Lecture 1. LIMITS OF EARTH SCIENCE

Geography called a complex of closely related sciences, which is divided into four blocks: physical-geographical, socio-economic-geographical sciences, cartography, regional studies. Each of these blocks, in turn, is subdivided into systems of geographical sciences.

Block of physical geographical sciences consists of general physical and geographical sciences, private (branch) physical and geographical sciences, paleogeography. General physical and geographical sciences are divided into general physical geography (general geography) and regional physical geography.

All physical and geographical sciences are united by a single object of study. Now the majority of scientists have come to the general opinion that all physical and geographical sciences study the geographical shell. By definition, N.I. Mikhailova (1985), physical geography is the science of the geographic shell of the Earth, its composition, structure, features of formation and development, and spatial differentiation.

The genus of physical and geographical sciences is represented by general geography, landscape science, paleogeography and private sectoral sciences. These different sciences are united by one object of study - the geographical shell; the subject of study of each of the sciences is specific, individual - it is one of the structural parts or sides of the geographical shell (geomorphology is the science of relief earth's surface, climatology and meteorology - the sciences that study the air shell, the formation of climates and their geographical distribution, soil science - the patterns of soil formation, their development, composition and patterns of placement, hydrology - the science that studies the Earth's water shell, biogeography studies the composition of living organisms, their distribution and formation of biocenoses). The task of paleogeography is the study of the geographical envelope and the dynamics of natural conditions in past geological epochs. The subject of study of landscape science is the thin, most active central layer of GO - the landscape sphere, which consists of natural-territorial complexes of different ranks. The subject of study of general geography (GS) is the structure, internal and external relationships, the dynamics of the functioning of GO as an integral system.

The geographic shell is the volume of matter of different composition and state that arose under terrestrial conditions and formed a specific sphere of our planet. The geographic envelope in geography is studied as part of the planet and the Cosmos, which is under the power of earthly forces and develops in the process of complex cosmic-planetary interaction.

In the system of fundamental geographical education, geography is a kind of link between geographical knowledge, skills and ideas acquired at school and global natural science. This course lays the foundations for a geographical worldview and thinking. The geographic world in geography appears as a whole, processes and phenomena are considered in a systemic connection with each other and with the surrounding space. “In geography, from facts, as such, attention is shifted to the elucidation of comprehensive connections between them and the disclosure of a complex set of geographical processes in the space of everything. the globe”, - S. V. Kalesnik wrote more than half a century ago.

Geography is one of the fundamental natural sciences. In the hierarchy of the natural cycle of sciences, geography as a particular version of planetary science should be on a par with astronomy, cosmology, physics, and chemistry. The next rank is created by the Earth sciences - geology, geography, general biology, ecology, etc. In the system of geographical disciplines, geography occupies special role. It appears as if "super-science" that combines information about all the processes and phenomena that occur after the formation of the planet from the interstellar nebula. During this time, the earth's crust, air and water shells arose on our planet, in varying degrees saturated with living matter. As a result of their interaction along the periphery of the planet, a specific material volume was formed - a geographical shell. The study of this shell as a complex formation is the task of geography.

Geography serves theoretical basis global ecology - a science that assesses the current state and predicts the next changes in the geographical shell as the environment for the existence of living organisms in order to ensure their ecological well-being. Over time, the state of the geographic shell has changed and is changing from purely natural to natural-anthropogenic and even essentially anthropogenic. But it has always been and will be the environment in relation to man and living beings. From such positions, the main task of geography is the study of global changes occurring in the geographic envelope, in order to understand the interaction of physical, chemical and biological processes that determine the Earth's ecosystem.

Earth science is the theoretical basis of evolutionary geography - a huge block of disciplines that study the history of the emergence and development of our planet and its environment. It provides an understanding of the past and argumentation of causes and effects. modern processes and phenomena in the geographical envelope. Based on the fact that the past determines the present, geoscience significantly helps to decipher the development trends of almost all global problems of our time. This is a kind of key to understanding the world.

The term "earth science" appeared in mid-nineteenth in. when translating the works of the German geographer K. Ritter by Russian translators under the guidance of P. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky. This word has a purely Russian sound. Currently, in foreign languages, the concept of "geography" corresponds to different terms and its literal translation is sometimes difficult. The term "geography" was introduced by Russian researchers as the most fully reflecting the essence of the translated descriptions. In this regard, it is hardly correct to say that "earth science" is of foreign origin and was introduced by K. Ritter. There is no such word in Ritter's works, he spoke about the knowledge of the Earth or general geography, and the Russian-language term is the fruit of Russian specialists.

Geoscience as a systematic doctrine developed mainly during the 20th century. as a result of research by major geographers and naturalists, as well as generalizations of accumulated knowledge. However, its initial focus has been noticeably transformed, going from the knowledge of fundamental natural and geographical patterns to the study of “humanized” nature on this basis in order to optimize the environment (natural or natural-anthropogenic) and manage it at the planetary level, having the noble task of preserving everything biological diversity.

Considering geography as a fundamental natural science of a geographical profile, it is necessary to pay attention to the main methodical technique research geographical objects - spatial-territorial, i.e., the study of any object in its spatial arrangement and relationship with surrounding objects. The geographical envelope is a three-dimensional concept, where the territory with its depth (subsoil and water) and height (air) is formed jointly under the influence of geographical processes and phenomena that are constantly changing in time.

So, geography is a fundamental science that studies general patterns structure, functioning and development of the geographical shell in unity and interaction with the surrounding space-time on different levels its organization (from the Universe to the atom) and establishing the ways of creation and existence of modern natural (natural-anthropogenic) situations and the trends of their possible transformation in the future.

The origins of geography were laid in ancient times, when man became interested in his environment on Earth and in Space. However, ancient thinkers did not only describe the surroundings. Already from the very beginning, people systematically observed changes in the surrounding space and natural coincidences, trying to establish causal relationships. Long before religious teachings and ideas about the divine principle of nature and life, there were views on the world. In this way, concepts and ideas gradually developed, many of which were undoubtedly of an geography nature.

The Egyptians and Babylonians predicted the time of the onset of floods depending on the location of the stars, the Greeks and Romans measured the Earth and established its position in space, the Chinese and the ancestors of the Hindus comprehended the meaning of life and the relationship of man with his natural environment, used the laws of the Earth's movement and the positions of planets and stars to their ideological views and constructions of places of worship. These achievements characterize the pre-scientific period of knowledge and the formation of geographical knowledge. Many of the discoveries attributed to the thinkers of the medieval Renaissance were already known in ancient times.

In the pre-antique period in ancient India, the doctrine of a material substance arose, which was a separate indivisible elements (atoms) or their combinations. In addition to matter, inanimate substances included space and time, as well as the conditions of rest and movement. The people of India were the first to proclaim the principle of doing no harm to living organisms. In ancient China, the doctrine of the universal law of the world of things was created, according to which the life of nature and people proceeds along a certain natural path, which, together with the substance of things, forms the basis of the world. In the world, everything is in motion and change, in the process of which all things turn into their opposite. ancient babylon and Ancient Egypt gave examples of the use of the achievements of astronomy, cosmology and mathematics in practical life peoples. Here the doctrines about the origin of the world (cosmogony) and its structure (cosmology) arose. The Babylonians established the correct sequence of the planets, formed a stellar astral worldview, singled out the signs of the zodiac, introduced the 60-ary system of calculation, which underlies the degree measure and the time scale, established the periods of recurrence of solar and lunar eclipses. In the era of the Ancient and Middle Kingdoms in Egypt, the foundations for predicting the Nile floods were developed, a solar calendar was created, the length of the year was accurately determined and 12 months were allocated. The Phoenicians and Carthaginians used their knowledge of astronomy to navigate and navigate by the stars. The ancient peoples expressed the correct and still fundamental idea about the evolution of the surrounding world (from simple to complex, from disorder to order), its constant variability and renewal.

In ancient times, an idea was drawn up about the geocentric structure of the World (C. Ptolemy, 165 - 87 BC), the concepts of "Universe" and "Cosmos" were introduced, correct estimates of the shape and size of the Earth were given. At this time, a system of earth sciences was formed, the main directions of which were: descriptive-geographical (Strabo, Pliny the Elder), mathematical-geographical (Pythagoreans, Hipparchus, Ptolemy) and physical-geographical (Eratosthenes, Posidonius).

Much was given to the development of geography and its individual areas of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance - the time of great geographical discoveries (from the end of the 15th century), when travel was widely developed, bringing huge factual material about the seas and lands, the generalization of which improved ideas about geographical space. The sphericity of the Earth was practically proved, the unity of the waters of the World Ocean, a globe was created for the first time (in the first half of the 15th century until circumnavigation Magellan). N. Copernicus promulgated his heliocentric system of the structure of the Universe, and D. Bruno expressed the idea of ​​the infinity of the Universe and the plurality of worlds. In the oceans, currents (in particular, the Gulf Stream), zones of calm and monsoons were discovered. G. Mercator proposed a new projection and created world map, easy to navigate. This period is associated with the emergence of comparatively geographical descriptions, the creation of theories of scientific conclusions by the methods of induction (F. Bacon) and deduction (R. Descartes), the development of the isoline method for compiling bathymetric and then hypsographic maps. The construction of the telescope, thermometer and barometer made it possible to begin the development of experimental geography and instrumental observations.

At the turn of the XVI and XVII centuries. the contours of geography begin to take shape. N. Carpenter (1625) tried to bring together information about the nature of the Earth. A little later (1650) appeared the work of B. Varenius, which can be considered the official beginning of geography, where he wrote that "universal geography is called that which considers the Earth in general, explains its properties, without entering into a detailed description of countries." In 1664, R. Descartes gave a natural-scientific explanation of the origin of the Earth. He believed that the Sun and all the planets of the solar system were formed as a result of the vortex motion of the smallest particles of matter, and during the formation of the Earth, differentiation of matter into a fiery-liquid metal core, solid crust, atmosphere and water occurred. This work gave rise to many ideas (T. Barnet, J. Woodward, W. Whiston) about the origin of the bodies of the surrounding space and the behavior earth masses. A hypothesis of contraction arose based on the views on the reduction of the volume of the planet as it cools (E. Beaumont), assumptions about the dependence of large landforms on the movements of earth masses, ideas about the continuous connection of internal and external forces of the Earth's development (M. Lomonosov). For the first time, attempts were made to classify living organisms (J. Ray, K. Linney, J. Lamarck), and natural history Earth began to be considered together with living organisms, including humans (J. Buffon, G. Leibniz).

In the middle of the XVIII century. new scientifically based theories and hypotheses have appeared. The first in this series should be called the theory of the universe and the formation of the solar system by I. Kant (1755), in which the author relied on the laws discovered by I. Newton (1686) gravity and motion of matter. He proposed a mechanical model for the origin of the world from initially scattered inhomogeneous matter through spontaneous complication of its structure. Recognizing the eternity and infinity of the Universe, I. Kant spoke about the possibility of finding life in it. In essence, knowledge of the history of nature and the Earth began with I. Kant on a strictly scientific basis.

A. Humboldt and K. Ritter are the largest geographers and travelers of the first half of XIX century, who made a huge contribution to the development of many geographical concepts and patterns. A. Humboldt (1769-1859) created a 5-volume work "Cosmos" on comparative geography (physical worldview in the original edition) and wrote about his travels in the New World in 30 volumes. In them, he outlined the latest ideas: he introduced the concepts of "terrestrial magnetism", "magnetic pole" and "magnetic equator", substantiated evolutionary changes in the earth's surface, laid the foundations of paleogeography, compared the fauna of South America and Australia, establishing their connections and differences, explored the outlines of continents and the position of their axes, studied the heights of the continents and determined the position of the centers of gravity of the continental masses. When studying the atmosphere, Humboldt established changes in air pressure depending on the latitude and height of the place and season, clarified the climatic distribution of heat, humidity, air electricity, proved the close connection between intraterrestrial and atmospheric processes, as well as the interdependence of the atmosphere-ocean-land system. The scientist used the concept of "climate" in a broad geographical sense as a property of the atmosphere, "... highly dependent on the conditions of the sea and land and the vegetation growing on it." He also substantiated the dependence of wildlife on climate and laid the foundations of scientific geochemistry.

The name of K. Ritter (1779-1859) is associated with the modern geography. He showed the integrating role of geography in natural science and knowledge of the surrounding world, formulated a completely materialistic view of nature as the totality of all things "existing near and far from us, united by time and space into a harmonious system", expressed the idea of ​​the balance of natural processes and phenomena in constant cycles and transformations, proved the interaction of land, sea and air in the process of functioning. In 1862, Ritter created the first course in geography (translated into Russian in 1864), the basis of which he believed was physical geography, which explains the forces (processes) of nature. The scientist considered the original system of the nature of the Earth as a kind of organized and constantly developing single organism, distinguished by a special structure, laws and mechanisms of development. K. Ritter was of the opinion that only relying on the idea of ​​an earthly organism or the integrity of the Earth, it is possible to imagine the emergence and development of its constituent parts, to understand the secret of the planet's structure. He substantiated the concepts of "terrestrial space" as an integral three-dimensional unity and one of the objects of physical geography and "landscape" in its modern meaning, while emphasizing its important role as the basis of organic life. Scientists have developed an idea of ​​the relief as a plasticity and configuration of the earth's surface, created a classification of large landforms, introduced the concepts of "highland", "plateau", "mountainous country", "environment", "element", and also considered the dependence of various natural bodies and ethnic groups from geographical location.

K. Ritter created scientific school, which included such major geographers as E. Reclus, F. Ratzel, F. Richthofen, E. Lenz, who made a significant contribution to understanding the geographical features of individual parts of the Earth and enriched the content of theoretical geography and physical geography.

Second half of the 19th century characterized by new developments in the geographical sciences, from which emerged independent disciplines. The greatest role at this time belongs to Russian researchers.

AI Voeikov (1842-1916) is known as the founder of climatology. He established the most important factors in the formation of climate, substantiated the energy balance of the globe, explained the mechanism of heat transfer and climatic processes in various geographical zones.

The relationship of natural phenomena was studied by V.V. Dokuchaev (1846-1903). The main result of his work should be considered the development of the concept of "natural complex" in relation to the soil - an independent natural-historical body and a product of the interaction of climate, living organisms and parent rocks. Investigating soils and vegetation, he introduced the concepts of "natural historical processes" and "zones of nature", which formed the basis of the law of world zonality he discovered. Dokuchaev formulated a program for a complex and unified paradigm of a new natural science - the science of the relationship between animate and inanimate nature, between man and the world around him.

G.N.Vysotsky (1865-1940) made a significant contribution to understanding the processes of functioning of natural complexes. He established the water-regulating role of the upper soil horizon, identified soil types according to the nature of the water regime. He managed to show the importance of the forest in the hydroclimatic features of the geographic envelope and its role as one of the factors in the development of the geographic environment. Methodologically, his research enriched the earth sciences with the use of space-time diagrams to detect changes.

Around the same years, Z. Passarguet (1867-1958) introduced the fundamental concept physical geography- "natural landscape" - the territory where all the components of nature find correspondence. He singled out landscape factors, made a landscape classification using the example of Africa.

In Russia in the same years, L. S. Berg (1876-1950) dealt with related issues, who substantiated the concept of “ landscape zone"as a combination of the same landscapes and developed a reasonable division of the territory of Siberia and Turkestan, and then all Soviet Union into geographic (landscape) zones. He approved the concept of the landscape as a natural unity of objects and phenomena, where the whole affects the parts, and the parts affect the whole. He laid the foundations for landscape-geographical zoning with the allocation of zones and landscapes as real-life natural formations with natural boundaries. Berg formulated the idea of ​​changing landscapes during the development of the planet and proved the irreversibility of these changes. He considered geography to be the science of geographical landscapes, thereby giving it a regional character, and considered geography as a branch of physical geography.

AN Krasnov (1862-1914) is known as the founder of constructive geography, which allowed him to develop and implement measures for the transformation of the Black Sea subtropics on this basis. He created the first course "General Geography" (1895-1899), whose task was to find a causal relationship between forms and phenomena that cause the dissimilarity of various parts of the earth's surface, as well as to study their nature, distribution and influence on human life and culture. Krasnov emphasized the anthropocentricity of geography. He belongs to the classification of climates and vegetation cover of the Earth, the zoning of the globe according to the types of vegetation, based on the zonal-regional principle. He approached the understanding of the zonality of geographical processes and phenomena before V.V. Dokuchaev discovered the law of world zonality and L. S. Berg’s descriptions of landscape zones. Assessing the scientific heritage of A. N. Krasnov, it must be emphasized that he was the first researcher of geography who practically embodied part of his conclusions in the reconstruction of a vast territory. Unlike his predecessors, the scientist considered the task of geography not to describe disparate natural phenomena, but to identify the interconnection and interdependence between natural phenomena, believing that scientific geography is not interested in the external side of phenomena, but in their genesis.

Following the textbook by A. N. Krasnov, General Geography by A. A. Kruber (1917) was published, where the concept of "earth shell" or "geosphere" (subsequently developed by A. A. Grigoriev) was given. Kruber emphasized the unity of all components of the geographic environment, which must be studied in integrity. This textbook was the main one throughout the first half of the 20th century.

The works of VI Vernadsky (1863-1945), mainly his theory of the biosphere, were of great importance for the development of geography. The concept he introduced living matter”and proof of its widest distribution and constant participation in natural processes and phenomena, raised the question of the need for a new understanding of the essence of the geographical shell, which should be considered as a bio-inert formation. Scientific and philosophical reasoning allowed Vernadsky, along with other scientists (L. Pasteur, P. Curie, I. I. Mechnikov), to express an opinion about the cosmic origin of life (the theory of panspermia) and special character living substance. The scientist understood the biosphere as an interconnected system of living organisms and their habitat. Unfortunately, many of Vernadsky's views, including his doctrine of the noosphere, long time were insufficiently demanded and practically not taken into account in geography.

A new stage in the development of geography coincides with the beginning and middle of the 20th century. and is associated with the names of A. A. Grigoriev (1883-1968), S. V. Kalesnik (1901-1977), K. K. Markov (1905-1980) and other scientists who brought geography to the modern path of development. A.A.Grigoriev introduced the fundamental concepts that are the object and subject of geography - "geographical shell" and "single physical-geographical process", combining the ecological approach in the study of geography with the need for an interconnected consideration of all processes and phenomena on Earth. He declared geography as a potential developer and carrier of a planetary strategy for the survival of mankind in relations with nature.

S. V. Kalesnik summarized the achievements of geography in his textbook (1947 and subsequent editions), including new judgments about the components of the geographic envelope. This textbook still retains its value and is a kind of example for writing educational materials.

The continuing differentiation of geography has led to detailed developments of its individual parts. There were special studies of the ice sheet and its paleogeographic significance (K. K. Markov), the geophysical mechanism of differentiation of the earth's surface according to geographical areas and altitudinal zonation (M.I. Budyko), the history of climate against the background of changes in the geographic envelope in the past (A.S. Monin), the energy balance of the Earth from remote observations (K.Ya. Kondratiev), the landscape systems of the World in their unity and genetic differences (A. G. Isachenko), the landscape shell as part of the geographical shell (F. N. Milkov). During these years it was established periodic law geographic zonality of Grigoriev-Budyko, the huge role of bioorganic matter in the formation of specific geological formations of the distant past (A.V. Sidorenko) was revealed, new areas of geography appeared - space geography, ecological geography, or global ecology, studies of "exact" (physical -mathematical) and "natural" (biological-geographical) natural science into a complex system of geography.

Middle and second halfXX in. were especially filled with events in various branches of knowledge that required qualitative changes in views and judgments.

The most significant of them:

the surfaces of the planets and their satellites are composed of rocks of basic and ultrabasic composition and dotted with crater irregularities - traces of meteorite falls or other space bodies;

at the facilities solar system volcanic processes and ice formations are noted almost everywhere, some of which may be frozen water; most cosmic bodies have

own atmosphere with traces of oxygen and organic compounds(methane, etc.); in outer space widespread organic matter, including outside the solar system; there is a dust sphere around the earth - space dust, consisting of mineral and organic substances;

living organisms on Earth are found in all spheres and in various settings: inside rocks at a distance of thousands of meters from the surface, at a temperature environment hundreds of degrees Celsius and a pressure of thousands of atmospheres, in conditions of high levels of radioactive and other radiation, with low temperatures almost to absolute zero, at the bottom of the oceans in conditions volcanic eruptions(white and black smokers), in various brines, including metal-bearing ones, in absolute darkness and without the presence of oxygen; photosynthesis can take place without sunlight(under light from underwater eruptions), and bacteria can produce organic matter from chemical energy (chemosynthesis); living organisms are extremely diverse and complex in structure, although they consist of limited quantity biochemical compounds and genetic codes;

the ocean floor is formed mainly by young basalts interbedded with sediments during the last 150 Ma; the expansion of rift formations at the bottom of the oceans is currently going on at an average rate of 4 - 5 cm/year; at the bottom of the oceans, the processes of degassing of the mantle matter - magma, volcanic gases, juvenile (first appeared) deep waters, thermal and metal-bearing formations are widely developed;

the structure of the crust of the continents and the bottom of the oceans differ fundamentally;

continents have ancient (more than 3.0 - 3.5 billion years) Archean cores, which indicates the constant location of their central parts and the growth of the areas of modern continents mainly due to the growth of younger ones along the periphery geological structures; rocks continents of pre-Paleozoic age (more than 1 billion years) are in most cases metamorphosed;

specific gravity of oxygen atmospheric air more specific gravity photosynthetic oxygen, which indicates a deep source of its origin during degassing of the mantle matter; a study of a degassable substance within the land showed the presence in it (%) of carbon dioxide - about 70, carbon monoxide - up to 20, acetylene - 9, sulfur oxide - 3.7, methane - 2.1, the proportion of nitrogen, hydrogen and ethane does not exceed one %;

in the depths of the World Ocean there is a widespread mixing of waters in the form of ascending and descending currents, various multi-tiered currents, eddies, etc .;

ocean-atmosphere interactions are more complex than previously thought (eg El Niño and La Niña);

natural disasters lead to the movement of huge masses of matter and energy, which exceeds the effect of anthropogenic impact on the environment.

Geography is a very unusual science that arose not in the silence of temples and monasteries and not in the dungeons of ancient laboratories. It appeared in antiquity, in the thick of life. And it was created not by priests, not by monks and not by scientists, but by those who, for one reason or another, set off on their journey - sailors and merchants, diplomats and missionaries, warriors and naturalists. It was they who paved paths into the unknown, describing the lands they encountered.

Translated from Greek, "geography" means "description of the earth", and in this word there is an answer to the question of what geography studies. It arose from a pressing need. The rulers wanted to know how their countries and other states were arranged, the merchants needed to explore new trade routes, and sailors tried to find new sea ​​routes. That is why the first geographers were people of rather unusual professions that were completely far from science.

Years and centuries passed, and in geography, as in every science, specialization appeared. Having completed the accumulation of material, scientists-geographers took up its analysis and synthesis, proceeded to study the patterns of development of nature. Modern physical geographers are engaged not only in describing the terrain, studying not only the external side of phenomena, but also delving into their essence, striving to study the relationships and understand the causes of natural processes occurring in each locality.

In principle, this explains what physical geography studies. This is a science that studies the geographic shell of the Earth and its structural parts. So, for example, if we remember that the continents are part of the geographical shell, it becomes clear what the geography of the continents studies.

There are three main sciences in the composition of physical geography. This is geography, which studies the general patterns of the structure and development of the geographical shell, landscape science, which studies territorial natural complexes, and paleogeography. In turn, these sections have their own hierarchical structure according to the types of components, processes and phenomena being studied. Thus, individual components of the geographic envelope are studied by geomorphology, climatology, meteorology, hydrology, glaciology, soil geography, and biogeography. And at the junction with other sciences, such new areas of physical geography as medical geography and engineering geography were formed.

Physical geography is closely related to other geographical sciences - cartography, regional studies, historical geography, social economic geography.

Modern physical geography pays special attention to the study of the structure and dynamics various systems, their origin, processes of energy and mass transfer between the components physical shell Earth, circulation of substances and energy flows, development forecast.

The methods that physical geographers use in their research are varied. This and traditional methods, such as expeditionary descriptive, comparative geographical, cartographic and descriptive. But scientists also came to the aid of methods based on the achievements of other sciences - mathematical, geophysical, geochemical.

summary of other presentations

"The history and significance of geographical discoveries" - The route of the great navigator's journey. The route of which polar explorer is shown on the map. Robert Peary. The sphericity of the Earth. Great Navigator. Portuguese navigator. Roald Amundsen. Maps of the globe. Englishman. Faddey Faddeevich Bellingshausen. Routes of four expeditions. Story geographical discoveries. Dutch navigator. First trip around the world. Australia is an independent continent.

"City of Biysk" - Biysk fortress - early June 1718. City life. The fortress is a city. My city. Solving addition and subtraction problems natural numbers. Accession of the upper reaches of the Ob to Russia. How did our hometown begin? Lesson goals. Biysk fortress in figures and facts. Hometown. The length of the fort walls.

"St. Basil's Cathedral" - Why St. Basil's Cathedral? Where is the temple located? Built by order of 25-year-old Ivan the Terrible. St. Basil's Cathedral. In memory of the capture of Kazan and the victory over the Kazan Khanate. It was previously thought that the cathedral was built by the Italians. There the temple, towering like a mountain, Stands without shaking off a load of snow... A legend associated with the cathedral. What did Napoleon want to do with the cathedral and what saved the temple? In the old days, the Intercession Cathedral was red and white, and the domes were golden.

"Port of Piraeus" - Tax on settlers. Contributions allied states. Goods imported into Greece. Sea. coins in Ancient Greece. Port of Piraeus. Slave markets. Citizens. Name the main port Athenian state. Athens. Port of Piraeus today. Export. Trading partners of ancient Greece. Trade duties. Concepts. Sources of enrichment of Athens. Development push. in harbors Athens port Piraeus. The results of the wars with the Persians for Athens. The use of slave labor.

"Our Earth" - Geographers. The first astronauts The reasons for the uniqueness and originality of the Earth. Fill the table. Satellites. Astronomers. Writers and poets. Our Earth. reasons for uniqueness. The uniqueness and uniqueness of the Earth. Reportage. Planet.

"Lesson" Scale "" - Build a cane in the form of a segment. The scale may vary. Build a rectangle. Segments. Landscape. Build 2 lines. Textbook. Decision. Tasks from the beauty queen. Ladybug. Scale. Even number. Pinocchio stretched. Elephant growth. Verbal counting.

Geography is a way of knowing the world around us. Primitive, in order to survive, he had to be well oriented in the world around him: first of all, know it well (for example, where are hunting grounds where there are edible plants, etc.) and be able to use this knowledge. Already in the Stone Age, predecessors are being created modern maps- drawings on the walls of cave dwellings (see the article ""), schematically showing the territory surrounding a person's dwelling.

Geography as a science

In fact, geography as a science begins with “travel literature”: getting into other, unfamiliar places, a smart observer recorded everything unusual for himself: how the people of this country look, what they wear, what kind of political system, what plants and animals are in this country and much more. These were the beginnings of country studies, when the country as a whole is described, “from geology to ideology”, and exactly what distinguishes this country from everyone else.

The famous Russian geographer Nikolai Baransky formulated this feature of science as follows: "What is everywhere (as), in geography should not be anywhere." In other words, it is not necessary to write that in a given country there is air, soil, vegetation - it is everywhere; it is necessary to pay attention to how the air of this country (for example, its climate) is unique, how it differs from neighboring countries.

Starting with country studies, geography developed further along the line of in-depth study of individual components of nature, more precisely, earthly shells: (sciences such as climatology and meteorology began to study it), hydrospheres (land hydrology and oceanology), (geomorphology - the science of relief), biospheres (biogeography), pedospheres (soil geography). But in general, the interaction of various components of nature in each particular area is studied by landscape science. It went the same way in-depth study individual aspects of the life of society: the economy as a whole was studied by economic geography, its individual industries- relevant sciences: geography of industry, Agriculture, trade and so on; people's lives - population geography; political life- political geography.

But this study of the territory "by sections" did not give a consolidated picture of each country or area. Regarding the situation when the territory is described only “by industry”, Baransky said: imagine that the writer decided to portray the characters of his novel as follows: first he described what each of them was wearing, then what they were all wearing, then what physique, what hair color each one has, then character traits, and so on. As a result, everything seems to be described, but there is no holistic view of each person. Therefore, after the “component-by-component” characteristics of the territory, it is necessary to give the characteristics “by region”.

"Geography" - in literal translation- "earth description", which is still its main task. But the natural course of development of each science is the following: description - explanation - prediction - control. The sciences that study these stages passed most quickly. inanimate nature. The open laws of mechanics, for example, make it possible to successfully control motion; knowledge of the laws of physics allows you to create new materials and so on. In dealing with more complex objects, control tasks biological processes have only recently begun to be addressed.

Object of study of geography

The object of study of geography - the earth's surface with all its natural and social content - is even more complex and, most importantly, heterogeneous: physical processes take place here (for example, the cycle in nature), chemical (migration of various in the earth's crust), biological (development of plant communities), economic (functioning National economy), demographic (), social (interaction of various social groups and others), political (struggle for power between different parties and movements), socio-psychological (formation of public opinion, different attitude people to the processes taking place in society) and many others (including those that we do not yet know).

In any part of the territory - in every village, city, district - all these processes intertwine, interact (often in the most unexpected way) and together create their own unique picture of the "life of the territory" - more precisely, the life of society in the specific conditions of this territory.

The task of geography

The task of geography is to reveal the specifics of the interaction of all these heterogeneous processes in each territory, to summarize the available materials and create a vivid, memorable image of the place - that is, to solve the problem of describing the territory first (and partially - explaining the processes taking place on it).

Much more difficult task geographic forecast: what future (or what options for the future) is possible for this territory. Often it is necessary to limit oneself to identifying restrictions for development: for example, in such and such an area it is impossible to build enterprises even with small emissions of harmful substances, since their dispersion in the atmosphere is extremely slow; or else: it is not worth creating a recreation zone here (from the Latin “recreatio” - literally “recovery” of human strength and health), since it is far from the place of residence of potential vacationers.

An even more difficult task of managing geographic features. Is it possible, for example, to restrain the growth major cities? Or - to populate the empty rural areas? Society (including Russian society) very often exaggerated its ability to influence such processes. As it turned out later (after great efforts and funds had already been expended), there are internal patterns in the development of processes (however, they are still poorly understood), and it is by no means always possible to change anything by external efforts (and sometimes these efforts give the opposite result). expected). Some of these patterns will be discussed in this book.

So, geography, ideally, should help society solve certain specific problems - that is, to fulfill applied tasks. But there are also tasks of a different kind - related to the formation of the "image of the country" for all members of society, for the entire population.

Geography of Russia

Every person should have in their head correct representation about what country, region, city, village he lives in. Without this, true patriotism is impossible - love for one's Fatherland.

“I love and know. I know and love. And I love the more fully the better I know ”- geographer Yuri Konstantinovich Efremov used these words as an epigraph to his wonderful book"The nature of my country".

Knowledge of geography is of particular importance for Russia - a country whose history is inseparable from its geography. According to historian Vasily Klyuchevsky, "the history of Russia is the history of a country that is being colonized." Another side of the significance of geography in Russia was well shown by Pushkin in his play Boris Godunov. It contains a scene in which Tsar Boris visits his son Fyodor and finds him drawing a geographical map:

King: And you, my son, what are you doing? What's this?

Fedor: Drawing of the Moscow; our kingdom

From end to end. You see: here is Moscow,

Here is Novgorod, here is Astrakhan. Here is the sea

Here are the dense forests of Perm,

But Siberia.

King: What is this?

Is there a pattern here?

Fedor: This is the Volga.

King: How good! Here is the sweet fruit of learning!

How can you see from the clouds

The whole kingdom suddenly: borders, cities, rivers.

Learn my son: science cuts

We experience fast-flowing life -

Someday and soon maybe

All areas that you are now

Depicted so cunningly on paper

Everything will be at your fingertips.

Learn, my son, and easier and clearer

Sovereign labor you will comprehend.

Pushkin, through the mouth of Tsar Boris, very accurately expressed here how geography can help statesman: “to survey the whole kingdom suddenly” (that is, simultaneously) in order to better understand it.

Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov (who, among other things, headed the Geographical Department Russian Academy sciences) seems to have said about geography that it "throws the whole universe into a single glance."

Traditionally served the needs Russian state, which, starting from at least since the XIV century, continuously "colonized", expanding its territory. AT late XIX- at the beginning of the 20th century, some geographers even criticized Russian geographical society for the fact that it was fond of studying foreign territories (to the detriment of studying Russia proper - primarily those that Russia could “have views”, if not for the purpose of joining, then to strengthen its influence in them). Now, when the six-century era of the expansion of the territory of Russia is already behind us, the tasks of geography are also changing: we all need to know better internal, “deep” Russia, on which the main efforts of the state will be directed and on which our future will eventually depend.

Physical geography is the science of the structure of the Earth's shell. This discipline is the foundation of the natural sciences. What shells of the Earth are studied by physical geography? She studies the location of various geographical objects, the shell as a whole natural phenomenon. In addition, regional differences in the Earth's shell are being studied. Given science interfere with a whole range of other sciences that study the geography of our planet.

Considering that the diversity of the phase and chemical composition large enough and unusually complex, all parts earth's crust are constantly interconnected and continuously exchange various substances, as well as necessary energy. It is this process that makes it possible to single out the geographic shell as a specific material in the system of our planet, a set of processes that take place inside, scientists explain how special process the motion of matter.

What kind of science is physical geography

For a long time, physical geography has been studying the nature of the earth's surface. The only direction in time, thanks to the differentiation of some sciences, the development of human horizons, such questions began to appear, the answers to which could be obtained only by expanding the scientific spectrum. So, geophysics began to study inanimate nature, and geography completely fits into the study of all life on planet Earth. Physical geography is a science that studies both sides, that is, animate and inanimate nature, the shell of the Earth, as well as its influence on human life.

History of the development of science

Throughout the development of science, scientists have accumulated facts, materials and everything necessary for the study to be successful. The systematization of materials helped to facilitate the work and draw certain conclusions. This played a very important role in the further development of physical geography as a science. What does general physical geography study? In the middle of the 19th century there was a very active period development in this direction. It consisted in the constant study of various natural processes that take place in a geographical shell and are caused by various geographical phenomena. The study of these phenomena was substantiated by requests practical knowledge, a deeper study and explanation of some of the patterns that began to occur in the nature of planet Earth. Thus, in order to know the nature of some phenomena, it was necessary to study certain components of the landscape. Due to this need, the development of other geographical sciences followed. Thus, a whole complex of sciences appeared, which acted as related.

Tasks of physical geography

Over time, paleography also began to relate to physical geography. Some scientists refer geography and soil science to this system. Evolution scientific knowledge, ideas and discoveries considers the whole history of physical geography. Thus, their internal and external links, practical use patterns. So the task of physical geography became the study regional differences shells of the Earth and specific factors of manifestation of general and local patterns that correspond to certain theories. General and local patterns are interconnected, closely combined and continuously interact.

Geography of Russia

What does the physical geography of Russia study? Land resources, minerals, soil, relief changes - all this is included in the list of studies. Our country is located on three huge flat strata. Russia is rich in huge mineral deposits. In different parts of it you can find iron ore, chalk, oil, gas, copper, titanium, mercury. What does the physical geography of Russia study? Important topics studies are the country's climate and water resources.

Science differentiation

The spectrum of physical and geographical sciences is based on certain materials and general patterns that are studied by physical geography. Certainly the differentiation positive influence on the development of science, but at the same time there were problems in the special physical and geographical sciences, their developments were not enough, because not all of them were studied natural phenomena, some facts were overused, which made it difficult further development in interdependent natural processes. Recent times the tendency to balance differentiation is proceeding in a rather positive way, are being investigated comprehensive research, a certain synthesis is performed. General physical geography uses in its processes a number of related branches of the natural sciences. At the same time, other sciences arise that help to further reveal more and more new knowledge. In addition to all this, the histories of sciences are preserved, with their knowledge and experiments. Thanks to this, scientific progress continues to move.

Physical geography and related sciences

Private sciences in the field of physical geography, in turn, depend on generally accepted laws. Of course, they have a progressive meaning, but the problem is that there are certain limits that do not allow one to achieve greater knowledge. This is what hinders continuous progress, for which it is necessary to discover new sciences. In many private physical and geographical sciences, chemical and biochemical methods, processes and objects are most often used, and this becomes a moving force. Physical geography connects these sciences, enriches them necessary materials and teaching methodologies. This is necessary to solve practical tasks, which gives certain predictions of change natural environment under certain human actions. In addition, the above sciences connect the problem as a whole, which gives rise to more whole line new research. But what does the physical geography of continents and oceans study?

Most of the earth's surface is covered with water. Only 29% are continents and islands. There are six continents on Earth, only 6% are islands.

Relationship with economic geography

Physical geography has quite close connection with the economic sciences and many of their branches. This is due to the fact that in specific natural conditions, economic geography, one way or another, affects them. Another important condition production is the use natural resources, and it is precisely this that touches some economic aspects. The development of the economy and industrial production changes the geography, the shell of the earth's surface, sometimes there is even an increase in the surface, such spontaneous changes should be reflected in research. Also, such changes affect the state of nature, all these points must be studied and explained. In the light of the foregoing, the study of the geographic envelope can be successful only in the case of knowledge of the conditioned way of producing the influence of human society on the nature of the planet.

Concepts of physical geography

An interesting fact is the aspects outlined in theoretical foundations physical geography, it was they who began to form at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. Then the basic concepts of this science were formed. The first concept says that geographic envelopes have always been and will be integral and inseparable. All their components cooperate with each other, share energy and necessary substances. The second concept says that scientists in the field of geography explain the moment of zonality as the most important manifestations of the territorial differentiation of the planet's shell. The study of this science in local patterns, as well as local manifestations, has great value for regionalization.

Periodic zoning law

Differentiation is quite difficult geographic system, particles are interconnected, spatial changes occur, the magnitude of which should not interfere with the balance of the earth's surface. This may be affected various factors, for example, the annual amount of precipitation, the ratio between them and much, much more. The balance of the surface of the globe is closely related to the boundaries of land. If you look at different thermal belts, then the conditions will be different, it depends on the features of the landscape. This pattern even got its name - the periodic law geographic zoning. This is what physical geography studies. The concept of this law has some general concepts and values ​​that can be applied to a large number physical and geographical processes. These processes are reduced to the determination of a rational balance that is optimal for vegetation cover.

If we combine all these areas, we can conclude that science plays a very important role as a way to analyze natural relationships and implement new knowledge. The methodology of physical geography has not yet been sufficiently improved. Therefore, in subsequent years, science will also develop rapidly, it is required fresh ideas and another. Perhaps new industries will emerge.