Technology and apparatus of chemical production. Processes and apparatuses of chemical technology

When designing installations for carrying out typical processes of chemical technology, choosing the principle of calculation and the necessary equipment, chemical processes are of primary importance.

Basic processes and apparatuses of chemical technology

All reference data and general information about chemical production are contained in the design manual edited by Yu. I. Dytnersky “Basic processes and apparatuses of chemical technology”.

The guide says:

  • about calculations of heat-exchange and mass-exchange devices;
  • on the work of evaporator, distillation and adsorption plants;
  • on mechanical calculations of the main components and parts of chemical devices;
  • about hydraulic calculations.

The publication contains the principles of operation of membrane separation units and data on crystallization.

Types of chemical processes and technologies

For the production of finished products and intermediate substances by means of chemical processing of the starting material, different techniques and appliances. The basis of most operations is the transfer of a substance.

Based on the future purpose and operation, the following types of processes are distinguished:

  • hydromechanical are used for the mechanical separation of heterogeneous mixtures of liquids and gases, their purification from solid particles, for example, sedimentation and sedimentation in a centrifuge;
  • thermal, which are based on heat transfer (evaporation, condensation, heating, cooling);
  • mass transfer consists in the transfer of matter with the joint transfer of momentum and heat (absorption, adsorption);
  • chemical and biochemical occur when varying the chemical content and properties (ionic reactions, glycolysis, fermentation).

Technological processes by duration are divided into:

  • periodic;
  • continuous;
  • combined.

Periodic processes proceed inconsistently, as there is a cyclic laying of the starting materials. The joint loading of raw materials and unloading of products characterizes a continuous process. Combined processes consist of two types of operations or several separate stages together.

In chemical production, emphasis is placed on the use of continuous processes that are fully mechanized and controlled by automation. Continuous processes are more practical than batch operations. In a continuous process, due to the constant flow of operations, financial, resource and labor costs are reduced.

Energy- and resource-saving processes in chemical technology

A set of measures for the careful and effective application elements of production is energy and resource saving, which is achieved through the use of various methods:

  • reduction of capital intensity and consumption of finished products;
  • productivity growth;
  • increasing product quality.

Resource-saving measures make it possible to ensure the production of finished products with a minimum use of fuel and other feedstock, components, fuel, air, water and other sources for technological needs.

Resource saving technologies include:

  • closed water supply system;
  • use of secondary resources;
  • waste recycling.

Resource-saving technologies save the use of materials and reduce the impact of harmful production factors on the environment.

Design and calculation of processes and apparatuses of chemical technology

Calculation of chemical equipment and design are carried out in the following sequence:

  • the initial data are analyzed, the direction of the process flow is revealed;
  • a material balance sheet is drawn up and quantities material flows. The material balance is the identity of the arrival and consumption of mass flows of elements in one equipment;
  • based on the heat balance, determine the heat consumption in the reaction or the flow rate of heat carriers. The heat balance represents the equality of the incoming and outgoing heat flows in the equipment;
  • the driving force of the process is determined based on the law of equilibrium;
  • the speed coefficient K is calculated, which is inversely proportional to the resistance of the corresponding operation;
  • the size of the apparatus is calculated according to the main kinetic regularity. This size most often accounts for the surface of the device. According to the calculated value, using special catalogs or normals, the nearest standard size of the designed equipment is selected.

Companies with chemical process research groups

Companies from research groups chemical processes are large organizations with a large staff of chemical experts. One such organization is Modcon Systems, which develops products, maintains a technical policy to support all types of research activities, and also performs integrated process optimization in the field of oil refining, pipelines, biotechnology and chemistry.

The laboratory complex of the scientific and engineering center of the Mirrico Group of Companies includes research and testing laboratories that develop new types of products and technologies for various purposes.

SRC GC "Mirrico" includes the following industry research laboratories (SRL):

  • Research Laboratory "Reagents for drilling and production";
  • Research Laboratory of the Mining Division;
  • Research Laboratory of Oil and Gas Processing and Petrochemistry "Processes";
  • Research Laboratory “Drilling Fluids and Technologies”;
  • NIL "Water".

Manufacturers of chemical apparatus

For implementation chemical transformations in the petrochemical sector, chemical reactors and apparatuses are needed. A chemical reactor is a three-walled apparatus that is under pressure or vacuum with different methods heating, has high-speed and low-speed agitators. Based on the value of the heating temperature and the need to control it, the coolant is selected.

The YuVS plant is engaged in the development and manufacture of reactors of various designs, based on the reaction discharge in the equipment, physical condition components, the required mode of heat, pressure, volume, nature of the process flow. In order to accelerate the thermal and mass transfer process, the reactors are equipped with additional elements that are stirred. The quality of the manufactured equipment is strictly controlled due to high technology security. Mechanical strength, resistance to corrosive action of the processed raw materials and the corresponding physical characteristics are the requirements for chemical reactors.

Another company, SibMashPolymer LLC, calculates and manufactures chemical reactors, and also gives guarantees for the high quality of the manufactured devices. The company carries out tests of its products in a laboratory equipped with radiographic control of devices.

The industrial association "Khimstroyproekt" produces energy-saving and heat exchangers, according to the criteria of the Technical Regulations of the Customs Union "On the safety of equipment operating under excessive pressure" (TR CU 032/2013).

All universities Columbia University Novikontas Maritime College N.F.Katanova Khakassian technical institute(branch of SibFU) Caspian State University of Technology and Engineering named after. Esenov Aktobe Regional State University named after K. Zhubanova West Kazakhstan State Medical University. M. Ospanova Almaty Management University Almaty State College of Energy and Electronic Technologies Almaty Technological University Almaty University of Energy and Communications Kazakh Academy of Transport and Communications. M. Tynyshpaeva Kazakh Leading Academy of Architecture and Civil Engineering Kazakh National Academy of Arts. T. Zhurgenova Kazakh National Agrarian University Kazakh National Medical University. S.D. Asfendiyarova Kazakh National Pedagogical University them. Abai Al-Farabi Kazakh National Technical University K. I. Satpaeva Al-Farabi Kazakh National University Al-Farabi Al-Farabi Kazakh University of International Relations and World Languages. Abylai Khan Kazakhstan Institute of Management, Economics and Forecasting Kazakh-British Technical University Kazakh-German University Kazakh-Russian Medical University International University of Information Technologies New Economic University. T. Ryskulova University of International Business University of Turan Donbass State Technical University Almetyevsk State Oil Institute Arzamas State Pedagogical Institute named after. A.P. Gaidar Arzamas Polytechnic Institute (branch of NSTU) Armavir State Pedagogical Academy Armavir Linguistic University Northern (Arctic) Federal University. M. V. Lomonosov Northern State Medical University Eurasian National University. L.N. Gumilyov Kazakh Agrotechnical University. S. Seifullina Kazakh University of Humanities and Law Kazakh University of Technology and Business Medical University Astana Astrakhan State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering Astrakhan State Medical University Astrakhan State Technical University Azerbaijan Medical University Balakovo Institute of Engineering, Technology and Management Baranovichi State University Altai Academy of Economics and Law Altai State Academy of Culture and Arts Altai State Agrarian University Altai State Medical University Altai State Pedagogical University Altai State Technical University. I.I. Polzunova Altai State University Altai Branch of RANEPA (SibAGS AF) Altai Institute of Economics and Law Technical School 103 Belotserkovsky National Agrarian University Belgorod State Agricultural Academy. V.Ya. Gorina Belgorodsky state institute Arts and Culture Belgorod State National research university Belgorod State Technological University. V.G. Shukhov Belgorod University of Cooperation, Economics and Law Belgorod Law Institute of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia Berdyansk State Pedagogical University. Osipenko Berdyansk University of Management and Business Biysk Technological Institute (branch of ASTU named after Polzunov) Kyrgyz State Medical Academy named after. I.K. Akhunbaeva Kyrgyz State University of Construction, Transport and Architecture Kyrgyz National University. J. Balasagyna Kyrgyz-Russian Academy of Education Kyrgyz-Russian Slavic University them. Yeltsin Amur State Medical Academy Amur State University Far Eastern State Agrarian University Boksitogorsk Institute (a branch of the Leningrad State University named after A.S. Pushkin) Bratsk State University Brest State Technical University Brest State University. A.S. Pushkin Bryansk State Academy of Engineering and Technology Bryansk State Agricultural University Bryansk State Technical University Academician I.G. Petrovsky Bryansk Institute of Management and Business Bryansk branch of the RANEPA (ORAGS BF) Velikolukskaya State Academy of Physical Culture and Sports Velikoluksky State Agricultural Academy Vinnitsa State Pedagogical University named after. M. Kotsiubinsky Vinnitsa National Agrarian University Vinnitsa National Medical University. N.I. Pirogova Vinnitsa National Technical University Vinnitsa Institute of Trade and Economics (branch of KNTEU) Vinnitsa University of Finance and Economics Vitebsk State Academy veterinary medicine Vitebsk State Medical University Vitebsk State Technological University Vitebsk State University. P. M. Masherova Vladivostok State University of Economics and Service Far Eastern State Technical Fisheries University Far Eastern State Technical University Far Eastern Federal University Maritime State University. Admiral G.I. Nevelskoy Pacific State Medical University Gorsky State Agrarian University North Caucasian Mining and Metallurgical Technological University (SKGMI) North Ossetian State Medical Academy North Ossetian State University. K. Khetagurov Vladimir State University Stoletovs Vladimir branch of the RANEPA (RAGS VF) Volgograd State Academy of Physical Culture Volgograd State Agrarian University Volgograd State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering Volgograd State Institute of Arts and Culture Volgograd State Medical University Volgograd State Social and Pedagogical University Volgograd State Technical University Volgograd State University Volgograd Institute of Business Volgograd RANEPA branch (VAGS) Volgodonsk Engineering and Technical Institute NRNU MEPhI Volga Polytechnic Institute (VolgGTU branch) Volkovysk College of Education GrGU named after Y. Kupara Vologda State Dairy Academy named after N.V. Vereshchagin Vologda State University Vologda Institute of Law and Economics of the Federal Penitentiary Service of Russia Pedagogical Institute of VSU Voronezh State Forest Engineering Academy Voronezh State Medical Academy. N.N. Burdenko Voronezh State Agrarian University. Emperor Peter I Voronezh State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering Voronezh State Institute of Physical Culture Voronezh State Medical University named after V.I. N.N. Burdenko Voronezh State Pedagogical University Voronezh State Technical University Voronezh State University Voronezh State University engineering technologies Voronezh Institute of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Federation Voronezh Institute of Economics and Law Institute of Management, Marketing and Finance International Institute computer technology State Institute of Economics, Finance, Law and Technology Glazov State Pedagogical Institute. V.G. Korolenko Glukhiv National Pedagogical University A. Dovzhenko Belarusian State University of Transport Belarusian Trade and Economic University of Consumer Cooperatives Gomel State Agrarian and Economic College Gomel State Medical University Gomel State Technical University. ON. Sukhoi Gomel State University. Francisk Skaryna Belarusian State Agricultural Academy Gorlovsky State Pedagogical Institute of Foreign Languages ​​DSPU Gorno-Altai State University Grodno State Medical University Grodno State University named after. Ya. Kupala Chechen State University Dnepropetrovsk State financial Academy Dnipropetrovsk Medical Academy of the Ministry of Health of Ukraine Dnipropetrovsk State Agrarian and Economic University Dnipropetrovsk State University of Internal Affairs Dnipropetrovsk National University of Railway Transport named after. Academician V. Lazaryan Dnepropetrovsk National University named after. Olesya Gonchara Dnepropetrovsk University them. A. Nobel National Metallurgical Academy of Ukraine National Mining University Pridneprovsk State Academy of Civil Engineering and Architecture Ukrainian State University of Chemical Technology Moscow State Physics and Technology University(MIPT) Academy of Civil Protection of the Ministry of Emergency Situations of the DPR Donbass Academy of Law Donetsk Institute of Railway Transport Donetsk National Medical University. M. Gorky Donetsk National University Donetsk National University of Economics and Trade. M. Tugan-Baranovsky Donetsk College of Industrial Automation Donetsk Law Institute of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Ukraine Drogobych State Pedagogical University. I. Franko Avicenna Tajik State Medical University Abuali ibn Sino (Avicene) Tajik State Pedagogical University named after Sadriddin Aini Evpatoria Institute social sciences(branch of KFU) Yekaterinburg State Theater Institute Institute of International Relations College of Railway Transport Russian State Vocational Pedagogical University Ural State Academy of Architecture and Art Ural State Conservatory. M.P. Mussorgsky Ural State Agrarian University Ural State Mining University Ural State Forestry Engineering University Ural State Medical University Ural State Pedagogical University Ural State Transport University Ural State University of Economics Ural State University of Law Ural Institute business them. I. A. Ilyina Ural Institute of the State Fire Service of the Ministry of Emergency Situations of Russia Ural Institute of Commerce and Law Ural RANEPA Institute(UrAGS) Ural Institute of Economics, Management and Law Ural Technical School of Road Transport and Service Ural Technical Institute of Communications and Informatics (branch of SibGUTI) Ural Federal University named after. B.N. Yeltsin "UPI" Ural Institute of Finance and Law Elabuga Institute of Kazan (Volga Region) Federal University (former EGPU) Yelets State University. I.A. Bunin Yerevan State University Zhytomyr State Technological University Zhytomyr State University. Ivan Franko Zhytomyr Institute of Nursing Zhytomyr National Agroecological University Zavolzhsky Automotive Technical School Zaporizhzhya State Engineering Academy Zaporizhzhya State Medical University Zaporizhzhya Institute of Economics and Information Technologies Zaporizhzhya National Technical University Zaporizhzhya National University Institute of Arts and Information Technologies, Moscow branch Ivano-Frankivsk National Medical University Ivano-Frankivsk National Technical University of Oil and Gas V. Stefanik Ivanovo State Academy of Architecture and Civil Engineering Ivanovo State Medical Academy Ivanovo State Agricultural Academy Ivanovo State University Ivanovo State University of Chemical Technology Ivanovo State Energy University. IN AND. Lenin Textile Institute of IvGPU Moscow regional institute management and law Izhevsk State Medical Academy Izhevsk State Agricultural Academy Izhevsk State Technical University. M. T. Kalashnikova Kama Institute of Humanitarian and Engineering Technologies Udmurt State University Udmurt Republican Social and Pedagogical College Izmail Technical School of Mechanization and Electricity of Agriculture Baikal State University Irkutsk State Agrarian University. A.A. Ezhevsky Irkutsk State Linguistic University Irkutsk State Medical University Irkutsk State University Irkutsk State Transport University Irkutsk National Research Technical University Pedagogical Institute (branch of ISU) Siberian Academy of Law, Economics and Management Institute of Law (branch of ISU) National University of the State Tax Service of Ukraine Mari State University Interregional Open Social Institute Volga State Technological University Academy of Social Education Institute of Social and Humanitarian Knowledge Institute of Economics and Finance KFU Institute of Economics, Management and Law Kazan State Academy of Veterinary Medicine named after V.I. N.E. Bauman Kazan State Conservatory (Academy) N. G. Zhiganova Kazan State Agrarian University Kazan State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering Kazan State Medical University Kazan State University of Culture and Arts Kazan State energy university Kazan Cooperative Institute (a branch of RUK) Kazan National Research Technical University named after V.I. A. N. Tupolev Kazan National Research Technological University Kazan Federal University Volga Region State Academy of Physical Culture, Sports and Tourism Tatar State Humanitarian and Pedagogical University University of Management TISBI Kalacheev Agricultural College Baltic State Academy of Fishing Fleet Baltic information college Baltic Federal University. I. Kant Kaliningrad State Technical University St. Petersburg University of Service and Economics ( Kaliningrad branch) Kaluga State University. K. E. Tsiolkovsky Kaluga branch of the RANEPA Kamenetz-Podolsky National University. I. Ogienko Podolsk State Agrarian and Technical University Kamyshinsky Technological Institute (branch of VolgGTU) Karaganda State Medical University Karaganda State Technical University Karaganda State University. E. A. Buketova Karaganda University Bolashak Karaganda University of Economics Suleiman Demirel University Kemerovo State Medical University (former KemGMA) Kemerovo State Agricultural Institute Kemerovo State University Kemerovo State University of Culture and Arts Kemerovo Technological Institute of Food Industry Kuzbass State Technical University Kuzbass Institute of Economics and law Kerch State Marine Technological University State University of Telecommunications State Economics and Technology University of Transport European University of Finance, Information Systems, Management and Business Kyiv State Academy water transport them. Konashevich-Sagaydachny Kyiv Medical University UANM Kyiv National Linguistic University Kyiv National University of Trade and Economics Kyiv National University. T. Shevchenko Kyiv National University of Culture and Arts Kyiv National University of Construction and Architecture Kyiv National University of Theatre, Film and Television. IK Karpenko-Kary Kyiv National University of Technology and Design Kyiv National University of Economics. V. Hetman Kyiv Slavic University Kyiv University them. B. Grinchenko Kyiv University of Law of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine Kyiv University of Tourism, Economics and Law International Scientific and Technical University. Y. Bugay Interregional Academy of Human Resources Management National Academy of Internal Affairs of Ukraine National Academy of Leadership Personnel of Culture and Arts National Academy of Statistics, Accounting and Auditing National Academy of Management National Musical Academy of Ukraine. P. I. Tchaikovsky National Aviation University National Medical University. A.A. Bogomolets National Pedagogical University. M.P. Drahomanova National Technical University of Ukraine "Kyiv Polytechnic Institute" National Transport University National University "Kyiv-Mohyla Academy" National University of Bioresources and Nature Management National University food technology National University of Physical Education and Sports of Ukraine Open International University of Human Development Ukraine Ukrainian State University of Finance and International Trade Samara State Agricultural Academy Volga-Vyatka Institute (branch of Moscow State Law Academy) Vyatka State Agricultural Academy Vyatka State Humanitarian University Vyatka State University Vyatka Social and Economic Institute Moscow Finance -Law University Kirov branch Kirovograd Flight Academy of the National Aviation University Kirovograd State Pedagogical University. V. Vinnichenko Kirovograd Institute of Regional Management and Economics Kirovograd National Technical University State Agrarian University of Moldova State University of Medicine and Pharmacology. Nicholas Testemitanu International Independent University Moldova Kovrov State Technological Academy. V.A. Degtyarev Kolomna Institute branch of Moscow State Medical University Moscow State Regional Social and Humanitarian Institute Amur Humanitarian and Pedagogical State University Komsomolsk-on-Amur State Technical University Konotop Institute SumGU Financial and Technological Academy Kostanay State University. Akhmet Baitursynov Kostroma State Technological University Kostroma State University. ON THE. Nekrasov Donbass State Machine-Building Academy Donbass National Academy of Civil Engineering and Architecture Donetsk National Technical University Krasnoarmeisky Industrial Institute DonNTU Krasnodar State University of Culture and Arts Kuban State Agrarian University Kuban State Medical University Kuban State Technological University Kuban State University Kuban State University of Physical Culture, Sports and Tourism Kuban Socio-Economic Institute Modern Academy for the Humanities Institute for the Humanities SibFU Engineering and Construction Institute SibFU Institute of Architecture and Design SibFU Institute of Mining, Geology and Geotechnology SibFU Institute of Natural Sciences and Humanities SibFU Institute of Engineering Physics and Radioelectronics SibFU Institute of Space and Information Technologies SibFU Institute of Oil and Gas SibFU Institute of Pedagogy, Psychology and Sociology SibFU Institute of Business Process Management and Economics SibFU Institute of Philology and Language Communication SibFU Institute of Fundamental Biology and Biotechnology SibFU Institute of Nonferrous Metals and Materials Science SibFU Institute of Economics, Management and Environmental Management SibFU Krasnoyarsk State Academy of Music and Theater Krasnoyarsk State Academy of Architecture and Civil Engineering SibFU Krasnoyarsk State Agrarian University Krasnoyarsk State Medical University. V.F. Voyno-Yasenetsky Krasnoyarsk State Pedagogical University. V.P. Astafieva Krasnoyarsk Institute of Railway Transport, branch of IrGUPS Polytechnic Institute of Siberian Federal University Siberian State Technological University Siberian State University of Science and Technology. Academician M.F. Reshetnev Siberian Institute of Business, Management and Psychology Siberian Interregional Training Center Siberian Federal University Trade and Economic Institute SibFU Law Institute SibFU Kremenchug National University. M. Ostrogradsky Kryvyi Rih National University Kryvyi Rih Economic Institute KNEU named after. V. Hetman Aviation Technical College Kurgan State Agricultural Academy. T. S. Maltseva Kurgan State University Kursk State Agricultural Academy. pr. I.I. Ivanova Kursk State Medical University Kursk Institute of Social Education Regional Financial and Economic Institute Southwestern State University Tuva State University Lesosibirsk Pedagogical Institute (branch of Siberian Federal University) Lipetsk State Pedagogical University Lipetsk State Technical University Luga Institute (branch of Leningrad State University named after A.S. Pushkin) Lugansk State Academy of Culture and Arts Lugansk State Medical University Lugansk State University of Internal Affairs. E.A. Didorenko Luhansk State University. Vladimir Dahl Lugansk National Agrarian University Luhansk National University. Taras Shevchenko Eastern European National University. Lesya Ukrainka Lutsk National Technical University Lviv Commercial Academy Lviv National Academy of Arts Lviv State University of Internal Affairs Lviv State University of Physical Education Lviv Institute of Economics and Tourism Lviv National Agrarian University Lviv National Medical University. D. Galitsky Lviv National University of Veterinary Medicine and Biotechnology. S.Z. Gzhitsky Lviv National University. I. Franko National University Lviv Polytechnic Russian customs academy North-Eastern State University Ingush State University Magnitogorsk State Technical University. G.I. Nosova Magnitogorsk Medical College named after. P.F. Nadezhdina Azovsky Maritime Institute Odessa National Maritime Academy Donetsk State University of Management Mariupol State University Priazovsky State Technical University Dagestan State Medical Academy Dagestan State Pedagogical University Dagestan State Technical University Dagestan State University Melitopol State Pedagogical University. B. Khmelnitsky Taurida State Agrotechnological University Belarusian State Academy of Arts Belarusian State Academy of Music Belarusian State Academy of Telecommunications Belarusian State Agrarian Technical University Belarusian State Medical University Belarusian State Pedagogical University named after. M. Tanka Belarusian State Technological University Belarusian State University Belarusian State University of Informatics and Radioelectronics Belarusian State University of Culture and Arts Belarusian State University of Physical Education Belarusian State Economic University Belarusian National Technical University Institute of Information Technologies BSUIR Institute border service Republic of Belarus Institute Modern Knowledge them. A.M. Shirokov International State Ecological University. A. D. Sakharova International University MITSO Minsk State Higher Radio Engineering College Minsk State Polytechnic College Minsk Innovative University Minusinsk College of Culture and Art A. Merzlov Belarusian-Russian University Mogilev State University. A. A. Kuleshova Mogilev State University of Foodstuffs Mozyr State Pedagogical University. I.P. Shamyakina Academic International Institute Academic Law Institute Academy of State Fire Service EMERCOM of Russia Academy of Standardization, Metrology and Certification Academy of Labor and Social Relations of the Federation of Independent Trade Unions of Russia Air Force engineering academy them. pr. N.E. Zhukovsky All-Russian Academy of Foreign Trade of the Ministry of Economic Development of the Russian Federation All-Russian State University of Cinematography. S.A. Gerasimov "VGIK" Higher Theater School (Institute) them. MS Shchepkina GAPOU College of Entrepreneurship No. 11 State Academy of Slavic Culture State Classical Academy. Maimonides State academic university Humanities State Institute of the Russian Language. A.S. Pushkin State University for Land Management State University of Management Humanitarian Institute of Television and Radio Broadcasting. M.A. Litovchina Institute of Humanitarian Education and Information Technologies Institute of Journalism and Literary Creativity Institute of International Law and Economics named after A.S. Griboyedov social policy and Law Institute of Textile and light industry MSUTU Institute of Tourism and Hospitality Institute of Management and Law Institute of Economics and Culture College of Urban Planning and Service No. 38 College of Multilevel Vocational Education RANEPA Literary Institute. A.M. Gorky Medical Institute of Continuing Education Medical College No. 1 International Academy of Business and Management International Institute of Economics and Law International Institute of Law Moscow Academy of Astrology Moscow Academy of Entrepreneurship under the Government of Moscow Moscow Academy of Economics and Law Moscow State Academy of Veterinary Medicine and Biotechnology. K.I. Skryabin Moscow State Academy of Water Transport Moscow State Academy of Public Utilities and Construction Moscow State Academy of Physical Culture Moscow State Conservatory. P. I. Tchaikovsky Moscow State Art and Industry Academy. S. G. Stroganova Moscow State Law Academy. O.E. Kutafin Moscow Academy of Humanities and Technology Moscow Academy of Finance and Law Moscow Aviation Institute (National Research University) Moscow Automobile and Road Construction State Technical University Moscow Institute of Architecture and Civil Engineering Moscow Institute of Architecture (State Academy) Moscow Banking Institute Moscow Mining Institute (branch of NUST MISiS) Moscow City Pedagogical University Moscow City Psychological and Pedagogical University Moscow City University of Management of the Government of Moscow Moscow State Agroengineering University. V.P. Goryachkina Moscow State University for the Humanities and Economics Moscow State University for the Humanities. M.A. Sholokhov Moscow State Industrial University Moscow State Institute of Tourism Industry. Yu.A. Senkevich Moscow State Institute of Radio Engineering, Electronics and Automation (Technical University) Moscow State Institute of Electronics and Mathematics (Technical University) Moscow State College Information Technology Moscow State Linguistic University Moscow State Engineering University "MAMI" Moscow State University of Medicine and Dentistry. A.I. Evdokimova Moscow State regional university Moscow State Open University. V. S. Chernomyrdin Moscow State University of Civil Engineering Moscow State Technical University of Civil Aviation Moscow State Technical University. N.E. Bauman Moscow State Technological University "Stankin" Moscow State University of Geodesy and Cartography Moscow State University of Design and Technology Moscow State University. M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University of Engineering Ecology Moscow State University of International Relations of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia (MGIMO) Moscow State University of Printing Arts. I. Fedorova Moscow State University food production Moscow State University of Instrument Engineering and Informatics Moscow State University applied biotechnology Moscow State University of Environmental Engineering Moscow State University of Communications Moscow State University of Technology and Management. K.G. Razumovsky Moscow State University of Fine Chemical Technologies. M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University of Economics, Statistics and Informatics (MESI) Moscow Institute for the Humanities and Economics Moscow Institute for the Humanities. E.R. Dashkova Moscow University for the Humanities Moscow Institute of Public Administration and Law Moscow Institute of Entrepreneurship and Law Moscow Institute of Television and Radio Broadcasting "Ostankino" Moscow International University Moscow New Law Institute Moscow Educational Complex. V. Talalikhina Moscow State Pedagogical University Moscow Psychological and Social University Moscow Socio-Economic Institute Moscow Technical University of Communications and Informatics Moscow Technological Institute "VTU" Moscow University. S.Yu. Witte (former Moscow Institute of Economics, Management and Law) Moscow University of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Federation. V.Ya. Kikotya Moscow Financial and Industrial University Synergy Moscow Art and Industry Institute Moscow Economic Institute Musical and Pedagogical State Institute. MM. Ippolitova-Ivanova National Institute of Business National Research Technological University "MISiS" National Research University "Higher School of Economics" National Research University "MIET" National Research University "MPEI" National Research Nuclear University (MEPhI) Open University Israel in the CIS Pedagogical Institute of Physical Culture and Sports of the Moscow City Pedagogical University First Moscow State Medical University. THEM. Sechenov Polytechnic College named after P.A. Ovchinnikov St. Tikhon Orthodox Humanitarian University Russian Academy of Music. Gnesins Russian Academy of National Economy and public service under the President of the Russian Federation Russian International Academy of Tourism Russian Open Academy of Transport MIIT Russian State Agrarian University Moscow Agricultural Academy. Timiryazev Russian State Geological Prospecting University. S. Ordzhonikidze Russian State University for the Humanities Russian State Social University Russian State Technological University. K.E. Tsiolkovsky (MATI) Russian State University of Trade and Economics Russian State University named after A.N. Kosygin Russian State University of Innovative Technologies and Entrepreneurship Russian State University of Oil and Gas. THEM. Gubkin Russian State University of Justice Russian State University of Tourism and Service Russian State University of Physical Culture, Sports, Youth and Tourism (GTSOLIFK) Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University Russian New University Russian University of Peoples' Friendship Russian University theatrical art Russian University of Chemical Technology DI. Mendeleev Russian University of Economics. G.V. Plekhanov Capital Financial and Humanitarian Academy Theatrical Institute. B.V. Schukin at the State Academic Theatre. E. Vakhtangov University of Russian Innovative Education University of the Russian Academy of Education Federal Institute advanced training and retraining Financial University under the Government of the Russian Federation School-studio (institute) named after Vl. I. Nemirovich-Danchenko at the Moscow Art Theater. A. P. Chekhov Mukachevo State University International Institute of Business Education Murmansk State University for the Humanities Moscow State Forest University Moscow Cooperative College Altshul Russian University of Cooperation Kama State Engineering and Economic Academy Naberezhnye Chelny State Institute of Trade and Technology Naberezhnye Chelny Institute KFU Naberezhnye Chelny Institute of Social and Pedagogical Technologies and Resources Kabardino-Balkarian State University H. Berbekova Nanjing University of Science and Technology Nezhin State University. N. Gogol Nemeshaevsky agrotechnical college Nizhnevartovsk State University Nizhnekamsk Chemical-Technological Institute Kazan State Technological University Volga State Academy of Water Transport Nizhny Novgorod State Conservatory. M.I. Glinka Nizhny Novgorod State Agricultural Academy Nizhny Novgorod Law Academy Nizhny Novgorod State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering Nizhny Novgorod State Engineering and Economic University Nizhny Novgorod State Linguistic University. ON THE. Dobrolyubov Nizhny Novgorod State Pedagogical University. K. Minina Nizhny Novgorod State Technical University. R.E. Alekseev Nizhny Novgorod State University. N.I. Lobachevsky Nizhny Novgorod Institute of Management and Business Nizhny Novgorod Institute of Management RANEPA (VVAGS) Privolzhsky Research Medical University (former NizhGMA) Nizhny Tagil State Social and Pedagogical Institute (branch of RSPPU) Nizhny Tagil Institute of Technology (branch of UrFU) National University of Shipbuilding. adm. Makarova Nikolaev National Agrarian University Nikolaev National University. V.A. Sukhomlinsky Black Sea State University. Peter Mohyla Novgorod State University Yaroslav the Wise Novokuznetsk Institute (branch of the KemGU) Siberian State Industrial University State Maritime University named after. Admiral F. F. Ushakov Institute of Catalysis. G.K. Boreskov Novosibirsk State Conservatory. M.I. Glinka Novosibirsk State Agrarian University Novosibirsk State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering Novosibirsk State Medical University Novosibirsk State Pedagogical University Novosibirsk State Technical University Novosibirsk State University Novosibirsk State University of Architecture, Design and Arts (former NGAHA) Novosibirsk State University of Economics and Management Novosibirsk Medical College Novosibirsk Law College Institute (branch of TSU) Siberian Academy of Finance and Banking Siberian State University of Water Transport Siberian State University of Geosystems and Technology Siberian State University of Communications Siberian State University of Telecommunications and Informatics Siberian Institute of Management RANEPA (SibAGS) Siberian University Consumer Cooperatives South-Russian State Technical University (Novocherkassk Polytechnic Institute) (YURGTU (NPI)) Obninsk Humanitarian Institute Obninsk Institute of Atomic Energy NRNU MEPhI National University Odessa Maritime Academy (formerly ONMA) National University Odessa Academy of Law Odessa State Academy of Civil Engineering and Architecture Odessa National Academy of Food Technologies Odessa National Academy of Communications. A.S. Popov Odessa State Agrarian University Odessa State Ecological University Odessa State Economic University Odessa Corporate Computer College Odessa National Medical University Odessa National Maritime University Odessa National Polytechnic University Odessa National University. I.I. Mechnikov South Ukrainian National Pedagogical University. K.D. Ushinsky Ozersk Technological Institute Omsk Academy of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia Omsk State Agrarian University. P. A. Stolypin Omsk State Institute of Service Omsk State Medical University Omsk State Pedagogical University Omsk State Technical University Omsk State University. F.M. Dostoevsky Omsk State Transport University Omsk Economic Institute Omsk Law Institute Siberian State Automobile and Road Academy Siberian State University of Physical Culture and Sports Oryol State Institute of Economics and Trade Oryol branch of RANEPA Orenburg State Agrarian University Orenburg State Institute of Management Orenburg State Medical University Orenburg State Pedagogical University Orenburg State University Orenburg Institute (branch Moscow State Law Academy Kutafin) Orsk Humanitarian and Technological Institute (branch of OSU) Orsk Medical College GBPOU Ostashkov College Osh Technological University. acad. MM. Adyshev Innovative Eurasian University Pavlodar State Pedagogical University Pavlodar State University named after S. Toraigyrov Pedagogical Institute. VG Belinsky Penza State University Penza State Agricultural Academy Penza State Technological University Penza State University Penza State University of Architecture and Construction Pereyaslav-Khmelnitsky State Pedagogical University. G.S. Frying pans West Ural Institute of Economics and Law Perm State Academy of Arts and Culture Perm State Agricultural Academy. D.N. Pryanishnikova Perm State Pharmaceutical Academy Perm State Humanitarian and Pedagogical University Perm State Medical University. ak. E.A. Wagner Perm State National Research University Perm Institute of Humanities and Technology Perm Institute of Economics and Finance Perm National Research Polytechnic University Karelian State Pedagogical Academy Petrozavodsk State Conservatoire. A.K. Glazunov Petrozavodsk State University North-Kazakhstan State University. M. Kozybayeva Kamchatka State Technical University Pinsk State Vocational College of Mechanical Engineering Polesie State University Poltava State Agrarian Academy Poltava National Pedagogical University named after M. Kozybayeva VG Korolenko Poltava National Technical University. Y. Kondratyuk Poltava University of Economics and Trade Ukrainian Medical Dental Academy Pskov Agricultural College Pskov State University Leningrad State University. A.S. Pushkin St. Petersburg State Agrarian University Pyatigorsk State Linguistic University Pyatigorsk State Technological University Pyatigorsk Medical and Pharmaceutical Institute (a branch of the VolgGMU) North Caucasian Institute of the RANEPA (SKAGS) Rezhev Polytechnic Institute International University of Economics and Humanities. S. Demyanchuk National University water management and Nature Management Rivne State University for the Humanities Academy of Architecture and Arts of the Southern Federal University Donskoy State Agrarian University Donskoy State Technical University Institute of Service and Tourism (branch of DSTU) Institute of Management, Business and Law Rostov State Conservatory. S. V. Rakhmaninov Rostov State Medical University Rostov State University of Communications Rostov State Economic University "RINH" Rostov Institute for the Protection of the Entrepreneur Rostov Law Institute (a branch of the RPA MJ) Southern Federal University Rybinsk State Aviation Technical University. P. A. Solovieva Rybinsk river school them. IN AND. Kalashnikov Rybnitsa Branch of the Pridnestrovian State University named after T.G. Shevchenko Ryazan State Agrotechnological University named after. P.A. Kostychev Ryazan State Medical University. acad. I.P. Pavlova Ryazan State radiotechnical university Ryazan State University S.A. Esenina Medical University "REAVIZ" Volga Region State Social and Humanitarian Academy Volga Region State University of Telecommunications and Informatics Samara Academy state and municipal government Samara State Academy of Culture and Arts Samara Humanitarian Academy Samara State University of Architecture and Construction Samara State Medical University Samara State Technical University Samara State Transport University Samara State University of Economics Samara Institute - graduate School Privatization and Entrepreneurship Samara National Research University. ak. S.P. Koroleva (former SSAU, SamGU) Samarkand State medical institute Academy of Russian Ballet. AND I. Vaganova Baltic Academy of Tourism and Entrepreneurship Baltic State Technical University "VOENMEH" them. D.F. Ustinova Baltic Humanitarian Institute Baltic Institute of Ecology, Politics and Law Military Academy connections to them. CM. Budyonny Military Space Academy them. A.F. Mozhaisky Military Medical Academy. CM. Kirov East European Institute of Psychoanalysis State Polar Academy State University of the Sea and River Fleet. S.O. Makarova Institute special pedagogy and psychology. R. Wallenberg Institute of Television, Business and Design International Institute Psychology and Management National State University of Physical Culture, Sports and Health. P.F. Lesgaft National University of Mineral Resources "Gorny" National open institute Russia First St. Petersburg State Medical University. I.P. Pavlova St. Petersburg State University of Communications named after. Emperor Alexander I Russian State Hydrometeorological University Russian State Pedagogical University. A.I. Herzen Russian Christian Humanitarian Academy St. Petersburg State Academy of Veterinary Medicine St. Petersburg State Academy of Theater Arts St. Petersburg State Conservatory. ON THE. Rimsky-Korsakov St. Petersburg State Medical Academy. I.I. Mechnikov St. Petersburg State Chemical and Pharmaceutical Academy St. Petersburg State Academy of Art and Industry. A.L. Stieglitz St. Petersburg State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering St. Petersburg State Institute of Psychology and Social Work St. Petersburg State Forest Engineering University. CM. Kirov St. Petersburg State Marine Technical University St. Petersburg State Pediatric Medical University St. Petersburg State Polytechnic University Institute of Mechanical Engineering St. Petersburg State Technological Institute (Technical University) St. Petersburg State Technological University of Plant Polymers St. Petersburg State University of Trade and Economics St. St. Petersburg State University St. Petersburg State University of Aerospace Instrumentation St. Petersburg State University of Civil Aviation St. Petersburg State University of Information Technologies, Mechanics and Optics St. Petersburg State University of Cinema and Television St. Petersburg State University of Culture and Arts St. Petersburg State University low-temperature and food tech nology St. Petersburg State University of Service and Economics St. Petersburg State University of Telecommunications. prof. M.A. Bonch-Bruevich St. Petersburg State University of Technology and Design St. Petersburg State University of Economics (former FINEK, INZHECON) St. Petersburg State Electrotechnical University "LETI" St. Petersburg Humanitarian University of Trade Unions St. Petersburg Institute of Foreign Economic Relations, Economics and Law St. Petersburg Institute of Hospitality St. Petersburg Institute of Management and Law Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University (formerly St. St. Petersburg State Fire Service of the Ministry of Emergency Situations of Russia St. Petersburg University of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia St. Petersburg University of Management and Economics St. Petersburg Law Institute of the Academy of the General Prosecutor's Office of the Russian Federation of the St. Petersburg Institute of Humanitarian Education North-West State Correspondence Technical University North-West State Medical University them. I.I. Mechnikova North-Western Institute of Management RANEPA (SZAGS) Smolny Institute of the Russian Academy of Education Mordovian State Pedagogical Institute. M.E. Evsevyeva Mordovian State University named after A.I. N. P. Ogaryova Volga Institute of Management. P.A. Stolypin RANEPA (PAGS) Saratov State Conservatory. L. V. Sobinova Saratov State Law Academy Saratov State Agrarian University. N.I. Vavilov Saratov State Medical University. IN AND. Razumovsky Saratov State Technical University. Yu.A. Gagarin Saratov State University. N.G. Chernyshevsky Saratov Socio-Economic Institute of PRUE Plekhanov (former SSEU) Sarov State Institute of Physics and Technology Sakhalin State University Sevastopol City Humanitarian University Sevastopol State University Sevastopol National University of Nuclear Energy and Industry Institute of Shipbuilding and Marine Arctic Technology (Sevmashvtuz) (branch of NArFU) East Ukrainian National University. V. Dal Seversky Technological Institute National Research Nuclear University MEPhI Shakarim State University of Semey Kazakh Humanities and Law Innovative University Academy of Bioresources and Nature Management Academy of Construction and Architecture (branch of KFU) Humanitarian Pedagogical Academy (branch of KFU) Crimean Engineering and Pedagogical University Crimean University of Culture, Arts and Tourism Crimean Federal University. IN AND. Vernadsky Medical Academy. S.I. Georgievsky Simferopol University of Economics and Management Taurida Academy (branch of KFU) Taurida National University. IN AND. Vernadsky Donbass State Pedagogical University Smolensk State Agricultural Academy Smolensk State Institute of Arts Smolensk State Medical University Smolensk State University Smolensk Humanitarian University Sosnovsky Agro-Industrial College Sochi State University Sochi Institute of Peoples' Friendship University of Russia North Caucasus Institute of Humanities and Technology North Caucasus Federal University Stavropol State Agrarian University University Stavropol State Medical University Stavropol State Pedagogical Institute Starooskol Technological Institute (branch of NUST MISiS) Sterlitamak State Pedagogical Academy Muromtsev Forest Technical College Sumy State Pedagogical University named after I.I. Makarenko Sumy State University Sumy National Agrarian University Ukrainian Academy of Banking of the National Bank of Ukraine Surgut State Pedagogical University Surgut State University Surgut Institute of Oil and Gas (a branch of the Tyumen Industrial University) Komi Republican Academy of Public Administration and Management Syktyvkar State University. Pitirim Sorokina Syktyvkar Forest Institute (branch of SPbGLTA) Engineering and Technology Academy of the Southern Federal University Taganrog Institute. A.P. Chekhov Tambov State Technical University Tambov State University. G.R. Derzhavin Tambov College of Economics and Entrepreneurship Tambov branch of the RANEPA (PAGS named after Stolypin) Taraz State University named after. M.Kh. Dulati Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry. A. Sadykova Tashkent State Dental Institute Tashkent University of Information Technologies Tashkent Institute of Chemical Technology Tver State Agricultural Academy Tver State Medical University Tver State Technical University Tver State University Tver Institute of Ecology and Law Tver Medical College Ternopil State Medical University named after. AND I. Gorbachevsky Ternopil National Pedagogical University. V. Gnatiuk Ternopil National Technical University named after V.I. I. Pulyui Ternopil National Economic University Pridnestrovian State University. T.G. Shevchenko Tobolsk State Pedagogical Institute. DI. Mendeleev Volga University. V.N. Tatishcheva Volga Region State University of Service Togliatti State University Siberian State Medical University Tomsk State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering Tomsk State Pedagogical University Tomsk State University Tomsk State University of Control Systems and Radioelectronics Tomsk Institute Business Tomsk Polytechnic University Institute of Veterinary Medicine South Ural State Agrarian University (formerly UGAVM) Tula State Pedagogical University. L.N. Tolstoy Tula State University International Kazakh-Turkish University. Kh. A. Yassavi State Agrarian University of the Northern Trans-Urals Tyumen State Academy of Culture, Arts and Social Technologies Tyumen State Academy of World Economy, Management and Law Tyumen State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering Tyumen State Medical University Tyumen State Oil and Gas University Tyumen State University Transcarpathian State University Uzhgorod National University East-Siberian State Academy of Culture and Arts East-Siberian State University of Technology and Management Institute of Aviation Technology and Management (branch of UlSTU) Ulyanovsk State Agricultural Academy. P.A. Stolypin Ulyanovsk State Pedagogical University. IN Ulyanova Ulyanovsk State Technical University Ulyanovsk State University Ulyanovsk Institute of Civil Aviation named after Air Chief Marshal B.P. Bugaev Ulyanovsk Higher Aviation School of Civil Aviation Uman State Pedagogical University. P. Tychyna Uman National University of Horticulture West-Kazakhstan Agrarian and Technical University. Zhangir Khan West Kazakhstan State University. M. Utemisova Usinsky Polytechnic College Primorsky State Agricultural Academy Ussuri College of Technology and Management School of Pedagogy FEFU East Kazakhstan State Technical University. D. Serikbaeva East-Kazakhstan State University. S. Amanzholova Bashkir Academy of Public Administration and Management under the President of the Republic of Bashkortostan Bashkir State Agrarian University Bashkir State Medical University Bashkir State Pedagogical University. M. Akmulla Bashkir State University Eastern Economic and Legal Humanitarian Academy Ufa State Academy of Arts. Z. Ismagilova Ufa State Aviation Technical University Ufa State Oil Technical University Ufa State University of Economics and Service Ukhta State Technical University Tyumen Industrial University Far East State Humanitarian University Far East State Medical University Far East State Transport University Far East Institute of Management RANEPA (DVAGS) Far East Law Institute of the Ministry of Internal Affairs Russian Federation Pacific State University Khabarovsk State Institute of Arts and Culture Khabarovsk State University of Economics and Law Khabarovsk Institute of Infocommunications (branch of SibGUTI) Khanty-Mansiysk State Medical Academy Yugra State University National Aerospace University named after N.N. E. Zhukovsky National Technical University Kharkiv Polytechnic Institute National University of Civil Protection of Ukraine National Pharmaceutical University National Law University. Yaroslav the Wise Ukrainian State Academy of Railway Transport Ukrainian Engineering and Pedagogical Academy Kharkiv State Academy of Design and Arts Kharkiv State Academy of Culture Kharkiv State Academy of Physical Culture Kharkiv State Veterinary Academy Kharkiv Humanitarian Pedagogical Academy Kharkiv State University of Nutrition and Trade Kharkiv Humanitarian University People's Ukrainian Academy Kharkiv Institute of banking UBD NBU Kharkiv Institute of Finance (branch of UGUFMT) Kharkiv National Automobile and Highway University Kharkiv National Agrarian University. V.V. Dokuchaeva Kharkiv National Medical University Kharkiv National Pedagogical University. G.S. Frying pans Kharkiv National Technical University of Agriculture. P. Vasilenko Kharkiv National University of Internal Affairs Kharkiv National University of Municipal Economy. A.N. Beketov Kharkiv National University. V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University of Arts. I.P. Kotlyarevsky Kharkiv National University of Radio Electronics Kharkiv National University of Construction and Architecture Kharkiv National University of Economics. S. Kuznets Kharkiv Patent and Computer College Kharkiv Institute of Trade and Economics (branch of KNTEU) Kherson State Maritime Academy Kherson State Agrarian University Kherson State University Kherson National Technical University law Khujand State University Chaikovsky State Institute of Physical Education Chaikovsky Technological Institute (branch of IzhGTU) Cheboksary Cooperative Institute (branch of RUK) Chuvash State Agricultural Academy Chuvash State Pedagogical University. AND I. Yakovlev Chuvash State University. I.N. Ulyanova Russian-British Institute of Management Ural State University of Physical Education Ural Socio-Economic Institute of the Academy of Labor and Social Relations FNPR Chelyabinsk State Agroengineering Academy Chelyabinsk State Academy of Culture and Arts Chelyabinsk State Pedagogical University Chelyabinsk State University Chelyabinsk Institute of Economics and Law. M.V. Ladoshina Chelyabinsk branch RANEPA (URAGS CHF) Chelyabinsk Law Institute of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Federation South Ural State Medical University of the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation (former ChelGMA) South Ural State University South Ural Institute of Management and Economics South Ural Professional Institute Sayano-Shushensky Branch of the Siberian Federal University Cheremkhovo Medical technical school Institute of Management and Information Technologies (branch of St. Petersburg State Polytechnical University) Cherepovets State University Cherkasy State Technological University Cherkasy Institute of Fire Safety named after Heroes of Chernobyl Cherkasy National University. B. Khmelnitsky Chernihiv State Institute of Economics and Management Chernihiv National Pedagogical University. T.G. Shevchenko Chernihiv National Technological University Bukovinian State Medical University Chernivtsi National University. Yu. Fedkovich Chistopol branch "Vostok" of Kazan National Research Technical University named after A.N. Tupolev - KAI Transbaikal Agrarian Institute (branch of IRGSHA) Transbaikal State University Transbaikal Institute of Railway Transport, branch of IrGUPS Chita State Medical Academy Chita Institute of Baikal State University of Economics and Law Shadrinsky State Pedagogical Institute Institute of Service and Entrepreneurship DSTU South Russian Humanitarian Institute Miras University South Kazakhstan Medical Academy South Kazakhstan State University. M. Auezov Kalmyk State University Engels Technological Institute Yurga Technological Institute of Tomsk Polytechnic University North-Eastern Federal University. M.K. Ammosov International University of Business and New Technologies Yaroslavl State Agricultural Academy Yaroslavl State Medical University Yaroslavl State Pedagogical University. KD Ushinsky Yaroslavl State Theater Institute Yaroslavl State Technical University Yaroslavl State University. P.G. Demidov

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REFERENCES 1. Kasatkin AG Basic processes and apparatuses of chemical technology. Ed. 9th, M.: Chemistry. 1973 - 754 p. 2. Planovsky A. N., Nikolaev P. I. Basic processes and apparatuses of chemical and petrochemical technology. Ed. 2nd, M.: Chemistry. 1972 - 493 p. 3. Basic Processes and Apparatuses of Chemical Technology: Design Manual / G. S. Borisov, V. P. Brykov, Yu. I. Dytnersky et al. Ed. Yu. I. Dytnersky. Ed. 2nd, M.: Chemistry. 1991 - 496 p. 4. Aksartov M. M. Basic processes and apparatuses of chemical technology. Lecture course. Ed Kar. GU in 1-2 t.

General principles of analysis and calculation of processes and apparatuses I. General information 1. Subject of the course "Processes and apparatuses" 2. The emergence and development of the science of processes and apparatuses 3. Classification of the main processes 4. General principles of analysis and calculation of processes and apparatuses 5. Various systems units of measurement physical quantities

Classification of the main processes n n n Hydromechanical processes, the speed of which is determined by the laws of hydrodynamics - the science of the movement of liquids and gases. Thermal processes proceeding at a speed determined by the laws of heat transfer - the science of the methods of heat distribution. Mass transfer (diffusion) processes characterized by the transfer of one or more Chemical (reaction) processes that proceed at a rate determined by the laws of chemical kinetics. components of the initial mixture from one phase to another through the interface. Mechanical processes described by the laws of solid mechanics.

According to the method of organization, the processes are divided into: 1. 2. 3. Periodic processes are carried out in apparatuses into which raw materials are loaded at certain intervals; after their processing, the final products are unloaded from these devices. Continuous processes are carried out in flow devices. Combined processes. These include continuous processes, the individual stages of which are carried out periodically, or periodic processes, one or more stages, which proceed continuously.

According to the distribution of residence times, they distinguish: 1. 2. 3. 4. In ideal displacement apparatuses, all particles move in a given direction; without mixing with the particles moving in front and behind and completely displacing the particles in front of the stream. In ideal mixing apparatuses, incoming particles are immediately completely mixed with the particles located there, i.e., they are evenly distributed in the volume of the apparatus. Real continuously operating devices are devices of an intermediate type. Processes can also be classified depending on the change in their parameters (velocities, temperatures, concentrations, etc.) over time. On this basis, the processes are divided into steady (stationary) and non-steady (non-stationary, or transitional).

hydromechanical processes. II. Fundamentals of hydraulics. General issues applied hydraulics in chemical equipment 1. Basic definitions 2. Some physical properties liquids A. Hydrostatics 3. Euler differential equations of equilibrium 4. Basic equation of hydrostatics 5. Some practical applications of the basic equation of hydrostatics

n Newton's law of internal friction Surface tension expressed in the following units: in the SI system [ν] \u003d [j / m 2] \u003d [n m / m] \u003d [n / m] in the CGS system] \u003d erg / cm 2] \u003d [dyn / cm 2] in system MKGSS] \u003d kgf m / m 2] \u003d kgf / m]

For each point of a fluid at rest, the sum of the leveling height and the piezometric head is a constant value. (II, 18) (II, 18 d) n The last equation is an expression of Pascal's law, according to which the pressure created at any point of an incompressible fluid at rest is transferred equally to all points of its volume.

Some practical applications of the basic equation of hydrostatics Equilibrium conditions in communicating vessels: Fig. II-4. Equilibrium conditions in communicating vessels: a - homogeneous liquid; b - dissimilar (immiscible) liquids

In open or closed communicating vessels under the same pressure, filled with a homogeneous liquid, its levels are located at the same height, regardless of the shape and cross section of the vessels

Rice. II-5. To determine the height of the hydraulic seal in a continuously operating liquid separator Fig. II-6. Pneumatic liquid level gauge

HYDROMECHANICAL PROCESSES. B. Hydrodynamics 1. The main characteristics of the movement of liquids 2. The equation of continuity (continuity) of the flow 3. The Euler differential equations of motion 4. The differential equations of motion of the Navier-Stokes 5. The Bernoulli equation 6. Some practical applications of the Bernoulli equation 7. The motion of bodies in liquids 8. Movement of liquids through stationary granular and porous layers 9. Hydrodynamics of fluidized (fluidized) granular layers 10. Elements of hydrodynamics of two-phase flows 11. Structure of flows and distribution of liquid residence time in apparatuses

Hydraulic radius Under the hydraulic radius r (m) is understood the ratio of the area of ​​the flooded section of the pipeline or channel through which the liquid flows, i.e., the living section of the flow, to the wetted perimeter: (II, 26)

The equivalent diameter is equal to the diameter of a hypothetical circular pipeline, for which the ratio of the area S to the wetted perimeter P is the same as for a given non-circular pipeline.

Steady and unsteady flows. The movement of a fluid is steady, or stationary, if the speeds of the flow particles, as well as all other factors affecting its movement (density, temperature, pressure, etc.), do not change in time at each fixed point in space through which the fluid passes. Under these conditions, for each flow section, the flow rates of the liquid are constant in time.

Modes of fluid motion. n n The movement, in which all particles of the liquid move along parallel trajectories, is called jet, or laminar. Disordered motion, in which individual particles of a fluid move along intricate, chaotic trajectories, while the entire mass of fluid as a whole moves in one direction, is called turbulent.

Reynolds Criterion (Re) n The Re Criterion is a measure of the relationship between the forces of viscosity and inertia in a moving stream.

Stokes' law The equation is Stokes' law, which expresses the parabolic distribution of velocities in the pipeline section during laminar motion.

Poiseuille equation n For laminar flow in a pipe average speed liquid is equal to half the velocity along the axis of the pipe.

Turbulent viscosity n Turbulent viscosity, unlike ordinary viscosity, is not a physicochemical constant determined by the nature of the liquid, its temperature and pressure, but depends on the liquid velocity and other parameters that determine the degree of flow turbulence (in particular, the distance from the pipe wall and etc.).

Differential equation of flow continuity for unsteady motion of a compressible fluid. Differential equation for the continuity of an incompressible fluid flow.

Flow constant equation n These expressions represent the flow continuity (density) equation in its integral form for steady motion. This equation is also called the constant flow equation or material flow balance. 1 w 1 S 1 = 2 w 2 S 2 = 3 w 3 S 3 M 1 = M 2 = M 3 n w 1 S 1 = w 2 S 2 = w 3 S 3 = const Q 1 = Q 2 = Q 3

Euler's differential equations of motion n The system of equations (II, 46), taking into account expressions (II, 47), is differential equations movements ideal fluid Euler for steady flow. (II, 46) (II, 47)

Bernoulli's equation n n Bernoulli's equation for an ideal fluid The quantity is called the total hydrodynamic head, or simply the hydrodynamic head.

Therefore, according to the Bernoulli equation, for all cross sections of a steady flow of an ideal fluid, the hydrodynamic head remains unchanged. z - leveling height, also called geometric, or height, pressure (hg), represents the specific potential energy of the position at a given point (a given section); – pressure head (hpress), or piezometric head, characterizes the specific potential energy of pressure at a given point (a given section). The sum z+, called the total hydrostatic, or simply static head (hst), therefore, expresses the total specific potential energy at a given point (a given section).

Bernoulli's equation n n Thus, according to Bernoulli's equation, in the steady motion of an ideal fluid, the sum of velocity and static heads, equal to the hydrodynamic head, does not change when moving from one flow cross section to another. Thus, the Bernoulli equation is a special case of the law of conservation of energy and expresses the energy balance of the flow.

LIQUID HANDLING n 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Liquid Handling Displacement pumps Displacement pump design Centrifugal pumps Centrifugal pump design Other types of pumps. Siphons

MOVEMENT OF LIQUIDS Depending on the principle of operation of the pump, an increase in the energy and pressure of the liquid can be carried out: 1. in positive displacement pumps, by displacing the liquid from the closed space of the pump by bodies moving reciprocating or rotating; 2. in vane or centrifugal pumps - the centrifugal force that occurs in the liquid during the rotation of the impellers; 3. in vortex pumps - intensive formation and destruction of vortices that occur during the rotation of the impellers; 4. in jet pumps - by a moving jet of air, steam or water; 5. in gas lifts - the formation of foam when air or gas is supplied to the liquid; 6. in installations and siphons - by air, gas or steam pressure on the liquid.

Rice. III-8. valve designs. I - ball valve. 1 - body; 2 - valve; 3 - cover. II - flap valve. 1 - cover; 2 - saddle.

Diaphragm (diaphragm) pumps Fig. III-9. Diaphragm pump: 1 - housing; 2 - valves; 3 - cylinder; 4 - plunger; 5 - diaphragm (membrane).

Centrifugal pumps III-13 Fig. III-13. Scheme of a centrifugal pump: 1 - inlet valve; 2 - suction pipeline; 3 – impeller; 4 - shaft; 5 - body; 6 - valve; 7 - check valve; 8 - discharge pipeline.

Types of stuffing boxes n n I – stuffing box with hydraulic seal: 1 – lantern; 2 - stuffing box. II - stuffing box for acids: 1, 2 - annular cavities; 3, 4 - outlet holes. III - spring gland: 1 - gasket; 2 - spring.

Sealless pump n 1 body, 2 - cover, 3 - impeller, 4 - casing sleeve, 5 - shaped sleeve, 6 - sleeve, 7 - left disk, 8 - stud, 9 - right disk, 10 - tie rod, 11 - spring, 12 - shaft, 13, 14 - rings.

Monteju. Rice. III-8. Monteju: 1 - filling pipe; 2, 3, 4, 5, 8 - cranes; 6 - manometer; 7 - pipes for squeezing

Jet pumps. Steam pump. Rice. III-22. Steam pump. 1 - steam fitting; 2 - steam nozzle; 3 - mixing nozzle; 4 - suction chamber; 5 - suction fitting; 6 - diffuser; 7 - discharge fitting; 8 - condensate fitting; 9, 10 - check valves.

Water jet pump. III-22 Fig. III-22. Water jet pump. 1 - nozzle; 2 - hole; 3 - suction pipeline; 4 1 - nozzle; 2 - hole; 3 - suction fitting pipeline; 4 - fitting III-23

Air lift diagram Fig. III-24. Scheme of the air lift: 1, 2 - pipes; 3 - mixer; 4 - separator III-24

Air lifts (airlifts) and siphons Fig. III-25. Air lift systems 1 - air pipe; 2 - supply pipe for the mixture; 3 - mixer. Rice. III-26. Siphons. 1 - tank; 2 - siphon pipe; 3, 4, 5 - cranes, 6 - viewing channel

Movement and compression of gases (compressor machines) n n n n 1. General information 2. Reciprocating compressors 3. Rotary compressors and blowers 4. Centrifugal machines 5. Axial fans and compressors 6. Screw compressors 7. Vacuum pumps 8. Comparison and applications of compressor machines various types

MOVEMENT AND COMPRESSION OF GASES (COMPRESSOR MACHINES) n n n n General information Machines designed to move and compress gases are called compressor machines. Depending on the degree of compression, the following types of compressor machines are distinguished: fans (3. 0) - to create high pressures; vacuum pumps - for suction of gases at a pressure below atmospheric.

Reciprocating compressors n Single stage horizontal compressor simple action Rice. IV-1. Schemes of single-stage reciprocating compressors: a - single-cylinder single-acting; b - single-cylinder double action; in - two-cylinder single action. 1 = cylinder; 2 - piston; 3 - suction valve; 4 - discharge valve; 5 - connecting rod; 6 - crank; 7 - flywheel; 8 - slider (crosshead)

Multistage compression. Rice. IV-2. Schemes of multistage reciprocating compressors. a, b, c - with compression stages in separate cylinders (a - simultaneous execution; b - two-row execution; c - with a V-shaped arrangement of cylinders); g - with a differential piston: 1 - cylinder; 2 - piston; 3 - suction valve; 4 - discharge valve; 5 - connecting rod; 6 - slider (crosshead); 7 - crank; 8 - flywheel; 9 - intermediate cooler.

Turboblowers. Rice. IV-8. Scheme of a multistage turboblower. 1 - body; 2 - impeller; 3 - guide apparatus; 4 - check valve. Rice. IV-9. Entropy diagram of gas compression in a turbo blower

Separation of inhomogeneous systems V. Separation of inhomogeneous systems 1. Inhomogeneous systems and methods for their separation 2. Separation of liquid systems 2. Material balance of the separation process Filtration baffles 7. Filter arrangement

Continuous settler Fig. IV-3. Settling tank of continuous action with a row mixer 1 – body; 2 - annular chute; 3 - mixer; 4 - blades with strokes; 5 - pipe for supplying the initial suspension; 6 - fitting for the output of clarified liquid; 7 - unloading device for sediment (sludge); 8 - electric motor.

Rice. V-6. Settler of continuous action with conical shelves; 1 - fitting for supplying the suspension to be separated; 2 - conical shelves; 3 - fitting for sludge removal; 4 - channels for draining the clarified liquid; 5 - fitting for the output of clarified liquid

Rice. V-7. Continuous settling tank for separation of suspensions. 1 - fitting for supplying emulsions; 2 - perforated partition; 3 - pipeline for removal of the light phase; 4 - pipeline for removal of the heavy phase; 5 device for breaking the siphon.

B. FILTRATION V-8. Scheme of the filtration process. 1 - filter; 2 - filtering partition; 3 suspension; 5 sediment

Filter arrangement Fig. V-10. Nutsch working under pressure up to 3 atm. 1 - body; 2 - turbine; 3 - removable cover; 4 - filtering bottom; 5 - filtering partition; 6 - supporting partition; 7 - protective mesh; 8 - annular partition; 9 - fitting for supplying the suspension; 10 - fitting for supplying compressed air; 11 - fitting for removing the filtrate; 12 - safety valve

drum filters. Rice. V-13. Scheme of operation of a drum vacuum filter with outer surface filtering. 1 - drum; 2 - connecting tube; 3 - switchgear; 4 - tank for suspension; 5 - rocking mixer; 6, 8 - cavities of the switchgear; 7 - spraying device; 9 - endless tape; 10 - guide roller; 11, 13 - cavities of the switchgear communicating with the source of compressed air; 12 - knife for removing sediment.

B. Centrifugation D. Separation gas systems(gas cleaning) VI. Mixing in liquid media B. Centrifugation 1. Basic provisions 2. Design of centrifuges D. Separation of gas systems (gas purification) 1. General information 2. Gravitational gas purification 3. Gas purification under the action of inertial and centrifugal forces 4. Gas purification by filtration 5. Wet gas scrubbing 6. Electric gas scrubbing VI. Stirring in liquid media 1. General information 2. Mechanical stirring 3. Mechanical stirring devices

The device of centrifuges n Three-column centrifuges. Rice. V-14. Three-column centrifuge. 1 – perforated rotor; 2 - support cone; 3 - log; 4 - the bottom of the frame; 5 fixed casing; 6 - casing cover; 7 - bed; 8 - thrust; 9 - column; 10 - hand brake.

Hanging centrifuges. Rice. V-15. Hanging centrifuge. 1 - pipeline for supplying the suspension; 2 – rotor with solid walls; 3 - shaft; 4 - fixed casing; , 5 liquid removal fitting; 6 - conical cover; 7 - connecting ribs

Horizontal centrifuges with a knife device for sediment removal. Rice. V-16. Horizontal centrifuge with blade for sediment removal. 1 – perforated rotor; 2 - pipe for supplying the suspension; 3 - casing; 4 - fitting for centrate removal; 5 - knife; 6 - hydraulic cylinder for lifting the knife; 7 inclined chute; 8 - channel for sediment removal

Centrifuges with pulsating piston for sludge discharge. Rice. V-17. Centrifuge with pulsating piston for sludge discharge. 1 - pipe for the intake of the suspension; 2 conical funnel; 3 – perforated rotor; 4 - metal slotted sieve; 5 - piston; 6 - fitting for centrate removal; 7 - channel for sediment removal; 8 - stock; 9 - hollow shaft; 10 - a disk moving back and forth

Centrifuges with a screw device for unloading sediment. Rice. V-18. Centrifuge with screw device for unloading sediment. 1 - outer pipe; 2, 4 - hole for the passage of the suspension; 3 - inner pipe; 5 - conical rotor with solid walls; 6 - cylindrical base of the screw; 7 - auger; 8 - casing; 9 - hollow pins; 10 - holes for sediment passage; 11 - sediment chamber; 12 - hole for passage of the centrate; 13 – centrate chamber.

Centrifuges with inertial sludge discharge. Rice. V-19. Centrifuge with inertial unloading of sediment. 1 - funnel for the receipt of the suspension; 2 - rotor; 3 - channel for removal of the liquid phase; 4 - channel for removing the solid phase; 6 - auger.

Liquid separators. Rice. V-20. Disk type liquid separator. 1 - pipe for supplying the emulsion; 2 - plates; 3 - hole for draining a heavier liquid; 4 - holes for draining a lighter liquid; 5 - ribs.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. SEPARATION OF GAS SYSTEMS (PURIFICATION OF GAS) The following methods of gas purification are distinguished: sedimentation under the action of gravity (gravitational purification); sedimentation under the action of inertial, in particular centrifugal forces; filtration; wet cleaning; deposition under the action of electrostatic forces (electric

Gravitational gas cleaning Dust settling chambers. Rice. V-21. Dust chamber. 1 - camera; 2 - horizontal partitions (shelves); 3 reflective baffle; 4 - doors.

Purification of gases under the action of inertial and centrifugal forces Inertial dust collectors. Rice. V-22. Inertial louvered dust collector. 1 - primary louvered dust collector; 2 - cyclone; 3 - branch pipes for purified gas; 5 - dust outlet pipe.

Cyclone Fig. V-23. Cyclone design NIIOgaz. 1 - body; 2 - conical bottom; 3 - cover: 4 - inlet pipe; 5 - dust collector; 6 - exhaust pipe.

Battery cyclone V-24. V-25. Rice. V-26. Element of a direct-flow battery cyclone. 1 - twisting device; 2 inlet pipe; 3 - annular slotted gap; 4 - exhaust pipe.

Purification of gases by filtration Depending on the type of filter partition, the following filters for gases are distinguished: a) with flexible porous partitions made of natural, synthetic and mineral fibers (fabric materials), non-woven fibrous materials (felt, cardboard, etc.), porous sheet materials rubber, polyurethane foam, etc.), metal fabrics; b) with semi-rigid porous partitions (layers of fibers, shavings, nets); c) with rigid porous partitions made of granular materials (porous ceramics, plastics, sintered or pressed metal powders, etc.); d) with granular layers of coke, gravel, quartz sand, etc.

Filters with flexible porous partitions. Rice. V-27. Bag filter with mechanical shaking and fabric back blowing. I-IV - filter sections; 1, 9 - fans; 2 - inlet gas duct; 3 - camera; 4 - sleeves; 5 - distribution grid; 6, 8 - throttle valves; 7 - exhaust pipe; 10 - shaking mechanism; 11 - frame; 12 - auger; 13 - sluice.

Filters with rigid porous baffles Sintered filter Fig. V-28. Metal-ceramic filter. 1 - body; 2 - metal sleeves; 3 - lattice; 4 - inlet fitting; 5 - outlet fitting; 6 – compressed air collector; 7 - bunker.

Filters with granular layers. Rice. V-29. Continuous filter with a moving layer of granular filter material. 1 - body; 2 - filtering partition; 3 - filtering material; 4 inlet fitting; 5 - outlet fitting; 6 - shutters; 7 - feeders.

V-34

MIXING IN LIQUID MEDIA Mixing methods. Regardless of which medium is mixed with a liquid - gas, liquid or solid bulk substance - there are two main methods of mixing in liquid media: mechanical (using mixers of various designs) and pneumatic (compressed air or inert gas). In addition, mixing in pipelines and mixing with nozzles and pumps are used.

Preface.

The discipline "Processes and Apparatuses of Chemical Technology" (PACT) is one of the fundamental general engineering disciplines. It is the final in the general engineering training of the student and fundamental in the special training.

The production technology of a variety of chemical products and materials includes a number of similar physical and physical and chemical processes, characterized by common patterns. These processes in various industries are carried out in devices similar in principle of operation. Processes and devices common to different industries chemical industry, received the name of the main processes and apparatuses of chemical technology.

The PAH discipline consists of two parts:

· theoretical bases of chemical technology;

· typical processes and devices of chemical technology;

The first part outlines the general theoretical patterns of typical processes; fundamentals of the methodology of the approach to solving theoretical and applied tasks; analysis of the mechanism of the main processes and identification of general patterns of their course; generalized methods of physical and mathematical modeling and calculation of processes and devices are formulated.

The second part consists of three main sections, the content of which reveals the applied engineering issues of the fundamentals of chemical technology:

· hydromechanical processes and devices;

thermal processes and devices;

Mass transfer processes and devices.

In these sections, theoretical substantiations of each typical technological process are given, the main designs of apparatuses and the methodology for their calculation are considered. Lectures, laboratory and practical classes, course design, independent work of students and general engineering production practice provide the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities necessary both for further education and for work in production.

Introduction.

1.1 Subjects and objectives of the course.

Technology (techne-art, craftsmanship) is a set of methods of processing, manufacturing, changing the state, properties, form of raw materials, material or semi-finished products in the production process.

The study of technological processes is the subject course. Technology, like science, determines the conditions practical application laws of natural sciences (physics, chemistry, mechanics, etc.) for the most efficient implementation of various technological processes. Technology is directly related to production, and production is constantly in a state of change and development.

The main objective of the course: to identify the general patterns of the processes of transfer and preservation of various substances; development of methods for calculating technological processes and apparatus for their implementation; familiarization with the designs of devices and machines, their characteristics.


As a result of mastering the discipline, students should know:

1. Theoretical foundations of the processes of chemical technology; laws; describing them; the physical essence of the processes, schemes of installations; design of devices and the principle of their work; methodology for calculating processes and apparatuses, including using a computer.

2. Principles of modeling and large-scale transition, the correct choice of equipment for carrying out the corresponding processes and the possibility of their intensification.

3. Modern achievements science and technology in the field of chemical technology.

Skills that students should master:

1. Apply correctly theoretical knowledge when solving specific problems of reasonable choice:

a) the design of apparatus for carrying out certain processes;

b) operating parameters of the devices;

c) schemes for conducting processes.

2. Independently carry out calculations of devices.

3. Independently work on laboratory research facilities, process experimental data, obtain empirical dependencies, analyze calculation methods.

4. Design standard processes and apparatuses, use technical literature and GOSTs, fill out technical documentation in accordance with ESKD.

1.2 Classification of the main processes of chemical technology.

Modern chemical technology studies the processes of production of various acids, alkalis, salts, mineral fertilizers, oil refinery products and hard coal, organic compounds, polymers, etc. However, despite the huge variety of chemical products, their production is associated with a number of similar processes (moving liquids and gases, heating and cooling, drying, chemical interaction, etc.). So, depending on the laws that determine the speed of the processes, they can be combined into the following groups:

1. Hydromechanical processes, the speed of which is determined by the laws of hydromechanics. This includes the transportation of liquids and gases, the production and separation of heterogeneous systems, etc.

2. Thermal processes, the rate of which is determined by the laws of heat transfer (cooling and heating of liquids and gases, condensation of vapors, boiling of liquids, etc.).

3. Mass transfer processes, the rate of which is determined by the laws of mass transfer from one phase to another through the phase interface (absorption, adsorption, extraction, distillation of liquids, drying, etc.)

4. Chemical processes, the speed of which is determined by the laws of chemical kinetics.

5. Mechanical processes that are described by the laws of solid mechanics (grinding, sorting, mixing of solid materials, etc.).

The listed processes form the basis of most chemical industries and therefore are called the main (typical) processes of chemical technology.

PAKhT studies the first three groups, the fourth group studies the OHT discipline, the fifth group - the subject special disciplines profiling departments.

Depending on whether the process parameters (flow rates, temperature, pressure, etc.) change or do not change in time, they are divided into stationary(established) and non-stationary(unsettled). If we denote any parameter by U, then:

Stationary process U(x,y,z)

Non-stationary process U(x,y,z,t)

batch process characterized by the unity of the place of its individual stages. The process is non-stationary.

Continuous process characterized by the unity of the time of the course of all its stages. The process is steady (stationary).

Meet combined processes - separate stages are carried out continuously, separate periodically.

However, the PAKhT course is not built as a presentation of the individual groups listed above. The general theoretical foundations of chemical technology are studied separately, then typical processes and apparatuses of chemical technology are described.

1.3 Continuity hypothesis.

A liquid medium fills one or another volume without any free spaces, in a continuous manner, or is a continuous medium. When describing such media, it is assumed that they consist of particles. Moreover, a particle of a continuous medium does not mean any arbitrarily small part of its volume, but a very small part of it, containing billions of molecules inside. In the general case, the minimum price of division of the macroscopic scale of the spatial Δl or time Δt coordinates should be small enough to neglect the change in macroscopic physical quantities within Δl or Δt, and large enough to neglect fluctuations of microscopic quantities obtained by averaging these quantities over time Δt or particle volume Δl 3 . The choice of the minimum scale division price is determined by the nature of the problem being solved.

The movement of macroscopic volumes of the medium leads to the transfer of mass, momentum and energy.

Classification of the main processes and apparatuses of chemical technology

depending from patterns characterizing the flow, the processes of chemical technology are divided into five main groups.

1. Mechanical processes , whose speed is related to the laws of solid state physics. These include: grinding, classification, dosing and mixing of solid bulk materials.

2. Hydromechanical processes , the flow rate of which is determined by the laws of hydromechanics. These include: compression and movement of gases, movement of liquids, solid materials, sedimentation, filtration, mixing in the liquid phase, fluidization, etc.

3. Thermal processes , the flow rate of which is determined by the laws of heat transfer. These include processes: heating, evaporation, cooling (natural and artificial), condensation and boiling.

4. Mass transfer (diffusion) processes , the intensity of which is determined by the rate of transition of a substance from one phase to another, i.e. the laws of mass transfer. Diffusion processes include: absorption, rectification, extraction, crystallization, adsorption, drying, etc.

5. Chemical processes associated with the transformation of substances and changes in their chemical properties. The rate of these processes is determined by the laws of chemical kinetics.

In accordance with the listed division of processes, chemical apparatuses are classified as follows:

– grinding and classifying machines;

– hydromechanical, thermal, mass transfer devices;

- equipment for the implementation of chemical transformations - reactors.

By organizational and technical structure processes are divided into periodic and continuous.

AT batch process individual stages (operations) are carried out in one place (apparatus, machine), but in different time(fig.1.1). AT continuous process (Fig. 1.2) separate stages are carried out simultaneously, but in different places (devices or machines).

Continuous processes have significant advantages over periodic ones, consisting in the possibility of specializing equipment for each stage, improving the quality of the product, stabilizing the process over time, ease of regulation, automation, etc.

When carrying out processes in any of the listed devices, the values ​​of the parameters of the processed materials change. The parameters characterizing the process are pressure, temperature, concentration, density, flow rate, enthalpy, etc.

Depending on the nature of the movement of flows and changes in the parameters of substances entering the apparatus, all apparatuses can be divided into three groups: ideal (complete )confusion , devices ideal (complete )displacement and devices intermediate type .

It is most convenient to demonstrate the features of the flow of various structures using the example of continuous heat exchangers of various designs. Figure 1.3, a shows a diagram of a heat exchanger operating on the principle of ideal displacement. It is assumed that in this apparatus there is a "piston" flow without mixing. The temperature of one of the coolants varies along the length of the apparatus from the initial temperature to the final temperature as a result of the fact that subsequent volumes of liquid flowing through the apparatus do not mix with the previous ones, completely displacing them. The temperature of the second coolant is assumed to be constant (condensing steam).

In the device perfect mixing subsequent and previous volumes of liquid are ideally mixed, the temperature of the liquid in the apparatus is constant and equal to the final one (Fig. 1.3, b).

In real apparatuses, neither the conditions of ideal mixing nor ideal displacement can be provided. In practice, only a fairly close approximation to these schemes can be achieved, so real devices are intermediate devices (Fig. 1.3, c).

Rice. 1.1. Batch Process Apparatus:

1 - raw materials; 2 - finished product; 3 - steam; 4 - condensate; 5 - cooling water

Rice. 1.2. Apparatus for carrying out a continuous process:

1 - heat exchanger-heater; 2 - apparatus with a stirrer; 3 - heat exchanger-refrigerator; I - raw material; II - finished product; III - steam; IV - condensate;
V - cooling water

Rice. 1.3. Temperature change during liquid heating in apparatuses of various types: a - complete displacement; b - complete mixing; c - intermediate type

The driving force of the considered process of heating the liquid for any element of the apparatus is the difference between the temperatures of the heating steam and the heated liquid.

The difference in the course of processes in each of the types of apparatus becomes especially clear if we consider how the driving force of the process changes in each of the types of apparatus. From the comparison of the graphs it follows that the maximum driving force takes place in the devices of complete displacement, the minimum - in the devices of complete mixing.

It should be noted that the driving force of processes in continuously operating ideal mixing apparatus can be significantly increased by dividing the working volume of the apparatus into a number of sections.

If the volume of an ideal mixing apparatus is divided into n apparatuses and the process is carried out in them, then the driving force will increase (Fig. 1.4).

With an increase in the number of sections in ideal mixing devices, the value of the driving force approaches its value in ideal displacement devices, and when large numbers sections (of the order of 8–12), the driving forces in the devices of both types become approximately the same.

Rice. 1.4. Changing the driving force of the process during sectioning