Federal Agency of Railway Transport
Siberian State University of Communications
Department: "Customs"
Discipline: "Economic geography and regional studies of the world"
Theme: "Land Resources in Africa"
Performed:
Rahman Tatiana
Group: TD-111
Checked:
Associate Professor of the Department "Customs", Ph.D.
Kalmykov S. P.
Novosibirsk 2012
Introduction……………………………………………………………………….....3
1. Characteristics of the land resources of Africa……………………..……….4
2. Properties land resources ……………………………………….……...5
3. Allocation of African land resources ……………………..……..…….5
4. Distribution of African land resources between the countries of the world……...6
Conclusion………………………………………………………………….……11
List of used literature and sources………….……………..…12
Introduction
Centuries-old practice shows that the main sources of viability and prosperity of any state are its land resources and the population living on them. At the same time, land resources should be understood not only as the territory (space) of the state, but also everything that is “above” and “under” this space. The provision of the country with land resources is the most important economic and political factor in the development of social production. The availability of land resources gives wide scope for the economic development of the regions of the world.
Land resources - earth's surface suitable for human habitation and for any species economic activity. Land resources are characterized by the size of the territory and its quality: relief, soil cover and a complex of other natural conditions.
Characteristics of land resources in Africa
Africa has the largest land fund - 30 million square kilometers.
Grassland dominates Africa's land mass. With a relatively high share of pasture land (about 20% of land is used), very low plowing of the territory (about 10%). Indicators of the specific provision of arable land are at an average level and amount to 0.3 ha. Field agrolandscapes are common in the northern and southern outskirts of Africa and in Ethiopia. Due to the presence of the tsetse fly in equatorial Africa, the watersheds were primarily developed, and the valleys, the refuge of the tsetse fly, are almost deserted and occupied by gallery forests. Huge territories in Africa belong to the category of other lands (44%), which are represented by deserts.
Africa has quite large land resources, but soil erosion has become catastrophic due to improper cultivation.
Inappropriate and uncontrolled land use is the main cause of land degradation and depletion in Africa. Current land use often does not take into account the actual potential, productivity and constraints on land use, as well as their spatial diversity. In many regions, poverty and malnutrition have already become a chronic problem. One of the main dangers is the destruction and degradation of agricultural and environmental resources. Although techniques for increasing production and conserving land and water resources have already been developed, they are not widely or systematically applied. A systematic approach is needed to identify these forms of land use and production systems, which would be sustainable for each specific type of soil and climate zone, including the creation of economic, social and organizational mechanisms for their implementation.
Land resource properties
In Africa, with a relatively high proportion of grazing land (about 20% of land is used), very low plowing of the territory (about 10%). Indicators of the specific provision of arable land are at an average level and amount to 0.3 ha. In Africa, the northern and southern outskirts of the mainland are most plowed.
Due to the arid climate in Africa, pasturelands dominate, which are less suitable for cultivation.
The land resources of Africa make it possible to provide food for the population of foreign countries, since many different crops (corn, cotton, wheat, etc.) grown in African countries are exported.
Africa's land use productivity varies considerably. For example, almost all soils in Nigeria are acidic. In a number of areas in the east of the country, intensive leaching of soils formed on sandstones has led to the formation of so-called "acid sands", which are easily cultivated, but quickly depleted. The soils of the far north were formed from desert sands and are easily destroyed. They differ sharply from the fertile soils that have developed on heavy loams in the floodplains of many rivers, in the cocoa belt and in the Niger Delta. In some densely populated areas, intensive farming and grazing have caused soil erosion. And if you turn to Republic of South Africa, it will be noticeable that it, having not so large areas of land suitable for agriculture, uses them as productively as possible, while doing this in such a way that the soil is not subject to erosion.
Areas of agricultural land in individual countries are determined by the level of development of the population of countries, the level of their technologies for the development and use of land resources. Therefore, some undeveloped states of Africa, not using the available land, sell them for insignificant amounts to China and European countries.
Allocation of land resources of Africa
Natural resources are unevenly distributed in Africa. In African countries, the ratio of arable land and pastures in agricultural land is different. In general, the land fund on the continent makes up 21% of all land resources, arable land accounts for 15%, meadows and pastures are located on 24% of the territory, 18% are forests and 22% are other lands (deserts).
Consider the percentage distribution of land resources in some African countries. In South Africa, arable land occupies 12.1%, perennial plantings - 0.79%, other lands account for 87.11% (2011), in Ethiopia, respectively - 10.01%; 0.65%; 89.34%. In Namibia - arable lands make up 0.99% of the territory, perennial plantations 0.01%, other lands 99%, in Libya 98.78% of other lands and only 1.22% of perennial plantations and arable lands. The situation is similar in the Central African Republic, the situation is excellent in Uganda, where almost 30.5% of the state's territory is occupied by arable land and perennial plantations.
Thus, we see that arable lands and pastures are located mainly in countries located on the outskirts of the mainland, its northern part is mainly occupied by desert, and forests are located in the central part.
Distribution of land resources in Africa between the countries of the world
The crisis that has engulfed Europe has given reason to think that such a negative impact on the economy could lead to food shortages. And, in general, this threat is real for states dependent on agricultural imports. As it turned out, the solution to the problem is quite simple: since 2009, some states Asian region began to buy land outside their borders. Something similar could be observed before, but now such actions have acquired a really wide scope.
Africa is considered the most attractive in terms of low-cost transactions for the sale of land. And the reason for this is low prices, the lack of land legislation that protects the rights and interests of the local population, as well as low production costs that attract potential buyers so much. For example, back in 2009, an Ethiopian company bought large land areas in Africa for less than $1.50. True, soon the cost of land increased to about 7 US dollars. And this is at a time when in Brazil 1 hectare of land costs about 5-6 thousand US dollars.
Moreover, according to local land agents, it is possible to negotiate with some representatives of this or that tribe for a bottle of "fire water".
Since 2009, according to research conducted by the Auckland Institute, the total area of land bought or leased in Africa by foreign companies is more than 60 million hectares - much more than the area of individual states. And if we take into account that earlier the area of land sold did not exceed 4 million hectares, it becomes obvious that the rumors about a new stage of the "struggle for Africa" are reliable. But, if until the end of the twentieth century only European states, and later also the United States, then on this stage this list looks much more impressive, and the states of the Asian region set the tone for the entire struggle.
Among the countries of the Middle East participating in the section of the African land market, one can single out Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates and Qatar. Due to a certain geographical location, the areas of agricultural territories are quite insignificant. However, greater financial opportunities contribute to solving this problem beyond their borders. So, for example, the government of Saudi Arabia even made the purchase of foreign land a part of the state program. Moreover, all sorts of support is provided to companies involved in buying up land, provided, of course, that a significant part of the crop from them will be sent to Saudi Arabia.
A prime example benefiting from buying up cheap land is the activity of Sheikh Mohammed al-Amoudi, whose company has already bought or leased for a long period several thousand hectares of land where rice, wheat, flowers and vegetables are grown. Over time, the company plans to increase the number of purchased land.
And the results were not long in coming: already in the early spring of 2009, a magnificent celebration was organized in Riyadh, timed to coincide with the harvest of the first crop of wheat and rice harvested on Ethiopian plantations. The cost of this agricultural project is estimated at US$100 million.
Representatives of other countries of the Asian region are also engaged in buying up land with no less activity. The most active is China, which continues to strengthen its position in Africa in all areas. Such a program also found the support of the official authorities, and this is understandable. The fact is that about 20 percent of the total population of our planet lives in China, while only 7 percent of agricultural land adapted for growing agricultural products. Moreover, a significant part of them is in extremely poor condition due to excessive anthropogenic influence, and, as a result, they cannot produce enough crops for the country. That is why the policy of buying large land areas has become habitual. In the Congo alone, the PRC owns about 3 million hectares of land that was acquired for the production of palm oil. For a similar purpose, 2 million hectares were bought in Zambia. And almost 1 million hectares were purchased for rice cultivation in Mozambique and Tanzania.
More than 100 Indian agricultural companies are engaged in buying land, which over the past few years have bought several hundred thousand hectares in Kenya, Ethiopia, Mozambique, Senegal and other countries of the African continent. These areas mainly grow rice, corn, sugarcane, lentils, as well as the most quickly paid off crop - flowers. The leading Indian company operating in Africa is Karaturi Global, which is also the world's largest rose grower. It is this company that owns about 1 million hectares of land in Kenya, Ethiopia and Tanzania.
Western companies are also not far behind. Their main activity is related to investment funds. Among them, Swedish and British companies are the most active. Swedish companies own 100,000 hectares of land in Mozambique. They grow products intended for the production of biofuels. British companies own plantations in Tanzania for similar purposes.
The unprecedented activity in the sphere of buying up African lands, which has been observed in the past three years, has already received the name of a new stage in the colonization of the Black Continent. But representatives of companies involved in the purchase of African territories, fundamentally disagree with such statements. They claim that with their multibillion-dollar financial investments they contribute to the development Agriculture the poorest continent. They create new enterprises and purchase the latest equipment, thus creating a large number of work places. Foreign investors are fully supported by the leaders of African states, while noting that only those lands that are not used and not owned by farmers are provided for sale.
But in reality, the situation looks a little different. So, for example, in Ethiopia alone, where representatives of Indian companies are active, about 300,000 local people were resettled, and only 20,000 of them were able to get a job in new farms. And they are considered very lucky, because even the little money they receive as wages exceeds the average income in the country.
It is not surprising that the inhabitants of some states are trying to resist such a large-scale purchase of land by foreigners, but the results have not yet been observed.
AT total in Africa, foreigners have already occupied about 50 million hectares of land, and by 2030 this figure will grow to 100 million hectares.
Given the fact that the most common problem of local conflicts is the struggle for access to a source of water and a small plot of land that can feed, it’s scary to even imagine what a new redistribution of land in Africa could turn out to be. Analysts predict that the result could be such a strong food insecurity, which will be worse than terrorism.
Introduction……………………………………………………………………….....3
1. Characteristics of the land resources of Africa……………………..……….4
2. Properties of land resources ………………………………………….……...5
3. Allocation of African land resources ……………………..……..…….5
4. Distribution of African land resources between the countries of the world……...6
Conclusion………………………………………………………………….……11
List of used literature and sources………….……………..…12
It is worth recognizing the initially formed natural conditions an important factor development of any territory and the establishment of a certain worldview. A striking example of this is great river Egypt's Nile, along which everyday life Egyptians. It was a beautiful oasis with desert on both sides. Depending on how the river behaved in the temporal and spatial dimension, the features of the life of the state depended.
Due to the fact that Africa is located almost equally in both the northern and southern hemispheres, the natural conditions created here are unique. So, the main part of the mainland is located in tropical latitudes, and according to the natural conditions there, several main zones can be distinguished.
In the center and west of the equatorial part, as well as on the northern coast of the Gulf of Guinea and in the Congo depression, there is a hylaea - a tropical evergreen forest. In the northern and south side"monsoon" forests spread from it, the trees of which shed their foliage in the dry season. Further behind them is the savannah, which occupies approximately 30% of the entire mainland territory. large areas covered by semi-deserts and deserts. In the northern part of the mainland lies the Sahara, in the south - the Kalahari and the Namib. At the same time, both equatorial forests and deserts are unsuitable for the development of the agricultural industry on them.
The domestication of deserts is possible only through irrigation, which contributes to the formation of oases. In the area under the equatorial forests, agriculture can exist by cutting down and uprooting trees. However, this will lead to a constant fight against excessive solar radiation and soil erosion. The most favorable region in this regard is the zone of the tropics. They are located in the south in the Cape region and on the Mediterranean coast - in the north.
The soils of the mainland do not have the properties characteristic of lands with high level natural fertility. They are mainly represented by easily collapsing and depleting red and red-brown soils, depleted in terms of the presence of organic substances in them. Only in the subtropics are there relatively fertile yellow and red soils. If we do not take into account the limitation in moisture supply, in general, the African continent is not devoid of favorable natural conditions that contribute to the development of the agricultural industry.
Despite the prevailing hot, dry climate, cotton is grown on irrigated soils. The areas of the tropics of West Africa are excellent for the cultivation of cocoa. East Coast planted almost entirely with coconut palms. Due to the natural conditions prevailing on the continent, Africa is home to many crops: bananas and coffee trees, yams and African millet, peanuts and beans, date and oil palms, rubber vines and other other plants. In the vast grassy area of the savannah, there are ample opportunities for grazing.
African Natural Resources
There is a great diversity in composition mineral resources, whose reserves on the mainland are quite significant. Them most of represented by diamonds and gold, chromites and tantalum. Africa is the leader in reserves of cobalt and manganese ores, phosphorites and bauxites. The extraction of these resources in many fields is carried out open way at low cost and high quality works.
South Africa is considered the most endowed with natural resources among all African states. In its bowels there is the entire known set of useful minerals, with the exception of bauxites and hydrocarbons. Great world importance is attached to the reserves of diamonds, gold, platinum.
At the same time, there are also countries on the African continent that are practically devoid of minerals and therefore experience difficulties in development. These states include: the Central African Republic, Chad, Sudan and some others.
Nevertheless, Africa is rich not only in minerals, but also agroclimatic resources. Most of the mainland is located near the equator, in subtropical and tropical latitudes. characteristic feature weather in those places is the preservation of a positive temperature throughout the year, the average figure of which is +20 degrees.
Large reserves of water resources are created due to the fullness of rivers and lakes. Most important rivers mainland are considered the Nile, Niger and Congo, as well as the Zambezi, Senegal and others. Among the lakes, the most famous reservoirs are Victoria and Tanganyika, Chad and Nyasa.
The land fund of the mainland is also huge. Almost 40% of the entire territory, and in quantitative measurement this one is more than 1000 million hectares, can be used in agriculture. Although the quality of the soil is not always conducive to this. Large areas with different type soils are subject to erosion, which contributes to the loss of natural fertility.
After the top three world leaders (Russia, Canada and Brazil) in terms of forest resources, Africa occupies a quite worthy place in this regard. However, in recent times forests on the African continent are threatened by massive deforestation. In volume forest resources of great value are valuable breeds, which include different kinds mahogany.
To recreational resources include resort areas located along the coasts of the Red and mediterranean seas, as well as attractions of world importance. Their greatest number is concentrated, of course, in Egypt. In addition, the mainland has National parks, one of which is located in Kenya. Such sights are huge objects with the brightest representatives of African flora and fauna.
Conservation of nature of the continent
Africa needs measures to protect its resources. The most obvious problems are associated with the ever-increasing loss of forests, pastures and agricultural land. noted fast paced desertification and uncontrolled extermination of most species of flora and fauna. Particularly significant losses are observed in that part of Africa, where human interference leads to a reduction in the area occupied tropical forests, to soil erosion and the development of secondary savannahs. In these areas, the rivers become shallow, the number of animals is declining.
Intensive deforestation is caused by the problem of lack of energy, because 70% of its consumption is covered by wood. Due to the irresponsible management of tropical forests, there is a threat of the complete disappearance of valuable and rare species of trees.
Arable land, which in the structure land fund only 8% are allocated, are characterized by catastrophic destruction soil cover. The reason for this is the following factors:
- an increase in the rural population density indicator;
- increased pressure on natural pastures due to an increase in the number of livestock;
- intensive road construction.
All of them in one way or another contribute to the development of soil erosion and soil washout. To stop such phenomena, it is necessary to take a number of the following measures:
- restore grass cover and forest density;
- exercise control over the integrity of pastures;
- perform contour plowing;
- carry out bunding and terracing of arable land.
Row African countries became objects of study effective methods tillage with subsequent analysis of their impact on the degree of erosion. One of their meetings International Union Conservation of Nature was devoted to the issue of the protection of African fauna. In some countries of the African continent, the shooting of animals is allowed only with a certain license. The problem of protecting nature is solved by creating national parks, reserves, botanical reserves, reserves and recreational areas. A significant number of protected areas of this type are found in Kenya. At the same time, the role of the above objects is not only to ensure the safety of the African gene pool with unique flora and fauna. Protected areas are also a significant source of income for a number of African countries.
Africa with adjacent islands covers an area of 30.1 million km 2 (22.4% of the land). On its territory there are about 50 states different sizes, in which more than 300 million people live. (population density 10 people / km 2).
Africa has a relatively simple outline and a slightly dissected surface with mountains in the marginal part. The central part of the mainland is dominated by vast plains and plateaus at an altitude of 200-500 m above sea level. In Africa, there is the world's largest desert, the Sahara (7 million km 2), in the south of the continent is the Kalahari semi-desert (0.9 million km 2). Africa is located in the subtropical, tropical and equatorial climatic zones. Moisture comes to the continent mainly from the Atlantic and Indian oceans. Precipitation in Africa is distributed very evenly. In the driest zone (20-70 0 N), occupied mainly by the Sahara, about 40 mm of precipitation falls, and in the equatorial zone - l 357 to 3380 mm (on average - 1350 mm). On the coast of the Gulf of Guinea is the wettest place - Debunja (9950 mm of precipitation). Four types of intra-annual distribution of precipitation are distinguished: subtropical - with a winter maximum and a summer minimum, Saharan - with an indefinite course, tropical - with a summer maximum and a winter minimum, equatorial - with maxima in spring and autumn. Evaporation is characterized by latitudinal zoning with an increase in absolute values from 40 0 to the equator (from 200 to 840 mm in the northern hemisphere and from 400 to 930 mm in the southern hemisphere). Against the backdrop of this general pattern there is a sharp decrease in evaporation by 30-20 0 s.l. The annual course of evaporation is determined mainly by the amount and course of precipitation. The runoff from the territory of Africa is carried out to the basins of the Atlantic (49.5% of the area) and Indian (18.9%) oceans. The most significant slope rivers are: the Atlantic Ocean - Congo (44893 m 3 / s), Tigris (8500 m 3 / s), Nile (2322 m 3 / s); Indian - Zambezi (3378 m 3 / s). 31.6% of Africa's territory is an area of internal flow, where rivers with a permanent or temporary flow are lost in the sands or flow into lakes (shari). There are large swamps in the drainless areas around Lake Chad, Kyoga, Bangweulu.
Africa has been studied relatively poorly and unevenly in hydrological terms. The Nile basin has been better studied, within which observations have been made since ancient times (the Aswan nilometer has existed since 2000 BC). The continent is characterized by a decrease in runoff from the equator to the tropics (up to 15 0 N in the northern hemisphere, up to 20 0 S in the southern hemisphere) and its increase in subtropical regions. In most of the continent, a clear latitudinal runoff zonality is traced, which is disturbed in the marginal parts by mountain uplifts. In the Sahara desert, with the exception of the Nile, there is no permanent flow. Surface runoff is observed at precipitation exceeding 30 mm in dry relict channels (wadis, horas, uedas). On the amount of runoff in the subtropical region northern hemisphere karst has a great influence. The runoff from the Atlantic slope (224 mm, coefficient of variation 0.05) is almost 10 times the runoff from the slope indian ocean(72 mm, coefficient of variation 0.23). It is supported mainly by large rivers.
The water regime of the rivers of Africa is characterized by a pronounced annual course, determined mainly by the regime of liquid precipitation. More than 80% of the runoff flows into the ocean within 6 months, but the rivers of the Atlantic slope have a peak in summer, and the slope of the Indian Ocean - in spring months(see fig. 7).
Africa is one of the least water-rich continents. General stocks fresh water on the continent - 2390 thousand km 3; more than 99.9% of them are secular reserves ( The groundwater and lakes) and only 0.03% - on the waters located in the channel network (195 km 3). The useful volume of reservoirs is 432 km 3 , which increases the one-time water supply in the channels to 630 km 3 . More than 80% of Africa's water resources are concentrated within the Atlantic Ocean basin. The main source of water supply for drainless territories is groundwater (artesian basins of the Eastern and Western ergs, Fetsuan, Western Desert, etc.). In terms of the amount of water per capita (12,000 m 3 /year), Africa is characterized by indicators close to the average for the globe. However, most of the continent is experiencing an acute shortage of water due to the mismatch of water resources with thermal ones. Water resources Africa is used mainly for irrigation, urban water supply, industrial needs. However, the total area of irrigated land is only 2% of the continent. The presence of excessively humid areas creates the possibility of constructing large reservoirs (the world's largest reservoir in terms of area (8500 km 2) Akosombo reservoir was built on the Volta River in Ghana) and transferring river flow to arid regions. Projects for flooding the Sahara with the waters of the Congo River and others have been developed.
Great economic opportunities, which are inherent in the diversity of natural conditions, the wealth of mineral resources, the presence of significant land, water, plant and other resources. Africa is characterized by a slight dissection of the relief, which promotes economic activity - the development of agriculture, industry, and transport. Location of most of the continent in equatorial belt largely determined the presence of huge arrays of wet equatorial forests. Africa accounts for 10% of the world's forest area, which makes up 17% of the world's wood resources - one of the main African exports. largest desert world - Sahara - contains huge reserves of fresh water in its bowels, and large river systems are characterized by gigantic volumes of runoff and energy resources. Africa is rich in minerals, which are resources for the development of ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, chemical industry. Thanks to new discoveries, a part of Africa is increasing in the explored world reserves of energy raw materials. The reserves of phosphorites, chromites, titanium, tantalum are larger than in any. global importance have reserves of bauxite, copper, manganese, cobalt, uranium ores, diamonds, metals, gold, etc. Democratic Republic Congo through Zambia to East Africa(deposits of copper, uranium, cobalt, platinum, gold, manganese); Guinean part of West Africa (deposits of bauxite, iron ore, manganese, tin, oil); zone of the Atlas Mountains and the coast of North-West Africa (cobalt, molybdenum, lead, zinc, iron ore, mercury, phosphorites); North Africa(oil, gas coast and shelf of the Mediterranean Sea).
African regions are very different natural features: availability of wet, soil types, vegetation cover. There is one element in common - a large amount of warm. Significant areas of deserts and equatorial forests are unfavorable for agriculture. In deserts, agriculture is possible only if there are water sources around which oases are formed. In the equatorial forests, the farmer fights against lush vegetation, and when it is reduced, against erosion and excessive solar radiation which negatively affects the condition of the soil. Best conditions for agriculture in the highlands and in shrouds with a favorable duty of the wet seasons. Most soils have low natural fertility. 3/4 of the territory of the continent is covered with red and red-brown soils, a thin layer of which is poor on organic matter, is quite easily depleted and destroyed. Relatively fertile are the red soils and zhovtozems of the subtropics, alluvial soils in other zones.
Africa has the richest and most diverse natural resource potential.
First of all, Africa stands out with large reserves mineral . Among other continents, Africa ranks first in reserves of diamonds, gold, platinum, manganese, chromites, bauxites and phosphorites. Large reserves of coal, oil and natural gas, copper, iron, uranium, cobalt ores. In addition, African minerals are often of high quality and low production costs. The richest country in Africa, South Africa, has an almost complete set of known mineral resources, with the exception of oil, natural gas, and bauxite.
However, the reserves of mineral resources are distributed unevenly. Among the countries of the region there are countries that are very poor in terms of resources (Chad, Central African Republic, Sudan, etc.), which greatly complicates their development.
Agro-climatic resources , as well as mineral, are characterized by large reserves, diversity, but uneven distribution, which greatly complicates the development of agriculture.
Significant land reserves in Africa are due to the predominance flat relief(the Atlas, Futa-Jallon, Cape and Drakon mountains are located only on the outskirts of the mainland), as well as the presence of fertile soils (red-yellow, black, brown soils of equatorial forests, brown soils of the subtropics, alluvial soils of river valleys), extensive natural pastures (regions savannahs, steppes and semi-deserts occupy about half of the area of Africa) favorable for various types of agricultural activities.
A favorable condition is the high availability of thermal resources (the sum of active temperatures is 6,000-10,000 °C).
However, the conditions of moisture supply significantly limit the possibilities for the development of agriculture in this region. In almost 2/3 of Africa, sustainable agriculture is possible only with land reclamation. In the equatorial region of Africa, where the amount of precipitation is 1500 or more mm per year, there is an excess of moisture, in the semi-deserts and deserts of the northern and southern hemispheres (Sahara, Namib, Kalahari), on the contrary, there is a lack of it. The most favorable natural conditions for agriculture are the windward slopes of the Atlas and Cape Mountains, the Mediterranean regions, and the eastern outlying regions. South Africa, where the amount of precipitation is 800-1000 mm per year.
Africa has significant forest resources . By total area forests it is second only to Latin America and Russia. But its average forest cover is much lower. In addition, deforestation has recently become rampant due to increased tree cutting.
Africa has certain recreational resources. On the one hand, these are resorts on the sea coast (primarily the coast of the Mediterranean and Red Seas), on the other hand, they are monuments of world culture (North Africa is the cradle of ancient Egyptian civilization). Egypt stands out in this regard. In addition, national parks are being created in Africa, where you can see a wide variety of flora and fauna. First of all, this applies to Kenya, where international tourism in terms of income is second only to coffee exports.
