difference between an empty waterskin and a waterskin filled with air. Aristotle considered the weight of an inflated waterskin to be greater than that of an empty, uninflated one.

Great interest in the problems of mechanics was shown by the mathematicians Eutoky, Anthimius from Trall and Isidore of Miletus, who knew not only the works of Archimedes, but also the works of Heron, in particular his Mechanics. Their knowledge of the laws of mechanics, creatively assimilated, the latter applied in the construction of the church of St. Sofia.

The knowledge of the Byzantines in the field of optics - the science of vision, catoptrics - the theory of reflection of rays from mirror surfaces and dioptrics - the doctrine of optical measurements, was based on the works of Aristotle, Euclid, Heron, Ptolemy.

Euclid's treatise "Optics", outlining the theory of perspective, was revised and republished by Theon of Alexandria. The laws of reflection of parabolic mirrors were formulated in the work of Anthimius of Thrall "On incendiary mirrors". Olympiodor took a new approach to solving the problem of the rectilinear passage of light rays. Unlike Heron, who in his Catoptrika established the dependence of the straightness of light rays on the infinitely high speed of their propagation, the later Byzantine philosopher argued the expediency of arranging everything in nature, which, according to him, does not tolerate any excesses. This would be the case if she did not choose the shortest path for the passage of light.

Thus, in Christian Byzantium, certain provisions of the Hellenic scientists were criticized and some correct guesses were made on a number of questions of physics. But the theory of these disciplines developed slowly. The Byzantines, historians believe, were more interested in the practical side of the matter, they tried to apply the achievements of their predecessors to solving urgent problems. technical problems, and in the field of theory they just tried to comprehend the ideas expressed by the ancients.

Orthodox Christian scientists began to view physics as auxiliary science in the service of religious metaphysics. They also had their own view of nature. If for the Hellenes nature is a reality, then for Christians it is the creation of God, His symbol, the embodiment of His ideas. In all natural phenomena they saw the action of divine providence, an illustration of religious and moral truths.

However, the presence of two systems of understanding nature - Hellenic and Christian (allegorical-didactic) could not but lead to the emergence of an idea synthesized from their elements. And she appeared in Byzantium in the work of Michael Psellos "General Instruction" and in the monody, written by him to console those who suffered from the earthquake in September 1063. Although he considered God the creator visible world, nature appears to him in a different capacity, it appears separate from the Creator who created it, existing independently, independently of Him. She lives and acts, obeying only the laws that were given to her during creation and which can be known by man. Nature in Psellos is an object of independent consideration. He seeks to give a rational explanation for the natural phenomena of the surrounding world.

Psellus, talking about various natural phenomena, indicates the root cause and immediate cause that caused them. Remaining a man of his time, by the root cause he meant God, and in his explanation of the causal relationship of natural phenomena, he tried to combine the laws of Aristotle's "Physics" with the actions of divine providence. In the work "General Instruction", a treatise on meteorology, comments on Aristotle's "Physics" and other works, he paid much attention to the development of physical problems. He collected and processed information about matter, movement, color, echo, rain, thunder, lightning, etc.

The Byzantines expressed great interest in the most diverse manifestations of nature; not only scientists, but also historians, and hagiographers, and authors of theological works considered it their duty to tell about atmospheric phenomena, earthquakes and others natural disasters, reveal their essence and causes.

Patriarch Nikifor wrote about formidable atmospheric phenomena, shooting stars, wandering lights, comets. He considered them the punishment of the Creator for the insults inflicted on him by the iconoclasts. At the same time, he criticized, calling people who tried to give natural scientific explanations for this, artisans.

Anna Komnena compared certain events of her father's reign with physical phenomena. So, telling about the arrival of Alexei I in Thessalonica, she compares the inhabitants of the surrounding regions who went to meet him with heavy bodies that strive towards the center. John of Damascus, in The Source of Knowledge, discusses the origin thermal waters. Patriarch Photius in the "Library" also deals with physical issues and, above all, fixes his attention on the nature of earthquakes. Simeon Seth in General overview began natural sciences” placed data on the substance of heaven and earth, matter and form, place and time, soul and spirit, and five senses. Eustratius of Nicaea in his writings also dwells on the origin of rain, snow, hail, thunder, lightning, earthquakes, thermal waters.

Talking about natural phenomena, the Byzantines paid great attention to their description, and not to the study of patterns. The concept of experiment was alien to them. All controversial issues were resolved speculatively. The main source of their knowledge about the world around them was not nature itself or observations of its phenomena, but books, primarily the works of Aristotle and his commentators: Olympiodorus, Proclus, John Philopon and others.

The question of the causes of earthquakes has been discussed for a long time. Orthodox considered them God's punishment for the sins of mankind. Scientists, on the other hand, stood on the point of view of Aristotle, who developed the theory according to which earthquakes are caused by air accumulated in the cracks of the Earth. And Patriarch Photius believed that they are generated by an excess of water in the bowels of the Earth, and not by an abundance of air and not by sins. However, this did not prevent him from interpreting the earthquake as a miracle in other writings.

According to Michael Psellos, God generates earthquakes, but their immediate cause is the air emanating from the bowels of the Earth, which, due to its great hardness, condenses and rushes out under pressure, which causes the Earth to shake. Also, Simeon Seth and Eustratius of Nicaea initially indicate the supernatural cause of earthquakes, arguing that nothing happens in nature without divine permission, and then they also recall the cause of the physical order.

Eustratius of Nicaea explains the origin of thermal waters with natural causes. He categorically rejects the opinion of Ephraim the Syrian, who considered them to be the source of Hell, on the grounds that if water flowed out of hell, it would be harmful and would bring death and destruction. In fact, it has therapeutic and even healing properties.

Eustratius of Nicaea adhered to the concept that the body of the Earth is pierced by air, fire and water veins, through which air, fire and water flow respectively. The fiery channels, located near the water channels, sometimes heat the water flowing in them to a boil, which in this state appears on the surface. The air veins adjacent to the aquifers, on the contrary, cool the water in them, and it, becoming cold, pours out from the sources. Traditionally, this concept has also been attributed to Aristotle.

Using their own observations, Byzantine scientists solve salinity issues sea ​​water. So, Simeon Seth explains the causes of this salinity by constant evaporation from the surface of the sea, which makes it denser, and as a result, the water acquires a salty taste. He compares this phenomenon with the release of salty sweat by the human body, despite the fact that it consumes only fresh water. The theoretical provisions for such conclusions are again, without any reason, attributed to Aristotle. However, Simeon Seth also refers to the intervention of divine providence, allegedly by whose will the water, becoming salty, does not rot and does not emit a stench.

Byzantine thinkers also thought about why, during a thunderstorm, a person first sees light and only after some time hears sound. Michael Psellos tried to explain this phenomenon natural causes: The eye picks up light before the ear picks up sound, because the eye is convex and the ear is hollow. Simeon Seth gave a more rational explanation: sound takes time to propagate, but light does not.

Presented in the works of Michael Psellos, Simeon Seth and Eustratius of Nicaea, the concept physical structure of the surrounding world in many respects differ from the biblical ideas about the structure of the universe, and in their essential features they coincide with the work “On the Origin and Destruction”, again attributed to Aristotle.

All the works of these scientists, devoted to the consideration of the physical phenomena of the surrounding world, testify to an attempt to harmonize the Hellenic doctrine with Christian doctrine, and the Christian doctrine with the principles of the Hellenic worldview. However, rationalism, which originated in science in the second half of the 11th century, was limited. Only that which did not come into obvious conflict with the dogmas of Christianity was accepted.

In the Paleologian period, after the Latin domination, the development of scientific thought continued in Byzantium. Let us mention one of the scientists of this time, Theodore Metochites. He, they say, already saw the inferiority of the ideas attributed to Aristotle - although in fact he criticized some canonized teaching of the past period, which is both more logical and truer. Metochites accused Aristotelianism of underestimating mathematics. Analyzing the writings of the adept Aristotle Chumna, Metochites showed that his thinking in the field of physics, although it indicates some borrowings from Plato, nevertheless statically and entirely rests on the qualitative physics of Aristotle. Metochites reproaches his opponent for ignorance of Plato, for missing one of his most important premises - quantitative aspect theory of the elements, which is ultimately consequence of the underestimation of the importance of mathematics.

This idea of ​​Metochites was a kind of harbinger of the scientific revolution of the 17th century, which significantly expanded the use of mathematical methods in the study of the physical world.

But we must keep in mind that we do not know much of Byzantine science, because many books (sometimes together with scientists) were taken to Western Europe in the 13th-15th centuries, and there they were used without reference to the original source.

Throughout the Early Middle Ages Byzantine Empire was the center of a bright and original spiritual and material culture. Its originality lies in the fact that it combined Hellenistic and Roman traditions with the original culture dating back to ancient times not only of the Greeks, but also of many other peoples who inhabited the empire - Egyptians, Syrians, peoples of Asia Minor and Transcaucasia, tribes of the Crimea, as well as settled in the empire of the Slavs. The Arabs also had a certain influence on it. During the early Middle Ages, the cities of Byzantium remained centers of education, where, based on the achievements of antiquity, sciences and crafts, fine arts and architecture continued to develop. Trade and diplomatic relations of Byzantium stimulated the expansion of geographical and natural science knowledge. Developed commodity-money relations gave rise to a complex system civil law and contributed to the rise of jurisprudence.

The entire history of Byzantine culture is colored by the struggle between the ruling classes' dominant ideology and opposition currents expressing the aspirations of broad populace. In this struggle, on the one hand, the ideologists of church-feudal culture oppose each other, defending the ideal of subordinating the flesh to the spirit, man - religion, glorifying the ideas of strong monarchical power and a powerful church; on the other hand, representatives of freethinking, usually dressed in the clothes of heretical teachings, defending to a certain extent the freedom of the human person and opposing the despotism of the state and the church. Most often, these were people from the opposition-minded urban circles, small estate feudal lords, the lower clergy and the masses.

A special place is occupied by the folk culture of Byzantium. Folk music and dance, church and theatrical performances that retain the features of ancient mysteries, heroic folk epics, satirical fables that denounce and ridicule the vices of the lazy and cruel rich, cunning monks, corrupt judges - these are the diverse and vivid manifestations of folk culture. Invaluable contribution folk craftsmen in the creation of monuments of architecture, painting, applied arts and artistic crafts.

Development of scientific knowledge. Education

In the early period in Byzantium, the old centers of ancient education were still preserved - Athens, Alexandria, Beirut, Gaza. However, the attack of the Christian Church on ancient pagan education led to the decline of some of them. The scientific center in Alexandria was destroyed, the famous Library of Alexandria died during a fire, in 415 fanatical monasticism tore to pieces the outstanding woman scientist, mathematician and philosopher Hypatia. Under Justinian, the high school in Athens, the last center of ancient pagan science, was closed.

In the future, Constantinople became the center of education, where in the 9th century. Magnavra High School was created, in which, along with theology, secular sciences were also taught. In 1045, a university was founded in Constantinople, which had two faculties - law and philosophy. A higher medical school was also established there. Lower schools were scattered across the country, both church-monastic and private. AT major cities and monasteries there were libraries and skiptorias where books were copied.

The dominance of the scholastic theological worldview could not stifle scientific creativity in Byzantium, although it hindered its development. In the field of technology, especially handicrafts, thanks to the preservation of many ancient techniques and skills, Byzantium in the early Middle Ages was significantly ahead of the countries of Western Europe. The level of development of the natural sciences was also higher. In mathematics, along with the commentary of ancient authors, independent scientific creativity developed, fueled by the needs of practice - construction, irrigation, and navigation. In the IX-XI centuries. In Byzantium, Indian numerals in Arabic writing begin to be used. By the 9th century includes the activities of the largest scientist Leo Mathematician, who invented the light telegraph system and laid the foundations of algebra, using letter designations as symbols.

In the field of cosmography and astronomy, there was a sharp struggle between the defenders ancient systems and supporters of the Christian worldview. In the VI century. Cosmas Indikoplios (i.e., "sailing to India") in his "Christian topography" set the task of refuting Ptolemy. His naive cosmogony was based on the biblical notion that the Earth is a flat quadrilateral surrounded by an ocean and covered by a vault of heaven. However, ancient cosmogonic ideas are preserved in Byzantium and in the 9th century. Held astronomical observations, although they are still very often intertwined with astrology. Byzantine scientists achieved significant success in the field of medicine. Byzantine physicians not only commented on the works of Galen and Hippocrates, but also summarized practical experience.

The needs of handicraft production and medicine stimulated the development of chemistry. Along with alchemy, the rudiments of genuine knowledge also developed. Ancient recipes for the production of glass, ceramics, mosaic smalt, enamels and paints were preserved here. In the 7th century In Byzantium, "Greek fire" was invented - an incendiary mixture that gives a flame that cannot be extinguished by water and even ignites when it comes into contact with it. The composition of the "Greek fire" for a long time kept in deep secret, and only later established that it consisted of oil mixed with quicklime and various resins. The invention of "Greek fire" for a long time provided Byzantium with an advantage in naval battles and greatly contributed to its hegemony at sea in the fight against the Arabs.

The wide trade and diplomatic relations of the Byzantines contributed to the development geographical knowledge. In "Christian Topography" by Kosma Indikoplov, interesting information about the animal and plant world has been preserved, trade routes and the population of Arabia, East Africa, India. Valuable geographical information contain writings by Byzantine travelers and pilgrims of later times. In parallel with the expansion of geographical knowledge, there was an acquaintance with the flora and fauna of various countries, generalized in the works of Byzantine natural scientists. By the X century. includes the creation of an agricultural encyclopedia - Geoponics, which summarized the achievements of ancient agronomy.

At the same time, the desire to adapt the achievements of empirical science to religious ideas is increasingly manifested in Byzantine culture.

In Byzantium, knowledge, education and science were treated with extraordinary respect, although science, according to the ancient model, was understood as purely speculative knowledge (as opposed to experimental, practical knowledge, which was considered a craft). In Byzantium, in accordance with the ancient tradition, all sciences were united under the name of philosophy - these were theoretical sciences: theological, mathematics, natural science and practical: ethics and politics, as well as grammar, rhetoric, dialectics (logic), astronomy, music and jurisprudence .

In the early period in Byzantium, the old centers of ancient education were preserved - Athens, Alexandria, Antioch, Beirut, Gaza. Special attention paid to the development of branches of knowledge that provided for the needs of practice: medical, agricultural, crafts, construction. Has been done big job on systematization and commenting of ancient authors. New research centers are gradually emerging. So, in Constantinople in the IX century. the Magnavra High School was created, and in 1045. - a kind of university with law and philosophy faculties and medical school. However, the Orthodox Church began to actively adapt the classical education system to its interests, trying to influence the moral education of youth in the spirit of Christian morality. Theological higher schools (theological academies) arose. In them, along with theology, much attention was paid to secular sciences.

With the establishment of Christianity, Byzantine theologians, faithful to the traditions of ancient philosophical thought, preserved the refinement of the dialectic of the Greek philosophers. The development of natural science knowledge was fettered by the prevailing method of cognition, based only on the systematization and interpretation of the ancient heritage. The development of science as a whole was influenced by the biblical concept of the universe.

In Byzantium, as in no other country of the medieval world, the traditions of ancient historiography were stable. The works of most Byzantine historians, in terms of the nature of presentation, language, composition, are rooted in the classics of Greek historiography - Herodotus, Thucydides, Polybius. From the VI-VII centuries. the works of Procopius of Kessaria, Agathias of Mirinea, Menendre Theophylact, Smokatta are known. The most prominent is Procopius of Caesarea. His main works are "The History of Justinian's Wars with the Persians, Vandals, Goths", "On the Buildings of Justinian".

XI-XII centuries - the heyday of Byzantine historiography proper. Authorial, emotionally colored writings by Michael Psellos, Anna Komnena, Nikita Choniata, and others appear, where historians turn from registrars of facts into them interpreters. Historical chronicles acquire the features of a historical novel, which corresponded to the new aesthetic tastes acquired the rights of citizenship.

In Byzantine literature, there are two trends: one is based on the ancient heritage, the second reflects the Christian worldview. In the IV-VI centuries. ancient genres are widespread: speeches, epigrams, love lyrics, erotic stories. From the end of VI - beginning. 7th century church poetry (hymnography) was born, the most prominent representative of which was Roman Sladkopevets. In the VII-IX centuries. the genre of edifying reading - the lives of the saints,

From the 10th century statesmen, writers and scientists are beginning to collect, systematize, preserve the ancient heritage. So, Patriarch Photius compiled a collection of reviews from 280 works of ancient authors with detailed extracts from them, which received the name "Mirnobiblion". As already mentioned, the Byzantines reached significant heights in the field of theology.

Philosophy in Byzantium was based on the study and commentary of the ancient philosophical teachings of all schools and directions, especially the teachings of Plato and Aristotle. Byzantine philosophy of the XIV-XV centuries. reveals kinship with Western European humanism. Humanistic ideas differed from the ideas of hesychasm. Humanists have shown respect for the individual, for his right to justice in earthly life. They exalted the natural joys of life: self-respect, the pleasure of contemplating nature and art. Mental activity was considered pleasure.

The brightest scientists and politicians XIV-XV centuries. - Theodore, Metochites, Manuel Crisolor, George Gemistplifon, Vissarion of Nicaea. characteristic featuresthem Creativity was admiration for ancient culture.

So, the culture of Byzantium is logical step development of world culture. Like any other culture, it has its own characteristics of development.

Byzantine culture was opened by diverse cultural influences both from outside and from within, from the culture of the polyethnic population of the empire.

The culture of Byzantium was based on the Greco-Roman dominant, however, in the process of its development, it was significantly enriched with elements of the cultures of many peoples of the East and acquired a unique flavor that distinguishes it from the culture of Western Europe. Many features of the culture of Byzantium are due to significant differences between the Eastern (Orthodox) and Western (Catholic) churches. Differences were manifested both in the originality of philosophical and theological views, and in dogma, liturgy, rituals, in the system of Christian and aesthetic values. Byzantium retained the state and political doctrines of Rome (stable statehood and centralized government). The dominant role of the capital, Constantinople, led to the centralization of Byzantine culture.

These features contributed to the deep and sustainable influence of Byzantium on the development of many European countries:

Southern Italy, Sicily, Dalmatia, states of the Balkan Peninsula, Ancient Russia, Transcaucasia, North Caucasus, Crimea.

Thanks to Byzantium, the values ​​of ancient and eastern civilization were preserved and transferred to other peoples. Byzantine culture remained in the spiritual life Greek people and other Orthodox countries (Bulgaria, Serbia, Georgia), and Muscovite Russia preserved, assimilated, reworked and developed its traditions. The culture of Byzantium enriched European civilization and the culture of the Renaissance and made a huge contribution to the further history of European culture.

The process of formation of Byzantine culture lasted several centuries, starting from the late ancient era until the 9th-10th centuries. Byzantine art, like the culture of other countries of medieval states, was complex, but still single system cultural values. The changes taking place in one of the spheres of culture immediately affected the other, although general phenomena, the struggle of the old with the new, the emergence of new trends took place in different industries cultures differently.

Education

Since the Eastern Roman Empire in the IV-V centuries. was not subjected to barbarian invasions, its old centers of ancient science survived - Athens, Alexandria, Beirut,

Strip; new ones were created. In Byzantium at the beginning of the Middle Ages there were more educated people than in Western Europe. Reading, writing, counting were taught in city schools, the poems of Homer, the tragedies of Aeschylus and Sophocles were studied, although the children of the rich studied in such schools. A commission set up in Constantinople, which included the best experts in Greek and Latin, searched for rare books that were copied for the imperial library. Byzantium became the state in which the first higher school in Europe was opened. It began to function in the 9th century. in Constantinople. A higher medical school was also established here. Even then, medical care for the population of the city was thought out. Each doctor in the capital was assigned a certain area of ​​the city in which he treated the sick.

scientific knowledge

Byzantine geographers achieved success: they skillfully drew maps of the country and the seas, plans for city blocks and buildings, which was still unattainable for the West. At the beginning of this stage, scientific creativity did not stop in Byzantium. In the IV century. prominent mathematicians, researchers in the field of astronomy and astrology, as well as optics worked here. Significant advances were made in medicine. Doctor Oribasium(326-403) compiled a medical encyclopedia that included 70 books. It contained extensive extracts from the works of ancient physicians, as well as the author's own conclusions and generalizations.

After the establishment of Christianity as the state religion, the best representatives of science began to be persecuted. Hypatia perished, Oribasius managed to escape with difficulty. Scientific centers were destroyed: in 489, at the insistence of the bishops, the school in Ephesus was closed, in 529 - the school in Athens - one of the largest centers of Greek education. At the end of the IV century. fanatical monks destroyed a significant part of the Alexandrian library. At the same time, church theological schools, and higher ones, were created to spread Christianity.

With the approval of the positions of the church, science becomes theological, which is especially evident in the field of natural sciences. In the middle of the VI century. monk Kosma Indikoplov wrote "Christian Topography" in which he recognized the Ptolemaic system as incorrect and contrary to the Bible. According to Cosmas, the shape of the Earth is a flat quadrilateral, surrounded by the ocean and covered with a vault of heaven, where paradise is placed. This work was distributed not only in Byzantium, but also in the West, as well as in Ancient Russia.

In the VI-VII centuries. in Byzantium, alchemy dominated, busy searching for the "divine elixir", with which you can turn any metals into gold, heal various diseases to restore youth. At the same time, the chemical craft was developed - the manufacture of paints for painting and dyeing fabrics, ceramic products, mosaics and enamels, which were widely used in Byzantine fine arts and the manufacture of fabrics.

Most of the medical writings of this period attempted to combine medicine with theology. Only a few physicians continued to defend the achievements of ancient science and generalized their own practice. Among them Alexander Trallsky, studied pathology and therapy of internal diseases. His works were subsequently translated into Latin, Syriac, Arabic and Hebrew. Pavel Eginsky- compiler big encyclopedia, which later enjoyed prestige among the Arabs, primarily in surgery and obstetrics.

Despite the lack of sources, it is known that already at the end of the 7th century. Byzantines invented "greek fire"- an incendiary mixture of gunpowder, resin and saltpeter, which had the ability to burn on water. This helped the Byzantines to defeat their enemies in naval battles. "Greek fire" was widely used during the siege of fortresses in the 7th-15th centuries. Byzantine scholar Lev Mathematician improved the light telegraph. Doctor Nikita compiled a collection on surgery (IX century). There were a number of works of a historical nature, in which the social struggle of this period is reflected from the positions of the ruling class.

In the ninth century in Constantinople, the highest secular school, closed in the 7th century, was restored.