Kalmyks
Kalmyks-ov; pl. The people constituting the main population of Kalmykia; representatives of this people.
◁ Kalmyk, -a; m. Kalmychka, -i; pl. genus.-check, dates-chkam; and. Kalmyk, th, th. K. tongue. K-th cheekbones(such as the Kalmyk).
Kalmyks(self-name - halmg), people, the main population of Kalmykia (over 146 thousand people); only in Russian Federation 166 thousand people (1995). Kalmyk language. Believing Kalmyks are Buddhists, there are Orthodox.
KalmyksKALMYKS (self-name - halmg), people in the Russian Federation (174 thousand people, 2002), the main population of Kalmykia (156 thousand people), also live in Astrakhan (7 thousand people) and Volgograd (1.6 thousand people) areas. Racially, the Kalmyks are Mongoloids, but due to mixing with the Turkic and North Caucasian peoples, they often have wavy soft hair, a slightly more developed beard, and the bridge of the nose is located higher. The Kalmyk language belongs to the Mongolian group of the Altaic language family. The Kalmyk alphabet was created in the middle of the 17th century on the old Mongolian graphic basis. In 1925 it was accepted new alphabet based on the Cyrillic alphabet, in 1930 it was replaced by a Latinized one, and since 1938 the Cyrillic graphic basis has been used again. Believing Kalmyks - Lamaists, there are Orthodox.
In the 13th-14th centuries, the ancestors of the Kalmyks were part of Mongolian state. From the end of the 14th century, part of the Western Mongolian tribes - the Oirats - stood out as an independent political power under the name "Derven Ord" ("four close" tribes: Derbets, Khoshuts, Torguts, Choros). The state they created was an amalgamation of complex ethnic composition formations. The self-name of the Kalmyks is "halmg" - a Turkic term meaning "remnant"; meant part of the Oirats who did not convert to Islam. At the end of the 16th - the first third of the 17th century, the Oirats moved from Western Mongolia to Russia, in Lower Volga and the Caspian. In the process of migration and settlement of new lands, the Kalmyk people were formed, the main core of which was the Oirats. In Russian written sources the ethnonym "Kalmyk" appeared at the end of the 16th century; from the end of the 18th century, the Kalmyks themselves began to use it. The division of the Kalmyks into tribal groups of Derbets, Torgouts, Khosheuts and Oleuts was typical until the 20th century. Since 1667, a relatively autonomous Kalmyk Khanate. It was liquidated in 1771, when part of the Kalmyks, dissatisfied with the oppression by the Russian administration, went to historical homeland. In 1920, the Kalmyk Autonomous Oblast was formed, which in 1935 was transformed into the Kalmyk Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. At the end of 1943 the Kalmyks were resettled in eastern regions USSR. In January 1957, Kalmyk autonomy was restored, and almost all Kalmyks returned to their homes.
The basis of the economy of most Kalmyks was nomadic and semi-nomadic cattle breeding (cattle, sheep, horses, camels). Cattle were kept on pasture all year round, only from the 19th century they began to store food for the winter. Separate groups Kalmyks were engaged in fishing. Since the 1830s, the Kalmyks in Ergeni began to engage in arable farming.
Until the beginning of the 20th century, the traditional Kalmyk settlements (Khotons) had a family-related character. They were characterized by a layout in the form of a circle of portable dwellings, cattle were driven into its center, and public gatherings were held there. In the 19th century, stationary settlements with a linear layout appeared. The main dwelling of the nomadic Kalmyks was a Mongolian-type yurt.
In 1929-1940, the Kalmyks switched to a settled way of life, cities and towns arose in Kalmykia modern type. With the transition to a settled way of life, breeding of pigs began to be practiced. Hunting was of no small importance, mainly for saigas, but also for wolves and foxes. The Kalmyks developed crafts, including leather processing, felting, woodcarving, leather stamping, chasing and engraving on metal, and embroidery.
Kalmyk men wore white shirts with long sewn-in sleeves and a round neckline, blue or striped trousers. On top they wore a beshmet sewn into the waist and one more pants, usually cloth. Beshmet was girded with a leather belt, richly ornamented with silver plaques, it was an indicator of the owner's well-being, a knife in a sheath was hung from the belt on the left side. The men's headdress was fur hat type of papakha or lamb earflap. Women's clothing was more varied. The white long shirt had an open collar and a slit in front to the waist. Women's pants were usually of blue color. Biiz (long dress) was sewn from chintz or woolen fabric, at the waist it was pulled together with a belt with metal patch plaques. Women also wore birz - a wide dress without a belt. Women's shoes were leather boots. Women's jewelry was numerous - earrings, hairpins, hairpins made of gold, silver, bone, precious and semi-precious stones, men wore an earring in their left ear, a ring and an amulet bracelet.
The traditional food of the Kalmyks was meat and milk. Meat dishes were prepared from lamb and beef, other types of meat were rarely used. Fish dishes have become widespread in coastal areas. The everyday drink of the Kalmyks was jomba - tea with milk, butter, salt, nutmeg and bay leaf. Flour products - unleavened cakes in lamb fat, bortsog - ring-shaped, round cakes in cross section, tselkg - a thin cake fried in boiling oil or fat. The alcoholic drink of the Kalmyks is erk (milk vodka).
The traditional Kalmyk society had a developed social structure. It consisted of noyons and zaisangs - hereditary nobility, Buddhist clergy - gelungs and lamas. Tribal relations were preserved, a significant role in public relations patronymic associations played, which occupied separate settlements and consisted of small families. The marriage was concluded by conspiracy between the parents of the young, the consent of the guy and the girl was usually not asked. The girl was given in marriage outside their hoton. There was no kalym, but the values that the groom's family passed on to the bride's family could be significant.
In the religion of the Kalmyks, along with Lamaism, traditional beliefs and ideas were widespread - shamanism, fetishism, the cult of fire and hearth. These ideas are reflected in calendar holidays. In February, the holiday of the beginning of spring - tsagan sar - was celebrated. In the spiritual culture of the Kalmyks big role played folklore, especially heroic epic"Dzhangar", containing several tens of thousands of verses and performed by dzhangarchi storytellers.
encyclopedic Dictionary. 2009 .
See what "Kalmyks" are in other dictionaries:
- (self-name halmg) people, the main population of Kalmykia (over 146 thousand people); in total, there are 166 thousand people in the Russian Federation (1992). Kalmyk language. Believing Kalmyks are Buddhists, there are Orthodox ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary
Dictionary Ozhegov
KALMYKS, ov and KALMYKS, ov, units yk, a and a, husband. The people that make up indigenous people Kalmykia. | female Kalmyk, and | adj. Kalmyk, oh, oh. Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov. S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova. 1949 1992 ... Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov
- (self-name halmg) nationality with a total number of 177 thousand people. Main resettlement countries: Russian Federation 166 thousand people, incl. Kalmykia 146 thousand people Other settlement countries: Kyrgyzstan 5 thousand people, USA 2 thousand people, France 1 thousand people, ... ... Modern Encyclopedia
Kalmyks, Kalmyks Kalmyks, unit Kalmyk, Kalmyk Kalmyk, husband. Mongolian people, nomadic within the USSR, the main population of the Kalmyk Autonomous Region. "A friend of the steppes is a Kalmyk." Pushkin. Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov. D.N. Ushakov. 1935 1940 ... Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov
- (self-name halmg), people in the Russian Federation (166 thousand people), the main population of Kalmykia (over 146 thousand people). Kalmyk language of the Mongolian group of languages. Believing Buddhists, there are Orthodox.
KALM'YKI, halmg (self-name, apparently, from the Turkic term, literally - "remnant", denoting Oirats who did not convert to Islam; there are other versions; in Russian official documents, the ethnonym Kalmyks appeared from the end of the 16th century, from the end of the 18th century Kalmyks themselves began to use it), the people in Russia. The number of 166 thousand people. The main population of Kalmykia (146 thousand people), also live in Astrakhan, Volgograd, Rostov, Orenburg regions, Stavropol Territory, Siberia, etc. Small groups in Central Asia, in the USA (about 2 thousand people), in France (about 1 thousand), in Switzerland, Germany and others (several families each). Total population over 177 thousand people. They speak the Kalmyk language of the Mongolian group Altai family. Writing since 1925 on the basis of the Russian alphabet, previously they used the common Oirat, the so-called Old Kalmyk, writing todo bichig. The main part of believers are Buddhists (Lamaism, Gelugpa school), some are Orthodox.
Ancestors of the Kalmyks - western mongols-Oirats. Until the 12th century, they were localized mainly in the Baikal region and the upper reaches of the Yenisei; gradually moved to the west. At the beginning of the 17th century, part of the Oirat taishas (rulers of uluses) moved to Russia. In 1608, the embassy of the Derbet taishas was received by the Russian Tsar Vasily Shuisky and, in response to their request to accept Russian citizenship, allocate places for nomadism and protection from the Kazakh and Nogai khans, received full consent.
The process of the entry of the Kalmyks into Russia was completed in 1657. Initially, lands along the Irtysh, Om and Ishim were allocated for the nomadic Kalmyks. Gradually, they settled in the lower reaches of the Volga in the territory they now occupy. From 1664 to 1771, the Kalmyk Khanate existed, headed by a khan, and later by a governor. According to rough estimates, the number of Kalmyks who accepted Russian citizenship was 270 thousand people. Among them were Derbets, Torgouts, Khosheuts, Khoyts, and Choros. For the first time these names are found in the Mongolian chronicle " Secret legend"(1240). After many generations, they acquired a certain ethnic and linguistic specificity. By the time they arrived in Russia, these were ethnic groups with significant property and social stratification. The ethnic principle in the creation of the Kalmyk uluses in Russia to some extent contributed to their preservation. The specificity of "small ethnic groups" is preserved even now, denoted by the term "ulusism" and manifests itself in everyday life, political life not only among Russian, but also among foreign Kalmyks.
In 1771, part of the Kalmyk taishas, dissatisfied with the ever-increasing oppression from the Russian government, left for Dzungaria, taking with them about 125 thousand Kalmyks. Most of them died on the way. The Kalmyk Khanate was liquidated, its territory was included in Astrakhan province. The 9 Kalmyk uluses that remained in Russia were each ruled by their own taisha, who had a Russian bailiff. In the years October revolution and civil war The Kalmyks were divided into 2 camps: part took new system, the other (especially the Kalmyks of the Don Cossack Region) ended up in the ranks of the White Army and, after its defeat, went into exile. Their descendants now live in the USA, France and other European countries.
In 1920, the Kalmyk Autonomous Okrug was formed, and in 1935 it was transformed into the Kalmyk Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. In 1943, the Kalmyks were subjected to forcible deportation to the regions of Siberia, Central Asia, Kazakhstan, and Altai, which lasted more than 13 years. Its consequence is the death of more than 1/3 of the people, the loss of many elements and features of material and spiritual culture. In 1957-58, autonomy was restored, a significant part of the Kalmyks returned to former places residence. In 1990, the Kalmyk ASSR declared its sovereignty, since 1992 it was called the Republic of Kalmykia - Khalmg Tangch, since 1994 - the Republic of Kalmykia.
The basis of the traditional economy was nomadic pastoralism (sheep, horses, cattle, goats, camels predominated). In the middle of the 19th century, with the emergence of stationary settlements, the Kalmyks began to breed pigs. The Torgouts and Khosheuts, who settled in the coastal regions of the Volga and the Caspian Sea, were engaged in fishing. From the 2nd quarter of the 19th century, the impoverished Kalmyks began to switch to settled agriculture or to engage in farm work. Rye, wheat, millet, buckwheat, oats, industrial crops (mustard, tobacco, flax) were sown on the lands of Kalmykia. In the middle of the 19th century, horticulture appeared, from the beginning of the 20th century - melon growing and gardening, then paddy rice cultivation on the Sarpinsky lowland.
Artistic crafts are developed - embroidery (special multi-colored seams on women's clothing), metal processing (chasing and engraving of metal parts of a saddle, bridle, cases and handles of knives, smoking pipes, gun butts, bracelets, earrings), embossing on leather, wood carving ( furniture, architectural details of the houses of noble Kalmyks). The foundation modern economy- transhumance cattle breeding, combined with commercial fishing, agriculture and the industry for processing agricultural products. A diversified industry is developing.
The traditional settlement had a circular layout - the most convenient in terms of defense in a nomadic way of life. Cattle were driven into the center of the circle for the night, property was stored there, and public gatherings were held. By the time they came to Russia, the Kalmyks retained a patronymic organization that united several families. They settled in khotons - family-related settlements. Married children put their wagons not far from the father's wagon. Since the beginning of the 19th century, stationary settlements with a linear layout appeared.
Three types of traditional dwellings are known: wagon, dugout and semi-dugout. Kibitka is a Mongolian-style yurt. Initially, it was installed on a 4-wheeled wagon and so moved during the migration. Over time, the wagon disappeared, but the term "kibitka" was preserved. Dugouts and semi-dugouts - dwellings of the poor, with walls made of mud bricks or cut from turf bricks, clay or sod roofs. At the end of the 19th century, wealthy and noble Kalmyks had buildings of the Russian type: wooden in the Caspian regions, brick - in the western ones. In the modern villages of Kalmykia, typical two- or three-apartment houses predominate. For workers' settlements, 2- and 3-storey houses with 4 to 12 apartments are more typical. In cities - typical multi-storey buildings.
Men's clothing - fitted caftan, shirt, pants, soft leather boots with felt stockings for winter and canvas footcloths for summer. Women's clothing - a long to-toe dress with a sleeveless jacket, under them a long shirt and pants, boots. Of particular importance was attached to women's embroidered and men's typesetting metal belts, which served as an indicator of the nobility and well-being of their owners. Headdresses for men and women are varied depending on the season, the wealth of the family, etc. Ceremonial headdress with a red silk tassel (hence the nickname of the Kalmyks among neighboring peoples "red tassels"). Women's jewelry - earrings, hairpins, hairpins, rings made of gold, silver, bone, precious and semi-precious stones; for men - an earring in the left ear, a ring on the ring finger, a bracelet that played the role of an amulet. The traditional hairstyle for men and women is braids: for men and girls - one, for women - two.
The basis of nutrition is meat and milk. Meat dishes: broth with meat seasoned with raw onions; meat baked in a sealed container (in the past - a carcass baked for a day without air in a pit sprinkled with earth on which a fire was made); noodles with meat and onions; dumplings; finely chopped lamb innards. Dairy products - cheese, cottage cheese, sour cream, butter, foam, koumiss from mare's milk, milk kvass and a sour drink from cow's milk. Everyday drink is tea (jomba) with milk, butter, salt and spices, of which nutmeg was especially valued. Flour products - unleavened cakes, pieces of dough (bortsogs) boiled in mutton fat, later - pancakes and bagels borrowed from Russians and Ukrainians.
The Kalmyk families of the 17th century (the time they came to Russia) were large patronymics. Kalmyk families had many children (10 or more children), but with high mortality no more than 3-4 children survived. Adult children, as a rule, lived separately from their parents.
The main genres of folklore: lingering songs, good wishes, sayings, fairy tales, proverbs, sayings, the heroic epic "Dzhangar" performed by dzhangarchi storytellers.
Back in the 13th century, the ancestors of the Kalmyks, the Oirats, got acquainted with Buddhism. In the 16th century, its northern branch, Gelugpa Lamaism, became national religion Mongols and the Kalmyks who broke away from them. Kalmyk Lamaists maintained direct contact with Tibet, where the top hierarch of the Gelugpa school, the Dalai Lama, was located. Groups of Kalmyks, who from the end of the 17th century began to break away from their main body, to settle on the Don, the Urals, and Ukraine, adopted Orthodoxy. In relation to the lamaist clergy, the tsarist government pursued a policy of limiting its numbers, but at the same time organized repressions against various popular beliefs that persisted: shamanism, fetishism, the cult of fire and the hearth.
By 1917, there were 92 khurulas (monasteries, temples) and 3 theological academies in Kalmykia. By 1936, 13 khuruls remained; in December 1943, when the deportation of the Kalmyks began, there were none. Since the late 80s of the 20th century, the revival of the Buddhist community began. In 1989 a prayer house was opened in Elista. By the end of 1995 there were already several of them (including the Kalmyks Astrakhan region). The term "Lamaism" is gradually disappearing from circulation, being replaced by "Buddhism" ( general process for the Buddhist territory of Russia and Mongolia). The Institute for the Revival of the Kalmyk Language and Buddhism was opened in Elista, and the Mandala magazine began to be published, dedicated to the history of Buddhism in general and its Kalmyk variety. Simultaneously reborn National holidays Tsagalgan, Uryus Sar, interest in the study of the Kalmyk language and traditional culture, national cadres of kindergarten teachers and teachers are being trained primary schools, lyceums and universities.
N.L. Zhukovskaya
According to the 2002 Population Census, the number of Kalmyks living in Russia is 174 thousand people.
The name Kalmyks comes from Turkic word"Kalmak" - "remainder". According to one version, this was the name of the Oirats who did not convert to Islam.
The ethnonym Kalmyks appeared in Russian official documents from the end of the 16th century, and two centuries later the Kalmyks themselves began to use it.
For several centuries, the Kalmyks caused a lot of anxiety to their neighbors. In the fight against them, Tamerlane's youth passed. But then the Kalmyk horde weakened. In 1608, the Kalmyks turned to Tsar Vasily Shuisky with a request to allocate places for nomadism and protection from the Kazakh and Nogai khans. According to rough estimates, 270 thousand nomads took Russian citizenship.
For their settlement, first in Western Siberia, and then in the lower reaches of the Volga, the first Kalmyk state was formed - the Kalmyk Khanate. The Kalmyk cavalry took part in many campaigns of the Russian army, in particular in the Battle of Poltava.
In 1771, about 150,000 Kalmyks went home to Dzungaria. Most of they died on the way. The Kalmyk Khanate was liquidated, and its territory was included in the Astrakhan province.
During the years of the October Revolution and the Civil War, the Kalmyks were divided into 2 camps: some of them accepted the new system, while others (especially the Kalmyks of the Don Army Region) joined the ranks of the White Army and, after its defeat, went into exile. Their descendants now live in the USA and some European countries.
The restoration of Kalmyk statehood took place in 1920, when the Kalmyk Autonomous Region was formed, which was later transformed into the Kalmyk Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic.
Forced collectivization in Kalmykia led to a sharp impoverishment of the population. As a result of the policy of "dispossession" and the subsequent famine, big number Kalmyks. The disasters of famine were accompanied by an attempt to eliminate the spiritual traditions of the Kalmyks.
Therefore, in 1942, the Kalmyks provided massive support fascist german troops. As part of the Wehrmacht, Kalmyksky was formed Cavalry Corps numbering about 3000 sabers. Later, when Vlasov founded the Committee for the Liberation of the Peoples of Russia (KONR), apart from the Russians, only one ethnic group- Kalmyks.
Kalmyks in the Wehrmacht
In 1943, the Kalmyk ASSR was liquidated, and the Kalmyks were subjected to forcible deportation to the regions of Siberia, Central Asia and Kazakhstan, which lasted more than 13 years.
Soon after Stalin's death, the Kalmyk autonomy was restored, and a significant part of the Kalmyks returned to their former places of residence.
Before the revolution in Russian Empire There were about 190 thousand Kalmyks. In the USSR, their number decreased to 130,000 in 1939 and 106,000 in 1959. According to the 2002 census, 178,000 Kalmyks live in Russia. This is the "youngest" ethnic group in Europe and the only Mongolian people living within it.
Kalmyks have led a nomadic life since ancient times. They recognized their steppe common ownership uluses. Each Kalmyk was obliged to roam with his family. The direction of the paths was regulated by wells. The announcement of the removal of the nomad camp was made special sign- a pike stuck near the princely headquarters.
Livestock was the source of the Kalmyks' well-being. The one whose herd died turned into a “baigush”, or “wretched one”. These "wretched" earned their livelihood, hiring mainly in fishing gangs and artels.
Kalmyks married no earlier than the age when the guy was able to independently graze the herd. The wedding took place in the bride's camp, but in the groom's yurt. At the end of the wedding celebrations, the young people migrate to the nomad camp of the newlywed. According to tradition, the husband was always free to return his wife to her parents. Usually this did not cause any displeasure, if only the husband honestly returned back along with his wife her dowry.
The religious rites of the Kalmyks are a mixture of shamanic and Buddhist beliefs. Kalmyks usually threw the bodies of the dead into the steppe in a deserted place. Only in late XIX century, at the request of the Russian authorities, they began to bury the dead in the ground. The bodies of the dead princes and lamas were usually burned during the performance of numerous religious rites.
A Kalmyk will never say simply: beautiful woman because in Kalmykia they know four types of female beauty.
The first one is called "Eryun Shashavdta Em". This is a woman of moral perfection. Kalmyks believed that good thoughts and feelings, a pure state of mind are reflected in the state human body. Therefore, a woman with pure morality could heal people, heal many ailments.
The second type is "nyudyan khalta, nyuyurtyan gerlta em", or literally - a woman "with fire in her eyes, with a radiance in her face." Pushkin, driving through the Kalmyk steppe, apparently met precisely this type of Kalmyk enchantresses. Let us recall the words of the poet about this Kalmyk woman:
... Exactly half an hour,
While the horses were harnessed to me,
My mind and heart occupied
Your gaze and wild beauty.
The third type is "kyovlung em", or a physically beautiful woman.
Country of residence: RussiaRegion of residence: Europe
KALMYKS, Khalmg (self-name, apparently, from the Turkic term, literally - "remnant", denoting Oirats who did not convert to Islam; there are other versions; in Russian official documents, the ethnonym "Kalmyks" appeared from the end of the 16th century, from late XVII I century, they began to use the Kalmyks themselves), the people in Russia. The number of 166 thousand people. The main population of Kalmykia (146 thousand people), also live in the Astrakhan, Volgograd, Rostov, Orenburg regions, Stavropol Territory, Siberia, etc. Small groups in Central Asia, in the USA (about 2 thousand people), in France (about 1 thousand), in Switzerland, Germany, etc. (several families). The total number is over 177 thousand people. They speak the Kalmyk language of the Mongolian group of the Altaic family. Writing since 1925 on the basis of the Russian alphabet, previously they used the common Oirat, the so-called Old Kalmyk, writing todo bichig. The main part of believers are Buddhists (Lamaism, Gelugpa school), some are Orthodox.
The ancestors of the Kalmyks are the Western Mongols-Oirats. Until the 12th century, they were localized mainly in the Baikal region and the upper reaches of the Yenisei; gradually moved to the west. AT early XVI I century, part of the Oirat taishas (rulers of uluses) moved to Russia. In 1608, the embassy of the Derbet taishas was received by the Russian Tsar Vasily Shuisky and, in response to their request to accept Russian citizenship, allocate places for nomadism and protection from the Kazakh and Nogai khans, received full consent.
The process of entry of Kalmyks into Russia was completed in 1657. Initially, lands along the Irtysh, Om and Ishim were allocated for nomadic Kalmyks. Gradually, they settled in the lower reaches of the Volga in the territory they now occupy. From 1664 to 1771, the Kalmyk Khanate existed, headed by a khan, and later by a governor. According to rough estimates, the number of Kalmyks who accepted Russian citizenship was 270 thousand people. Among them were Derbets, Torgouts, Khosheuts, Khoyts, and Choros. For the first time these names are found in the Mongolian chronicle "The Secret Legend" (1240). After many generations, they acquired a certain ethnic and linguistic specificity. By the time they came to Russia, these were ethnic groups with significant property and social stratification. The ethnic principle in the creation of the Kalmyk uluses in Russia to some extent contributed to their preservation. The specificity of "small ethnic groups" is preserved even now, denoted by the term "ulusism" and manifests itself in everyday life, political life not only among Russian, but also among foreign Kalmyks.
In 1771, part of the Kalmyk taishas, dissatisfied with the ever-increasing oppression from the Russian government, went to Dzungaria, taking with them about 125 thousand Kalmyks. Most of them died on the way. The Kalmyk Khanate was liquidated, its territory was included in the Astrakhan province. The 9 Kalmyk uluses that remained in Russia were each ruled by their own taisha, who had a Russian bailiff. During the years of the October Revolution and the Civil War, the Kalmyks were divided into 2 camps: part of them adopted a new system, the other (especially the Kalmyks of the Don Army Region) ended up in the ranks of the White Army and, after its defeat, went into exile. Their descendants now live in the USA, France and other European countries.
In 1920, the Kalmyk Autonomous Okrug was formed, and in 1935 it was transformed into the Kalmyk Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. In 1943, the Kalmyks were subjected to forcible deportation to the regions of Siberia, Central Asia, Kazakhstan, Altai, which lasted more than 13 years. Its consequence is the death of more than 1/3 of the people, the loss of many elements and features of material and spiritual culture. In 1957-58, autonomy was restored, a significant part of the Kalmyks returned to their former places of residence. In 1990, the Kalmyk ASSR declared its sovereignty, since 1992 it was called the Republic of Kalmykia - Khalmg Tangch, since 1994 - the Republic of Kalmykia.
The basis of the traditional economy was nomadic pastoralism (sheep, horses, cattle, goats, camels predominated). AT mid-nineteenth centuries, with the emergence of stationary settlements, Kalmyks began to breed pigs. The Torgouts and Khosheuts, who settled in the coastal regions of the Volga and the Caspian Sea, were engaged in fishing. From the second quarter XIX For centuries, the ruined Kalmyks began to switch to settled agriculture or to engage in farm work. On the lands, the Kalmyks sowed rye, wheat, millet, buckwheat, oats, industrial crops (mustard, tobacco, flax). In the middle of the 19th century, horticulture appeared, from the beginning of the 20th century - melon growing and gardening, then paddy rice cultivation on the Sarpinsky lowland.
Artistic crafts are developed - embroidery (special multi-colored seams on women's clothing), metal processing (chasing and engraving of metal parts of a saddle, bridle, cases and handles of knives, smoking pipes, gun butts, bracelets, earrings), embossing on leather, wood carving ( furniture, architectural details of noble Kalmyk houses). The basis of the modern economy is pasture-pasture cattle breeding, combined with commercial fishing, agriculture and the industry for processing agricultural products. A diversified industry is developing.
The traditional settlement had a circular layout - the most convenient in terms of defense in a nomadic way of life. Cattle were driven into the center of the circle for the night, property was stored there, and public gatherings were held. By the time they came to Russia, the Kalmyks retained a patronymic organization that united several families. They settled in khotons - family-related settlements. Married children put their wagons not far from the father's wagon. FROM early XIX century, stationary settlements with a linear layout appeared.
Three types of traditional dwellings are known: wagon, dugout and semi-dugout. Kibitka is a Mongolian-style yurt. Initially, it was installed on a four-wheeled wagon and moved during the migration. Over time, the wagon disappeared, but the term "kibitka" was preserved. Dugouts and semi-dugouts - dwellings of the poor, with walls made of mud bricks or cut from turf bricks, clay or sod roofs. At the end of the 19th century, wealthy and noble Kalmyks had buildings of the Russian type: wooden in the Caspian regions, brick - in the western ones. In the modern villages of Kalmykia, typical two- or three-apartment houses predominate. For workers' settlements, two- and three-story houses with 4-12 apartments are more typical. In cities - typical multi-storey buildings.
Men's clothing - fitted caftan, shirt, pants, soft leather boots with felt stockings for winter and canvas footcloths for summer. Women's clothing - a long to-toe dress with a sleeveless jacket, under them a long shirt and pants, boots. Of particular importance was attached to women's embroidered and men's typesetting metal belts, which served as an indicator of the nobility and well-being of their owners. Headdresses for men and women are varied depending on the season, the wealth of the family, etc. Ceremonial headdress with a red silk tassel (hence the nickname of the Kalmyks among neighboring peoples “red-tassels”). Women's jewelry - earrings, hairpins, hairpins, rings made of gold, silver, bone, precious and semi-precious stones; for men - an earring in the left ear, a ring on the ring finger, a bracelet that played the role of an amulet. The traditional hairstyle for men and women is braids: for men and girls - one, for women - two.
The basis of nutrition is meat and milk. Meat dishes: broth with meat seasoned with raw onions; meat baked in a sealed container (in the past - a carcass baked for a day without air in a pit sprinkled with earth on which a fire was made); noodles with meat and onions; dumplings; finely chopped lamb innards. Dairy products - cheese, cottage cheese, sour cream, butter, foam, koumiss from mare's milk, milk kvass and a sour drink from cow's milk. Everyday drink is tea (jomba) with milk, butter, salt and spices, of which nutmeg was especially valued. Flour products - unleavened cakes, pieces of dough (bortsogs) boiled in mutton fat, later - pancakes and bagels borrowed from Russians and Ukrainians.
The Kalmyk families of the 17th century (the time they came to Russia) were large patronymics. Kalmyk families had many children (10 or more children), but with high mortality, no more than 3-4 children survived. Adult children, as a rule, lived separately from their parents.
The main genres of folklore: lingering songs, good wishes, sayings, fairy tales, proverbs, sayings, the heroic epic "Dzhangar", performed by dzhangarchi storytellers.
As early as the 13th century, the ancestors of the Kalmyks, the Oirats, became acquainted with Buddhism. In the 16th century, its northern branch, Lamaism of the Gelugpa school, became the national religion of the Mongols and the Kalmyks who broke away from them. Kalmyk Lamaists maintained direct contact with Tibet, where the top hierarch of the Gelugpa school, the Dalai Lama, was located. Groups of Kalmyks, who from the end of the 17th century began to break away from their main body, to settle on the Don, the Urals, and Ukraine, adopted Orthodoxy. In relation to the lamaist clergy, the tsarist government pursued a policy of limiting its numbers, but at the same time organized repressions against various popular beliefs that persisted: shamanism, fetishism, the cult of fire and the hearth.
By 1917, there were 92 khurulas (monasteries, temples) and 3 theological academies in Kalmykia. By 1936, 13 khuruls remained; in December 1943, when the deportation of the Kalmyks began, there were none. Since the late 80s of the XX century, the revival of the Buddhist community began. In 1989 a prayer house was opened in Elista. By the end of 1995 there were already several of them (including among the Kalmyks of the Astrakhan region). The term “Lamaism” is gradually disappearing from circulation, being replaced by “Buddhism” (a common process for the Buddhist territory of Russia and Mongolia). In Elista, the Institute for the Revival of the Kalmyk Language and Buddhism was opened, and the Mandala magazine began to be published, dedicated to the history of Buddhism in general and its Kalmyk variety. At the same time, the national holidays Tsagalgan, Uryus Sar, interest in the study of the Kalmyk language and traditional culture are being revived, national cadres of kindergarten teachers, teachers of primary schools, lyceums and universities are being trained.
Name
Name Kalmak appeared in Turkic languages, it means "remaining". So the Western Turks called their neighbors who lived east of the Irtysh, in and around Altai. In Russian written sources, the ethnonym Kalmyk appeared at the beginning of the 16th century; from the end of the 18th century, the Kalmyks themselves began to use it.
Kalmyks are also known in Russian as Oirats (kalm. өөrd; the ethnonym Oirats was used before in relation to Altaians, who were traditionally called Russians as white Kalmyks), Dzungars, Western Mongols, Kalmyks, and in other languages as Kalmouks, Calmoucs, Calmucks, Kalmyks.
Auto-ethnonym (self-name)
Kalmyks ( European part Oirats) call themselves halmg(which means "remaining"), there is also a version of the totemic origin of the name meaning "wolf, dog", өөrd or dөrvn өөrd, which means “four allies” (one of the versions, there is also a meaning “wolf, dog” “K” was reduced (koira-wolf, dog “oira”. The roots “kai, koi, kui” carry the meaning of a wolf, dog) The Oirats of the People's Republic of China also call themselves Mongols. Kalmyk people It is subdivided into four major branches, or generations, as the Russians called them in the 16th century - Torgout (Torgud), Derbet (Dörvud), Khoshut (Khoshud), Elut (өөlod). AT during XIX century, on European territory a new community formed buzava(Don Kalmyk-Cossacks). Previously, this was the name of a part of the Torgouts, Derbets and Zungars, who lived on the Don near Don Cossacks. But in this moment buzava make up the third largest group of Kalmyks and have some cultural features that are different from other groups (their own dances, songs, etc.).
Territory of settlement
Kalmyks (Dorvyuds (Derbets), Torgouts, Hoshouts, Buzavs) live in Russia in the Republic of Kalmykia and neighboring regions - 173,996 thousand people, of which 155,938 people live in the republic. (more than 53% of its population) according to the All-Russian population census of 2002.
Large groups of Oirats (Torgouts, Derbets, Khoshouts, Zungars (Olets)) are also in Western China (Baingol-Mongolian and Borotala-Mongolian autonomous regions Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region; Qinghai Province) - according to various sources, from 170 to 250 thousand people; and Western Mongolia (Kobdo and Ubsunur aimags) - about 150 thousand people.
There are small groups of Kalmyks in Central Asia (in Kyrgyzstan - over 10 thousand people) and in the Caucasus, from the countries of the so-called. "far abroad" - in the USA (2 thousand people) and France (1 thousand people).
population
The number of Volga Kalmyks at the time of their arrival in the places of their current residence in the early 17th century. is estimated at about 270 thousand people. Then, in the composition of the country's population, their number changed as follows: 1926 - 131 thousand, 1937 - 127 thousand, 1939 - 134 thousand, 1959 - 106 thousand, 1970 - 137 thousand. , 1979 - 147 thousand, 1989 - 174 thousand people; of which in the Republic of Kalmykia (Khalmg Tanhch) - 166 thousand people. According to the 2002 census, 178,000 Kalmyks live in Russia, of which 164,000 live in Kalmykia.
Ethnic and ethnographic groups
Until now, the Kalmyks are characterized by the presence of groupings - Dorvyuds (Derbets), Torgouts, Khosheuts and Buzavs. Since the middle of the 20th century, there has been an active mixing various groups and the formation of a single Kalmyk nation.
Race, anthropological type
Racially, the Kalmyks are Mongoloids.
Ethnogenesis and ethnic history
Writing
The Oirat-Kalmyk alphabet todo-bichig (“clear writing”) was created in 1648 on the basis of the old Mongolian script. In 1925, a new alphabet based on Russian graphics was adopted, in 1930 it was replaced by a Latinized one, and from 1938 to the present, the Russian graphic basis has been used again. The Kalmyks of China continue to use the old Kalmyk script.
Religion
The Kalmyks are the only people in Europe whose main religion is Buddhism.
Influence of archaic religious beliefs preserved in Kalmyk culture to this day. Obviously, it is most clearly manifested in modern Kalmyk holidays, in particular - in Tsagansar associated with the beginning of spring (usually celebrated in February).
economy
The basis of the traditional economy of the Kalmyks was nomadic cattle breeding. The herd was dominated by sheep, fat-tailed and coarse-haired, and horses of the Kalmyk steppe breed, distinguished by unpretentiousness; cattle were also bred - red cows raised for meat, as well as goats and camels. Cattle were kept on pasture all year round, since the 19th century. began to store food for the winter. With the transition to a settled way of life (with the exception of Russian Kalmyks and those who lived in the West, the rest of the Oirat-Kalmyks continue to lead a semi-nomadic lifestyle), pig breeding began to be practiced. Fishing played a significant role in the Volga region and the Caspian. Hunting was of no small importance, mainly for saigas, but also for wolves, foxes and other game. Some groups of Kalmyks have been engaged in agriculture for a long time, but it did not play a significant role. Only with the transition to settled life did its importance begin to grow. Cereals were grown - rye, wheat, millet, etc., industrial crops - flax, tobacco, garden, garden and melons. Since the 20th century Kalmyks are also beginning to engage in paddy rice cultivation. Crafts were developed, including leatherworking, felting, wood carving, etc., including artistic ones - leather stamping, chasing and engraving on metal, embroidery.
Traditional settlements and dwellings
Until the beginning of the 20th century. the traditional Kalmyk settlements (Khotons) had a family-related character. They were characterized by a layout in the form of a circle of portable dwellings, cattle were driven into its center, and public gatherings were held there. Since the 19th century stationary settlements with a linear layout appeared. The main dwelling of the nomadic Kalmyks was a wagon (a yurt of the Mongolian type). Its wooden frame consisted of 6-12 folding lattices, a circle in the upper part, which was connected to the lattices by long curved slats. The door was made double-leaf. The side to the left of the entrance was considered male, there were horse harness, processed skins, a bed for the owners, bedding; to the right of the entrance was the female half with kitchen utensils. There was a hearth in the center, a cauldron was placed on a tripod above it, behind the hearth there was a place of honor where guests were seated. The floor was covered with felt. Another portable dwelling of the nomadic Kalmyks was a wagon mounted on a wagon. Stationary dwellings at first were dugouts and semi-dugouts made of raw or cut from turf bricks, and from the 19th century. buildings of the Russian type, log and brick, began to spread.
traditional clothing
The men's clothing of the Kalmyks was a shirt with long sewn-in sleeves and a round neckline (it had White color) and blue or striped pants. Over them they wore a beshmet sewn into the waist and another pair of trousers, usually cloth. Beshmet was girded with a leather belt, richly ornamented with silver plaques, it was an indicator of the owner's well-being, a knife in a sheath was hung from the belt on the left side. The male headdress was a fur hat of the papakha type or a lamb earflap. Ceremonial headdresses had a red silk tassel, which is why the neighboring peoples called the Kalmyks "red tassels". Shoes were soft black or red leather boots with slightly upturned toes, worn with felt stockings in winter and linen footcloths in summer. Women's clothing was more varied. It consisted of a long white shirt with open collar and a slit in front to the waist and blue pants. Girls from 12-13 years old wore a camisole over a shirt and trousers, tightly tightening their chest and waist and making the figure flat, they did not take it off even at night. Women's clothing there was also a biiz made of chintz or woolen fabric in the form of a long dress, at the waist it was pulled together by a belt with metal patches, as well as birz - a wide dress without a belt. The girl's headdress was a cap: the women's headdress resembled a beret with a wide, solid hoop at the bottom. married women they braided their hair into two braids and passed them into black or velvet braids. Women's shoes were leather boots. Women's jewelry was numerous - earrings, hairpins, hairpins, etc. made of gold, silver, bone, precious and semi-precious stones. Men wore an earring in their left ear, a ring and an amulet bracelet.
Food
social organization
The traditional Kalmyk society had a developed social structure. It consisted of noyons and zaisangs - hereditary aristocracy, Buddhist clergy - gelungs and lamas. Tribal relations were preserved, patronymic associations, which occupied separate settlements and consisted of small families, played a significant role in social relations.
Family (marriage)
The marriage was concluded by collusion between the parents of the future husband and wife, the consent of the guy and the girl was usually not asked. The girl was given in marriage outside their hoton. There was no kalym, but the values that the groom's family passed on to the bride's family could be significant. Previously, the gelung determined whether the marriage would be successful. For this, the years of birth of the bride and groom were compared according to Eastern calendar. It was considered, for example, good if the bride was born in the year of the hare, and the groom - the dragon, but not vice versa, since "the dragon will devour the hare", that is, the man will not be the head of the house. For new family they set up a separate wagon, and the groom's side prepared the dwelling itself, and the bride's side provided the interior decoration and household items. To reduce wedding expenses, by mutual agreement of the parties, an imaginary kidnapping of the bride could be arranged. The matchmakers came to the bride's family three times to formalize the agreement; these meetings were accompanied by a festive meal. Whether the marriage would be successful and the “happy” wedding day was determined by the zurkhachi (astrologer) by special fortune-telling.
Kalmyk folklore
Folklore played an important role in the spiritual culture of the Kalmyks, especially the heroic epos "
