All substances on our planet are in the process of circulation. Solar energy causes two cycles of matter on Earth:

1) Large (geological or abiotic);

2) Small (biotic, biogenic or biological).

The cycles of matter and the flows of cosmic energy create the stability of the biosphere. The cycle of solid matter and water that occurs as a result of the action abiotic factors (inanimate nature), are called great geological cycle. With a large geological cycle (millions of years flow), rocks are destroyed, weathered, substances dissolve and enter the World Ocean; geotectonic changes are taking place, the sinking of the continents, the rise of the seabed. The water cycle time in glaciers is 8,000 years, in rivers - 11 days. It is the large circulation that supplies living organisms with nutrients and largely determines the conditions for their existence.

Large, geological cycle in the biosphere is characterized by two important points:

a) carried out throughout geological development Earth;

b) is a modern planetary process that takes a leading part in the further development of the biosphere.

On the present stage As a result of the development of mankind, as a result of a large circulation, pollutants are also transported over long distances - oxides of sulfur and nitrogen, dust, radioactive impurities. The territories of temperate latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere were subjected to the greatest pollution.

A small, biogenic or biological cycle of substances occurs in solid, liquid and gaseous phases with the participation of living organisms. The biological cycle, in contrast to the geological cycle, requires less energy. A small cycle is part of a large one, occurs at the level of biogeocenoses (inside ecosystems) and lies in the fact that the nutrients of the soil, water, carbon are accumulated in the substance of plants, and are spent on building the body. Decay products organic matter decompose to mineral components. The small cycle is not closed, which is associated with the entry of substances and energy into the ecosystem from the outside and with the release of part of them into biospheric circulation.

Many are involved in the large and small cycles. chemical elements and their compounds, but the most important of them are those that determine the current stage of development of the biosphere, associated with economic activity person. These include cycles carbon, sulfur and nitrogen(their oxides are major air pollutants), as well as phosphorus (phosphates are the main pollutant of continental waters). Almost all pollutants act as harmful, and they are classified as xenobiotics.

Currently, the cycles of xenobiotics - toxic elements - are of great importance. mercury (food contaminant) products) and lead (a component of gasoline). In addition, many substances of anthropogenic origin (DDT, pesticides, radionuclides, etc.) enter the small cycle from the large circulation, which cause harm to biota and human health.

The essence of the biological cycle is the flow of two opposite, but interrelated processes - creation organic matter and destruction living substance.

In contrast to the large cycle, the small one has a different duration: there are seasonal, annual, perennial and secular small cycles..

Cycle of chemicals from the inorganic environment through vegetation and animals back to inorganic environment using solar energy chemical reactions called biogeochemical cycle .

The present and future of our planet depends on the participation of living organisms in the functioning of the biosphere. In the cycle of substances living matter, or biomass, performs biogeochemical functions: gas, concentration, redox and biochemical.

The biological cycle occurs with the participation of living organisms and consists in the reproduction of organic matter from inorganic and the decomposition of this organic to inorganic through food. food chain. The intensity of production and destruction processes in the biological cycle depends on the amount of heat and moisture. For example, low speed decomposition of organic matter in the polar regions depends on the lack of heat.

An important indicator of the intensity of the biological cycle is the rate of circulation of chemical elements. The intensity is characterized index , equal to the ratio of the mass of forest litter to the litter. The higher the index, the lower the intensity of the cycle.

Index in coniferous forests - 10 - 17; broad-leaved 3 - 4; savanna no more than 0.2; wet tropical forests no more than 0.1, i.e. here the biological cycle is the most intense.

The flow of elements (nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur) through microorganisms is an order of magnitude higher than through plants and animals. The biological cycle is not completely reversible, it is closely related to the biogeochemical cycle. Chemical elements circulate in the biosphere along various paths of the biological cycle:

absorbed by living matter and charged with energy;

leave living matter, releasing energy into external environment.

These cycles are of two types: the circulation of gaseous substances; sedimentary cycle (reserve in the earth's crust).

The cycles themselves consist of two parts:

- reserve fund(this is a part of a substance that is not associated with living organisms);

- mobile (exchange) fund(the smaller portion of matter associated with direct exchange between organisms and their immediate environment).

Cycles are divided into:

gyres gas type with a reserve fund in the earth's crust (cycles of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen) - capable of rapid self-regulation;

gyres sedimentary type with a reserve fund in the earth's crust (the cycles of phosphorus, calcium, iron, etc.) are more inert, the bulk of the substance is in a form "inaccessible" to living organisms.

Cycles can also be divided into:

- closed(the circulation of gaseous substances, for example, oxygen, carbon and nitrogen, is a reserve in the atmosphere and hydrosphere of the ocean, so the shortage is quickly compensated);

- open(creating a reserve fund in the earth's crust, for example, phosphorus - therefore, losses are poorly compensated, i.e. a deficit is created).

The energy basis for the existence of biological cycles on Earth and their initial link is the process of photosynthesis. Each new cycle of circulation is not an exact repetition of the previous one. For example, during the evolution of the biosphere, some of the processes were irreversible, resulting in the formation and accumulation of biogenic precipitation, an increase in the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere, a change in the quantitative ratios of isotopes of a number of elements, etc.

The circulation of substances is called biogeochemical cycles . The main biogeochemical (biospheric) cycles of substances: water cycle, oxygen cycle, nitrogen cycle(participation of nitrogen-fixing bacteria), carbon cycle(participation aerobic bacteria; annually about 130 tons of carbon is released into the geological cycle), phosphorus cycle(participation of soil bacteria; 14 million tons of phosphorus), sulfur cycle, metal cation cycle.

big cycle substances in nature due to the interaction of solar energy with the deep energy of the Earth and redistributes matter between the biosphere and deeper horizons of the Earth.

Sedimentary rocks formed by weathering igneous rocks, in moving zones earth's crust plunge back into the zone high temperatures and pressure. There they are melted down and form magma - the source of new igneous rocks. After the rise of these rocks to the earth's surface and the action of weathering processes, they are again transformed into new sedimentary rocks. The new cycle of circulation does not exactly repeat the old one, but introduces something new, which over time leads to very significant changes.

driving force great (geological) circulation are exogenous and endogenous geological processes.

Endogenous processes(processes of internal dynamics) occur under the influence of the internal energy of the Earth, released as a result of radioactive decay, chemical reactions of formation of minerals, crystallization of rocks, etc. (for example, tectonic movements, earthquakes, magmatism, metamorphism).

Exogenous processes(processes of external dynamics) proceed under the influence of the external energy of the Sun. Examples: weathering of rocks and minerals, removal of destruction products from some areas of the earth's crust and their transfer to new areas, deposition and accumulation of destruction products with the formation of sedimentary rocks. To Ex.pr. relation geological activity of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, as well as living organisms and humans.

The largest landforms (continents and ocean trenches) and large forms (mountains and plains) were formed due to endogenous processes, and medium and small landforms ( river valleys, hills, ravines, dunes, etc.), superimposed on larger forms - due to exogenous processes. Thus, endogenous and exogenous processes are opposite. The first leads to education large forms relief, second to their smoothing.

Examples of the geological cycle. Igneous rocks are transformed into sedimentary rocks as a result of weathering. In the mobile zones of the earth's crust, they sink into the depths of the Earth. There, under the influence of high temperatures and pressures, they melt and form magma, which, rising to the surface and, solidifying, forms igneous rocks.

An example of a large cycle is the circulation of water between land and ocean through the atmosphere (Fig. 2.1).

Rice. 2.1. The generally accepted scheme of hydrological (climatic)

water cycle in nature

Moisture evaporated from the surface of the oceans (which consumes almost half of the solar energy coming to the Earth's surface) is transferred to land, where it falls in the form of precipitation, which again returns to the ocean in the form of surface and underground runoff. The water cycle also occurs according to a simpler scheme: evaporation of moisture from the surface of the ocean - condensation of water vapor - precipitation on the same water surface of the ocean.

The water cycle as a whole plays a major role in shaping the natural conditions on our planet. Taking into account the transpiration of water by plants and its absorption in the biogeochemical cycle, the entire supply of water on Earth decays and is restored in 2 million years.

Thus, the geological cycle of substances proceeds without the participation of living organisms and redistributes matter between the biosphere and more deep layers Earth.

To endogenous processes include: magmatism, metamorphism (the action of high temperatures and pressure), volcanism, the movement of the earth's crust (earthquakes, mountain building).

To exogenous- weathering, the activity of atmospheric and surface water seas, oceans, animals, plant organisms and especially man - technogenesis.

The interaction of internal and external processes forms great geological cycle of matter.

During endogenous processes, mountain systems, uplands, oceanic depressions are formed, during exogenous processes, igneous rocks are destroyed, the products of destruction move into rivers, seas, oceans and sedimentary rocks form. As a result of the movement of the earth's crust, sedimentary rocks sink into deep layers, undergo metamorphism processes (the action of high temperatures and pressure), and metamorphic rocks are formed. In deeper layers, they turn into molten ...
state (magmatization). Then, as a result of volcanic processes, they enter the upper layers of the lithosphere, on its surface in the form of igneous rocks. This is how soil-forming rocks are formed and various forms relief.

Rocks, from which the soil is formed, are called soil-forming or parent. According to the formation conditions, they are divided into three groups: igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary.

Igneous rocks consist of compounds of silicon, Al, Fe, Mg, Ca, K, Na. Depending on the ratio of these compounds, acidic and basic rocks are distinguished.

Acid (granites, liparites, pegmatites) have a high content of silica (more than 63%), potassium and sodium oxides (7-8%), calcium and Mg oxides (2-3%). They are light and brown in color. The soils formed from such rocks have a loose structure, high acidity and are infertile.

The main igneous rocks (basalts, dunites, periodites) are characterized by a low content of SiO 2 (40-60%), an increased content of CaO and MgO (up to 20%), iron oxides (10-20%), Na 2 O and K 2 O less less than 30%.

The soils formed on the weathering products of the main rocks have an alkaline and neutral reaction, a lot of humus and high fertility.

Igneous rocks make up 95% total mass rocks, but as soil-forming they occupy small areas (in the mountains).

metamorphic rocks, are formed as a result of recrystallization of igneous and sedimentary rocks. These are marble, gneiss, quartz. They occupy a small proportion as soil-forming rocks.

Sedimentary rocks. Their formation is due to the processes of weathering of igneous and metamorphic rocks, the transfer of weathering products by water, glacial and air flows and deposition on the land surface, on the bottom of oceans, seas, lakes, in floodplains of rivers.

According to their composition, sedimentary rocks are subdivided into clastic, chemogenic and biogenic.

clastic deposits differ in the size of debris and particles: these are boulders, stones, gravel, crushed stone, sands, loams and clays.

Chemogenic deposits formed as a result of the precipitation of salts from aqueous solutions in sea ​​bays, lakes in hot climates or as a result of chemical reactions.

These include halides (rock and potassium salt), sulfates (gypsum, anhydride), carbonates (limestone, marl, dolomites), silicates, phosphates. Many of them are raw materials for the production of cement, chemical fertilizers, and are used as agricultural ores.

Biogenic deposits formed from accumulations of remains of plants and animals. These are: carbonate (biogenic limestones and chalk), siliceous (dolomite) and carbonaceous rocks (coals, peat, sapropel, oil, gas).

Main genetic types sedimentary rocks are:

1. Eluvial deposits- weathering products of rocks remaining on the sheet of their formation. The eluvium is located at the tops of the watersheds, where the washout is weakly expressed.

2. deluvial deposits- erosion products deposited by temporary streams of rain and melt water in the lower part of the slopes.

3. proluvial deposits- formed as a result of the transfer and deposition of weathering products by temporary mountain rivers and floods at the foot of the slopes.

4. Alluvial deposits- formed as a result of deposition of weathering products river waters entering them with surface runoff.

5. Lacustrine deposits– bottom sediments of lakes. Ily with high content organic matter (15-20%) are called sapropels.

6. marine sediments- bottom sediments of the seas. During the retreat (transgression) of the seas, they remain as soil-forming rocks.

7. Glacial (glacial) or moraine deposits- products of weathering of various rocks, displaced and deposited by the glacier. This is an unsorted coarse-grained red-brown or gray material with inclusions of stones, boulders, and pebbles.

8. Fluvioglacial (water-glacial) deposits temporary streams and closed reservoirs formed during the melting of the glacier.

9. Cover clays belong to extra-glacial deposits and are considered as deposits of shallow-water near-glacial floods of melt water. They overlap the madder from above with a layer of 3-5 m. They are yellow-brown in color, well sorted, do not contain stones and boulders. Soils on cover loams are more fertile than on madder.

10. Loesses and loess-like loams are characterized by pale yellow color, high content of silt and silty fractions, loose structure, high porosity, high content of calcium carbonates. Fertile gray forest, chestnut soils, chernozems and gray soils were formed on them.

11. Aeolian deposits formed as a result of the action of the wind. The destructive activity of the wind is composed of corrosion (honing, sanding of rocks) and deflation (blowing and transport by wind small particles soils). Both of these processes taken together constitute wind erosion.

Basic schemes, formulas, etc. illustrating the content: presentation with photographs of weathering types.

Questions for self-control:

1. What is weathering?

2. What is magmatization?

3. What is the difference between physical and chemical weathering?

4. What is the geological cycle of matter?

5. Describe the structure of the Earth?

6. What is magma?

7. What layers does the core of the Earth consist of?

8. What are breeds?

9. How are breeds classified?

10. What is loess?

11. What is a faction?

12. What characteristics are called organoleptic?

Main:

1. Dobrovolsky V.V. Geography of Soils with Fundamentals of Soil Science: Textbook for High Schools. - M .: Humanit. ed. Center VLADOS, 1999.-384 p.

2. Soil science / Ed. I.S. Kaurichev. M. Agropromiadat ed. 4. 1989.

3. Soil science / Ed. V.A. Kovdy, B.G. Rozanov in 2 parts M. Higher School 1988.

4. Glazovskaya M.A., Gennadiev A.I. Geography of Soils with Fundamentals of Soil Science, Moscow State University. 1995

5. Rode A.A., Smirnov V.N. Soil science. M. Higher School, 1972

Additional:

1. Glazovskaya M.A. General soil science and soil geography. M. High School 1981

2. Kovda V.A. Fundamentals of the doctrine of soils. M. Science. 1973

3. Liverovsky A.S. Soils of the USSR. M. Thought 1974

4. Rozanov B. G. ground cover the globe. M. ed. W. 1977

5. Aleksandrova L.N., Naydenova O.A. Laboratory and practical classes in soil science. L. Agropromizdat. 1985

Page 1

A large geological cycle involves sedimentary rocks deep into the earth's crust, for a long time turning off the elements contained in them from the biological cycle system. In the course of geological history, the transformed sedimentary rocks, once again on the surface of the Earth, are gradually destroyed by the activity of living organisms, water and air, and are again included in the biospheric cycle.

A large geological cycle occurs over hundreds of thousands or millions of years. It consists in the following: rocks are destroyed, weathered and eventually washed away by water flows into the oceans. Here they are deposited on the bottom, forming sedimentary rocks, and only partially return to land with organisms removed from the water by humans or other animals.

At the heart of a large geological cycle is the process of transferring mineral compounds from one place to another on a planetary scale without the participation of living matter.

In addition to the small circulation, there is a large, geological circulation. Some of the substances enter the deep layers of the Earth (through the bottom sediments of the seas or in another way), where slow transformations occur with the formation of various compounds, mineral and organic. The processes of geological circulation are supported mainly internal energy Earth, its active core. The same energy contributes to the release of substances to the surface of the Earth. Thus, a large circulation of substances closes. It takes millions of years.

Concerning the speed and intensity of the large geological circulation of substances, it is currently impossible to give any accurate data, there are only approximate estimates, and then only for the exogenous component general cycle, i.e. without taking into account the influx of matter from the mantle into the earth's crust.

This carbon takes part in a large geological cycle. This carbon, in the process of a small biotic cycle, maintains the gas balance of the biosphere and life in general.

Solid runoff of some rivers of the world.

The contribution of biospheric and technospheric components to the large geological cycle of the Earth's substances is very significant: there is a constantly progressive growth of technospheric components due to the expansion of the sphere of human production activity.

Because on earth's surface the main technobio-geochemical flow is directed within the framework of a large geological circulation of substances for 70% of the land into the ocean and for 30% - into closed drainless depressions, but always from higher to lower levels, as a result of the action gravitational forces Correspondingly, the material of the earth's crust is also differentiated from high to low elevations, from land to the ocean. Reverse flows (atmospheric transport, human activity, tectonic movements, volcanism, migration of organisms) to some extent complicate this general downward movement of matter, creating local migration cycles, but do not change it in general.

The circulation of water between land and ocean through the atmosphere refers to a large geological cycle. Water evaporates from the surface of the oceans and is either transferred to land, where it falls in the form of precipitation, which again returns to the ocean in the form of surface and underground runoff, or falls as precipitation to the surface of the ocean. More than 500 thousand km3 of water participate in the water cycle on Earth every year. The water cycle as a whole plays a major role in shaping the natural conditions on our planet. Taking into account the transpiration of water by plants and its absorption in the biogeochemical cycle, the entire supply of water on Earth decays and is restored in 2 million years.

According to his formulation, the biological cycle of substances develops on part of the trajectory of a large, geological cycle of substances in nature.

The transfer of matter by surface and ground waters is the main factor in geochemical differentiation of the earth's land in terms of volume, but not the only one, and if we talk about the large geological circulation of substances on the earth's surface as a whole, then flows play a very significant role in it, in particular oceanic and atmospheric transport.

Concerning the speed and intensity of the large geological circulation of substances, it is currently impossible to give any exact data, there are only approximate estimates, and then only for the exogenous component of the general cycle, i.e. without taking into account the influx of matter from the mantle into the earth's crust. The exogenous component of the large geological circulation of substances is the constantly ongoing process of denudation of the earth's surface.

The cycle of sulfur and phosphorus is a typical sedimentary bio-geochemical cycle. Such cycles are easily broken by various kinds of influences, and part of the exchanged material leaves the cycle. It can return again to the circulation only as a result of geological processes or by extracting biophilic components by living matter.[ ...]

The circulation of substances and the transformation of energy ensure the dynamic balance and stability of the biosphere as a whole and its individual parts. At the same time, in the general single cycle, the cycle of solid matter and water is distinguished, which occurs as a result of the action of abiotic factors (large geological cycle), as well as a small biotic cycle of substances in the solid, liquid and gaseous phases, which occurs with the participation of living organisms.[ ...]

The carbon cycle. Carbon is probably one of the most frequently mentioned chemical elements when considering geological, biological, and in last years and technical problems.[ ...]

The circulation of substances is the repeated participation of substances in the processes occurring in the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, including those of their layers that are part of the planet's biosphere. At the same time, two main cycles are distinguished: large (geological) and small (biogenic and biochemical).[ ...]

The geological and biological cycles are largely closed, which cannot be said about the anthropogenic cycle. Therefore, they often talk not about the anthropogenic cycle, but about the anthropogenic metabolism. The openness of the anthropogenic circulation of substances leads to depletion natural resources and pollution of the natural environment - the main causes of all environmental issues humanity.[ ...]

Cycles of the main biogenic substances and elements. Consider the cycles of the most significant substances and elements for living organisms (Fig. 3-8). The water cycle belongs to a large geological one; and the cycles of biogenic elements (carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur and other biogenic elements) - to a small biogeochemical.[ ...]

The circulation of water between land and ocean through the atmosphere refers to a large geological cycle. Water evaporates from the surface of the oceans and is either transferred to land, where it falls in the form of precipitation, which again returns to the ocean in the form of surface and underground runoff, or falls as precipitation to the surface of the ocean. More than 500 thousand km3 of water participate in the water cycle on Earth every year. The water cycle as a whole plays a major role in shaping the natural conditions on our planet. Taking into account the transpiration of water by plants and its absorption in the biogeochemical cycle, the entire supply of water on Earth decays and is restored in 2 million years.[ ...]

Phosphorus cycle. The bulk of phosphorus is contained in rocks formed in past geological epochs. Phosphorus is included in the biogeochemical cycle as a result of weathering of rocks.[ ...]

Gas-type cycles are more perfect, as they have a large exchange fund, which means they are capable of rapid self-regulation. Sedimentary cycles are less perfect, they are more inert, since the bulk of the matter is contained in the reserve fund of the earth's crust in a form "inaccessible" to living organisms. Such cycles are easily disturbed by various kinds of influences, and part of the exchanged material leaves the cycle. It can return again to the circulation only as a result of geological processes or by extraction by living matter. However, it is much more difficult to extract the substances necessary for living organisms from the earth's crust than from the atmosphere.[ ...]

The geological cycle is clearly manifested in the example of the water cycle and atmospheric circulation. It is estimated that up to half of the energy coming from the Sun is used to evaporate water. Its evaporation from the Earth's surface is compensated by precipitation. At the same time, more water evaporates from the Ocean than returns with precipitation, and the opposite happens on land - more precipitation falls than water evaporates. Its excess flows into rivers and lakes, and from there - again into the Ocean. In the course of the geological cycle, the state of aggregation water (liquid; solid - snow, ice; gaseous - vapor). Its greatest circulation is observed in the vapor state. Along with water, other mineral substances are transported from one place to another in the geological cycle on a global scale.[ ...]

The water cycle. At the beginning of the section, its geological circulation was considered. Basically, it comes down to the processes of evaporation of water from the surface of the Earth and the Ocean and precipitation on them. Within individual ecosystems, additional processes occur that complicate the large water cycle (interception, evapotranspiration and infiltration).[ ...]

Geological cycles. Mutual arrangement and the outline of the continents and ocean floor are constantly changing. Within upper shells Earth is a continuous gradual replacement of some rocks by others, called the great circulation of matter. Geological processes of formation and destruction of mountains are the greatest energy processes in the Earth's biosphere.[ ...]

CIRCULATION OF SUBSTANCES (on Earth) - repeatedly repeated processes of transformation and movement of substances in nature, having a more or less cyclical nature. General K.v. consists of separate processes (the cycle of water, nitrogen, carbon, and other substances and chemical elements) that are not completely reversible, since the substance is dispersed, removed, buried, changed in composition, etc. There are biological, biogeochemical , geological Q.v., as well as cycles of individual chemical elements (Fig. 15) and water. Human activity at the present stage of development mainly increases the intensity of K.v. and exerts an influence commensurate in power with the scale of natural planetary processes.[ ...]

THE BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE is the movement and transformation of chemical elements through inert and organic nature with the active participation of living matter. Chemical elements circulate in the biosphere along various paths of the biological cycle: they are absorbed by living matter and charged with energy, then they leave the living matter, giving the accumulated energy to the external environment. Such in greater or lesser degree closed paths were called “biogeochemical cycles” by V.I. Vernadsky. These cycles can be divided into two main types: 1) circulation of gaseous substances with a reserve fund in the atmosphere or hydrosphere (ocean) and 2) a sedimentary cycle with a reserve fund in the earth’s crust. In all biogeochemical cycles active role plays living matter. On this occasion, V.I. Vernadsky (1965, p. 127) wrote: “Living matter encompasses and rebuilds everything chemical processes biosphere, its effective energy is enormous. Living matter is the most powerful geological force, growing with the passage of time.” The main cycles include the cycles of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur and biogenic cations. Below we consider as an example the main features of the cycle of typical biophilic elements (carbon, oxygen and phosphorus), which play an essential role in the life of the biosphere.[ ...]

Geological cycle (large cycle of substances in nature) - the cycle of substances, driving force which are exogenous and endogenous geological processes.[ ...]

because of geological changes On the face of the Earth, a part of the substance of the biosphere can be excluded from this cycle. For example, biogenic sediments such as coal, oil for many millennia are preserved in the thickness of the earth's crust, but in principle their re-inclusion in the biospheric circulation is not excluded.[ ...]

Knowledge of the cycles of matter on Earth is of great practical importance, since they significantly affect human life and, at the same time, are influenced by humans. The consequences of these impacts have become comparable to the results of geological processes. There are new ways of migration of elements, there are new chemical compounds, significantly change the rate of turnover of substances in the biosphere.[ ...]

The large circulation of substances in nature (geological) is due to the interaction of solar energy with deep energy Earth and redistributes substances between the biosphere and deeper horizons of the Earth. This circulation in the system “igneous rocks - sedimentary rocks - metamorphic rocks (transformed by temperature and pressure) - igneous rocks” occurs due to the processes of magmatism, metamorphism, lithogenesis and crustal dynamics (Fig. 6.2). The symbol of the circulation of substances is a spiral: each new cycle of circulation does not exactly repeat the old one, but introduces something new, which over time leads to very significant changes.[ ...]

A large geological cycle involves sedimentary rocks deep into the earth's crust, for a long time turning off the elements contained in them from the biological cycle system. In the course of geological history, the transformed sedimentary rocks, once again on the surface of the Earth, are gradually destroyed by the activity of living organisms, water and air, and are again included in the biospheric cycle.[ ...]

Thus, the geological circulation of substances proceeds without the participation of living organisms and redistributes matter between the biosphere and the deeper layers of the Earth.[ ...]

Thus, the geological cycle and circulation of rocks consists of: 1) weathering, 2) the formation of sediments, 3) the formation of sedimentary rocks, 4) metamorphism, 5) magmatization. The exit to the daytime surface of magma and the formation of igneous rocks repeats the whole cycle from the beginning. Full cycle can be interrupted at various stages (3 or 4) if, as a result of tectonic uplifts and denudation, rocks come to the day surface and undergo repeated weathering.[ ...]

The geological activity of bacteria is of great importance. Bacteria take the most Active participation in the cycle of substances in nature, All organic compounds and a significant part of the inorganic are subjected to significant changes. And this circulation of substances is the basis for the existence of life on Earth.[ ...]

In the hydrosphere, the suspension of the carbon cycle is associated with the incorporation of CO2 into CaCO3 (limestone, chalk, corals). In this variant, carbon falls out of the circulation for entire geological epochs and is not included in the concept of the biospheric. However, the rise of organogenic rocks above sea level leads to the resumption of the carbon cycle due to the leaching of limestones and similar rocks by atmospheric precipitation, as well as biogenically - by the action of lichens, plant roots.[ ...]

The removal of part of the carbon from the natural cycle of the ecosystem and the "reservation" in the form of fossil reserves of organic matter in the bowels of the Earth is important feature the process under consideration. In distant geological epochs, a significant part of the photosynthesized organic matter was not used by either consumers or decomposers, but accumulated in the form of detritus. Later, layers of detritus were buried under layers of various mineral sediments, where, under the influence of high temperatures and pressure, over millions of years they turned into oil, coal and natural gas(depending on the source material, duration and conditions of stay in the ground). Similar processes are taking place at the present time, but much less intensively. Their result is the formation of peat.[ ...]

CYCLE BIOGEOCHEMICAL [from gr. kyklos - circle], biogeochemical circulation - cyclic processes of exchange and transformation of a chemical element between the components of the biosphere (from inorganic form through living matter again to inorganic). It is performed using predominantly solar energy (iphotosynthesis) and partly the energy of chemical reactions (chemosynthesis). See Circulation of substances. Biological circulation of substances. Geological cycle of matter.[ ...]

All noted and many other geological processes remaining “behind the scenes”, grandiose in their end results, firstly, are interconnected and, secondly, are the main mechanism that ensures the development of the lithosphere, which continues to this day, its participation in the constant circulation and transformation of matter and energy, maintains the physical state of the lithosphere that we observe.[ .. .]

All these planetary processes on Earth are closely intertwined, forming a common, global circulation substances that redistribute energy from the sun. It is carried out through a system of small cycles. Connected to large and small cycles tectonic processes, caused by volcanic activity and the movement of oceanic plates in the earth's crust. As a result, a large geological cycle of substances is carried out on Earth.[ ...]

Soil is an integral component of terrestrial biogeocenoses. It carries out conjugation (interaction) of large geological and small biological cycles of substances. Soil is a unique gGo of the complexity of the material composition natural formation. Soil matter is represented by four physical phases: solid (mineral and organic particles), liquid (soil solution), gaseous (soil air) and living (organisms). Soils are characterized by a complex spatial organization and differentiation of features, properties and processes.[ ...]

Thanks to the unceasing functioning of the “atmosphere-soil-plants-animals-microorganisms” system, a bio-geochemical cycle of many chemical elements and their compounds has developed, covering land, atmosphere and inland waters. Its total characteristics are comparable with the total river runoff of land, the total inflow of matter from the upper mantle into the planet's biosphere. That is why living matter on Earth has been a factor of geological significance for many millions of years.[ ...]

The biota of the biosphere determines the predominant part chemical transformations on the planet. Hence the judgment of V.I. Vernadsky about the enormous transformative geological role of living matter. For organic evolution living organisms a thousand times (for different cycles from 103 to 105) passed through themselves, through their organs, tissues, cells, blood, the entire atmosphere, the entire volume of the World Ocean, most of the soil mass, a huge mass of mineral substances. And they not only “missed it, but also modified the entire earthly environment in accordance with their needs.[ ...]

Of course, exhaustible and all non-renewable resources. These include the vast majority of fossils: mountain materials, ores, minerals that arose in the geological history of the Earth, as well as products of the ancient biosphere that fell out of the biotic cycle and buried in the depths - fossil fuels and sedimentary carbonates. Some mineral resources and are now slowly formed during geochemical processes in the bowels, the depths of the ocean or on the surface of the earth's crust. With regard to minerals, the availability and quality of the resource, as well as the quantitative ratio between unknown but estimated resources (77), estimated potential (77), real explored (P) and operational (E) reserves, are of great importance, and usually N> P> P > E (Fig. 6.6).[ ...]

The study of the ocean as a physical and chemical system progressed much faster than its study as a biological system. Hypotheses about the origin and geological history of the oceans, initially speculative, have acquired a solid theoretical basis.[ ...]

Living organisms are, on the whole, a very powerful regulator of the flow of matter on the earth's surface, selectively retaining certain elements in the biological cycle. ’ Every year, 6-20 times more nitrogen is involved in the biological cycle than in the geological cycle, and 3-30 times more phosphorus; at the same time, sulfur, on the contrary, is involved 2-4 times more in the geological cycle than in the biological one (Table 4).[ ...]

A complex system feedback contributed not only to an increase in species differentiation, but also to the formation of certain natural complexes, which have specific features depending on environmental conditions and the geological history of a particular part of the biosphere. Any combination in the biosphere naturally interconnected organisms and inorganic components of the environment in which the circulation of substances is carried out, is called an ecological system or ecosystem.[ ...]

Synthetic detergents ( detergents, tensides). make up large group artificial surfactants, which are produced all over the world in huge quantities. These substances in large volumes enter the geological environment with household sewage. Most of them do not apply to toxicants, however, synthetic detergents can destroy various ecosystems, violate natural processes geochemical circulation of substances in soils and groundwater.[ ...]

The main mass of carbon is accumulated in carbonate deposits of the ocean floor (1.3 - 101 Wt), crystalline rocks (1.0 1016 t), coal and oil (3.4 1015 t). It is this carbon that takes part in the slow geological cycle. Life on Earth and the gaseous balance of the atmosphere are supported by the relatively small amounts of carbon contained in plant (5 10 t) and animal (5 109 t) tissues participating in the small (biogenic) cycle. However, at present, a person is intensively closing the cycle of substances, including carbon. For example, it is estimated that the total biomass of all domestic animals already exceeds the biomass of all wild land animals. The areas of cultivated plants are approaching the areas of natural biogeocenoses, and many cultural ecosystems, in terms of their productivity, continuously increased by man, significantly exceed natural ones.[ ...]

Getting into water bodies with sewage, phosphate saturates, and sometimes oversaturates them. ecological systems. Under natural conditions, phosphorus returns back to land practically only with droppings and after the death of fish-eating birds. Absolute majority phosphates forms bottom sediments, and the cycle enters its slowest phase. Only geological processes that have been going on for millions of years can really raise oceanic phosphate deposits, after which it is possible to re-include phosphorus in the described cycle.[ ...]

The values ​​characterizing the annual removal of sediments from each continent are given in Table. 17. It is easy to see that the greatest loss of soil is characteristic of Asia - the continent with the most ancient civilizations and the strongest exploitation of the earth. Although the rate of the process is variable, during periods of minimal geological activity, the accumulation of dissolved minerals nutrients occurs in the lowlands and in the oceans at the expense of elevated areas. At the same time, local biological mechanisms returns, due to which the loss of substances does not exceed their intake from the underlying rocks (this was discussed when considering the calcium cycle). In other words, the longer the life important elements will remain in this area, being used again and again by successive generations of organisms, the less new material will be required from outside. Unfortunately, as we already noted in the section on phosphorus, people often disturb this balance, usually unintentionally, but simply because they do not fully understand the complexity of the symbiosis between life and inorganic matter that has developed over many millennia. For example, it is now assumed (although this has not yet been proven) that dams that prevent the passage of salmon into rivers for spawning lead to a reduction in the number of not only salmon, but also impassable fish, game, and even a decrease in timber production in some northern regions West of the USA. When salmon spawn and die in the depths of the mainland, they leave behind a supply of valuable nutrients returned from the sea. Removal of large amounts of wood from the forest (and the minerals it contains are not returned to the soil, unlike what happens in nature when fallen trees decompose), no doubt also impoverishes the uplands, usually in situations where the nutrient pool is without moreover poor.[ ...]

The fifth function is the biogeochemical activity of mankind, covering an ever-increasing amount of the substance of the earth's crust for the needs of industry, transport, Agriculture. This function takes special place in the history of the globe and deserves careful attention and study. Thus, the entire living population of our planet - living matter - is in a constant cycle of biophilic chemical elements. The biological cycle of substances in the biosphere is associated with a large geological cycle (Fig. 12.20).[ ...]

Another process that drives carbon is the formation of hummus by saprophages and the subsequent mineralization of the substance by fungi and bacteria. This is a very slow process, the speed of which is determined by the amount of oxygen, chemical composition soil, its temperature. With a lack of oxygen and high acidity, carbon accumulates in peat. Similar processes in distant geological epochs formed deposits of coal and oil, which stopped the process of carbon cycle.[ ...]

As an example, consider the environment-forming role of the forest ecosystem. Forest products and biomass are reserves of organic matter and stored energy created in the process of photosynthesis by plants. The intensity of photosynthesis determines the rate of absorption of carbon dioxide and release of oxygen into the atmosphere. Thus, during the formation of 1 ton of plant products, on average, 1.5-1.8 tons of CO2 are absorbed and 1.2-1.4 tons of 02 are released. Biomass, including dead organic matter, is the main reservoir of biogenic carbon. Part of this organic matter is removed from the cycle on long time, forming geological deposits.[ ...]

Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky (1863-1945) - a great Russian scientist, academician, founder of biogeochemistry and the doctrine of the biosphere. He is rightfully considered one of the greatest universalists of world science. Scientific interests of V.I. Vernadsky are extremely wide. He made a significant contribution to mineralogy, geochemistry, radiogeology, crystallography; conducted the first studies of the patterns of composition, structure and migration of interacting elements and structures of the earth's crust, hydrosphere and atmosphere. In 1923 he formulated a theory about the leading role of living organisms in geochemical processes. In 1926, in the book "Biosphere" by V.I. Vernadsky put forward new concept biosphere and the role of living matter in the cosmic and terrestrial circulation of matter. Transformations of nature as a result of human activity are seen by V.I. Vernadsky as a powerful planetary process (“Scientific thought as a geological phenomenon”, 1936) and as an opportunity for the biosphere to grow into the noosphere - the sphere of the mind.