The social nature of the language is most clearly manifested in external conditions his existence.

Strengthening the processes of economic and state integration, gradual overcoming feudal fragmentation led to the formation of larger communities - nationalities. The nation is characterized by unity:

Territories;

economic structure;

elements of culture

Examples of national languages ​​are Avar, Lezgi, Lak languages.

The language of the nation is the next stage in the development of the language. National language is the language of such a historical community of people, which is characterized by:

Territories;

economic structure;

culture;

Mental structure.

The process of transforming a nationality into a nation is accompanied by the development of capitalist relations, the formation of an internal market, and the strengthening of linguistic unity.

The national language is a socio-historical category that denotes the language that is the means of oral and / or written communication of the nation.

Common features the language of the nationality and the nation are manifested:

the same functions are available;

in the public;

in the generality of the structural-linguistic plan. The language of the nation inherits the structure of the language of the people;

in the presence of a common vocabulary and grammatical system

The language of the nation is different from the language of the people. This manifests itself in connection with:

different position dialects. During the period of the formation of the national language, the leveling of dialect features, the strengthening of linguistic unity, the formation of uniform norms for all native speakers takes place;

different position of the literary language. In the national period, a single written and oral literary language is formed on a nationwide basis, and the ratio of the literary language and dialects is not equal, since dialects are doomed to die out in the process of development of the national language.

Depending on the form of existence of the national language and the scope of its communicative functions, there are three types of national language:

1. The national language, speaking only in writing, in the presence of sharply different territorial dialects, functioning in oral communication. For example, written Chinese is the national language of all Han Chinese, who speak several mutually unintelligible dialects.

2. National language, speaking only in oral, while the written forms of the languages ​​differ. For example, colloquial is the national language of Norwegians, while two languages ​​are used in written communication - Norwegian and Danish.

3. National language, acting in two forms - oral and written. It is understandable to all representatives of this nation, for example, Russian, Turkish, Japanese, etc.

National languages ​​in terms of their origin can be of the following types:

original language, i.e. the native language of the people, which functioned during historical period on a given ethnic territory and turned into a single means of communication during the consolidation of the nation (for example, Russian, Japanese);

language ethnic community which, during the formation of the nation, became the core of ethnic consolidation, turned into a means of national communication and displaced the languages ​​of others ethnic groups(For example, English language, ascending to the language of the Germanic tribes - the Angles, Saxons, Jutes, and not to the language of the natives of England - the Britons;

borrowed language, i.e. a language that is not the ethnic language of any nationality, an emerging nation. However, in everyday everyday communication it is not the national language that functions, but the local language. For example, in Paraguay, the national language is Spanish, and local languages ​​are used in everyday life.

The ratio of the language and the society that it serves can be different:

One national language serves one state (Italian in Italy);

One national language different options serves different states(e.g. British English in England and American English in the USA)

One state uses different languages(for example, in Switzerland). In Spain, there are different national languages ​​- Spanish, Basque, Catalan, Galician.

47. Ways of education of national languages

The history of the formation of each national language is individual and unique. However, some common points in this process can be traced. The national language is formed:

based on one dialect;

based on several dialects based on their concentration;

Thanks to the crossing and mixing of several languages.

So, the French national language was formed on the basis of the Île-de-France dialect with the center in Paris. By order of King Francis 1, the language of this dialect in 1539 was elevated to the rank of the national state language of France. This lowered the status of Latin and Provençal, despite the fact that Latin language was the entire first millennium the only literary language of Western Europe, and in the Provencal language there was lyric poetry troubadours.

An example of the second way of forming a national language is the Russian language, which began to take shape in a single national language in the 17th century, when Moscow State. The basis of the Russian national language was the dialect of Moscow (Moscow vernacular). It was a transitional dialect, combining the features of the North Russian and South Russian dialects. Features of southern Russian dialects were superimposed on the northern basis. In modern Russian, the ratio of North Russian and South Russian elements on different language levels unequally. In vocabulary, there is a predominance of northern Russian elements, in phonetics (especially in the system of vocalism) - southern Russian. In grammar, their ratio is approximately equal.

An example of the third way of becoming a national language is English, which was formed as a result of the struggle and mixing of two languages ​​- Anglo-Saxon (formed on the basis of Anglo-Saxon dialects when the Angles, Saxons and Jutes conquered Britain) and French (brought to Britain by the Normans) The struggle of these two languages ended with the victory of the Anglo-Saxon language, however, elements of the Norman language penetrated into this language, especially words associated with the designation state structure, social relations, military arts, etc. The national English language developed in the 16th century. based on the London dialect.

There is another way of forming a national language - on the basis of a "foreign" language. It is found most often among peoples who linger in their historical development on the way to becoming a nation. Thus, in Angola, no single dialect has been chosen as the reference dialect for the national language. There are many unwritten languages ​​here. Portuguese is used in political and economic life, in science and literature. Over time, Angola will develop a national language based on one or more dialects.

Literary language

Literary language is the highest (supra-dialect) form of language existence. The literary language is characterized by:

high degree processing;

polyfunctionality;

stylistic differentiation;

tendency towards regulation.

The literary language is opposed to territorial dialects, everyday colloquial language, and vernacular. The literary language is the language:

official business documents;

schooling;

journalism;

fiction;

all other manifestations of culture that have verbal form expressions.

The literary language can be inherent not only to the nation, but also to the nationality. There are differences between the literary language of the nation and the nationality. These differences are related to:

use of language;

scope of distribution;

Origin.

Literary language of the people:

Has restrictions in the scope of use. It can be used only in any one area, for example, only as an official business. So, in France in the 13th century. the royal office used special language different from colloquial.

The literary language of the nation is a national language, characterized by the presence of common supra-dialect norms for all members of society, covers all areas of communication.

The literary language of a nation is formed, as a rule, on a folk basis, and the literary language of a nation can also be a foreign language. (But in the Moscow state, the literary language of the Russian people was its own - the Old Russian language).

The multifunctionality of the literary language is associated with the level of development of society, with language situation. The literary languages ​​of Western Europe were used for a long time mainly as the languages ​​of epic, poetry, prose, and only later did they begin to serve science and education (where Latin was used). At first, the literary language was excluded from the spheres administration, science and business writing.

The main features of the national literary language are:

nationwide;

Over-dialect;

Functional and stylistic isolation, which is expressed in the presence of special, inherent only to him, layers of vocabulary, as well as specific to book writing styles syntactic models;

Written fixation. The presence of writing influences the nature of the literary language, enriching it means of expression expanding the scope. (Some scientists believe that the literary language can exist in the pre-literate period as the language of oral folk poetic creativity);

normalization of the literary language, the existence of unified codified norms, i.e. the rules of pronunciation, word usage, use of grammatical and other means of language adopted in public speech practice. The concept of the norm is central to the definition of the national literary language. The literary norm is formed in the process of socio-historical selection of linguistic elements. It is characterized by stability, traditionalism, limited variability, relative territorial uniformity;

Obligatory norms and their codification. Recognition of the normativity of a particular linguistic phenomenon is based on the following facts: this phenomenon the structure of the language, its regular reproducibility, public approval. One of the forms of such approval is codification, which is designed to record in grammars, reference books, dictionaries the phenomena that have developed in the process of social language practice. It is this obligatory nature and codification of the norms of the literary language that makes it generally accepted, and therefore generally understandable;

An extensive functional-stylistic system and expressive-stylistic differentiation of means of expression. In the history of literary languages, there are three main styles that have different sources origin: bookish, neutral (neutral colloquial), familiar colloquial). Book style usually goes back to the literary written language of the previous period, although sometimes it can be associated with another language, such as Latin for Romance languages or Old Church Slavonic for Slavic languages. The neutral style goes back to the common language, primarily to the language of the urban part of the population. The familiar colloquial style has its source in the language of the urban lower classes, professional groups, jargons, and also dialects. Each of the styles within the literary language has its own differentiation;

The dichotomy of the literary language, i.e. combining it as part of the book and colloquial speech, which are opposed to each other as the main functional and stylistic spheres. In the context of social transformations, especially with the development of means mass media often there is an interpenetration of these functional and stylistic spheres, as a result of which there is a convergence of colloquial and book speech. Functional varieties literary language are realized in written and oral form.

It is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of "literary language" and "language of fiction". Literary language covers not only the language of fiction, but also the language of science, government controlled, language of oral presentations, etc. In order to achieve expressiveness, coloring of the character's speech, the writer can introduce dialectisms or jargon into the language of fiction, which are not allowed in the literary language.

Literary and linguistic norm

A literary and linguistic norm is a traditionally established system of rules for using language tools which are recognized by society as mandatory. Conscious speaking norm is a kind of ideal. The quality of special correctness is attributed to the norm, therefore it is recognized as universally binding.

Norma is one of characteristic features literary language of the national period. The norm is a set of stable and unified language means and rules for their use, consciously cultivated by society.

In its system;

In connection with the structure of the language.

Social aspect norms appear:

In the fact of selection and fixation linguistic phenomena;

There is a system of evaluation of linguistic phenomena (correct / incorrect, appropriate / inappropriate).

The degree of stability of the norm on different levels language is not the same.

In the field of orthoepy, the language system entirely determines the norm. The norm in orthoepy is stable. In the field of vocabulary, the content plan is decisive language unit, her semantic accuracy and stylistic relevance. The degree of stability of the norm is lower here, synonymous means are widely used, and variability is observed.

Core literary norm make up stylistically neutral, widespread language means. The periphery of the literary norm is:

archaic phenomena;

New phenomena that have not yet received widespread use in the language;

Phenomena that have limitations in the scope of their use (territorial or professional.

The norm can be: imperative (strictly obligatory), dispositive (not strictly obligatory). An imperative norm is a norm that does not allow variability in the expression of a linguistic unit, regulating only one way of its expression. Violation of this norm is regarded as poor language proficiency, for example, errors in declension or conjugation, determining the gender of a word, etc.

A dispositive norm is a norm that allows for variability and regulates several ways of expressing a language unit, for example, a cup of tea / a cup of tea; tv about horn/creator about G. The variability in the use of the same unit is often a reflection of a transitional step from an outdated norm to a new one, for example, the pronunciation of ch: boring [sh] but but plum [ch] y. Variation does not destroy the norm, but makes it a more subtle tool for selecting language means.

The norm, on the one hand, is stable and stable, on the other hand, as a historical category, it is subject to change, which is connected with the nature of the language, which is in constant development.

Exist:

Norm of oral literary language;

Norm of the written literary language.

In the history of literary languages, the norms of the written language develop before the norm spoken language. For most modern literary languages, the convergence of the norms of the written language with the norms of colloquial speech is characteristic. Under the influence of oral forms of the language, there is some liberalization of the norms of the literary and written language. This is due to the familiarization of the broad social strata of society with the number of native speakers of the literary language.

The norm is cultivated in the media, at school, theater, cinema, etc. where exemplary use of linguistic means is presented. At school, the norm is the subject of language teaching.

50 . National language and literary language

The formation of the national language completes the tendency of the popular language to replace the literary and written language. The national language is enriched with elements of the literary and written language. For example, the Russian language supplanted the Church Slavonic language, enriching itself with its forms, the French language supplanted Latin. In the most popular language, an internal restructuring is underway, during which some kind of general form of this language, or any of its dialects wins.

Literary language, or literary-written language exists in different historical epochs, in different forms oh and varieties. It is always a language to some extent processed, regulated, subject to more or less strict, conscious rules of use. The literary language may be the language of a different group or even a different family than the spoken language of the population. Literary languages ​​existed in the Uighur state, in Ancient Greece, in Rome, in Kievan Rus.

The national language is the language of a certain historical era - the era of the formation of nations. The national language is a single form vernacular. The national language is the national language. The national language is always a literary processed, ordered language, i.e. at the same time a literary, or literary-written language. It displaces the literary language of the pre-national period, enriched by interaction with it.

At a certain, higher stage of its development, the national language, having become the subject of school teaching, the language of education and culture, regulates its oral forms just as clearly as the written ones. Since that time, the national language, being also a literary language, exists in two forms - the oral form of the national literary language and the written form of the national literary language.

Dialect

Mutual language nations, the national language, is opposed to dialects. Dialects are preserved in the existence of a national language. The degree of their preservation can be different: from almost complete leveling in England, a significant smoothing of differences in Russia to a great preservation in Spain, Italy, Lithuania.

Geographically, the dialects reflect the old divisions of the feudal era: such are the Northern Great Russian dialect (Novgorod, Pskov, Vladimir dialects), the South Great Russian dialect and transitional dialects between them on the territory of the Russian language.

In some cases, even older divisions of tribal dialects show through dialectal boundaries. Thus, the borders of some modern dialect phenomena of the Novgorod and Pskov regions coincide not only with the borders of the Novgorod and Pskov lands of the era of feudalism, but also with the settlement of the ancient tribes of Slovenes and Krivichi.

One dialect differs from another primarily phonetically. An example of phonetic differences in the dialects of the Russian language can be, for example, yakanye - weasels, instead of grove.

An example of morphological dialectal differences in Russian is - lie down instead of lie down.

Example of syntactic differences − They need paper instead of They need paper.

Settlements, in which each individual dialect difference is observed, can be combined into geographical map a line called an isogloss. Since a dialect is characterized by a set of similar phenomena, it will be indicated on the map by a space within a certain set of isoglosses. In most cases, the isoglosses delineating the border of the dialect do not coincide with each other, but look like a bunch. The boundaries between dialects are blurred.

The dialect is the living language of the predominantly peasant population. Therefore, the opposition of the dialect to the national language acquires not only a territorial, but also a social character.

The national language strives to become the language of all, but since the assimilation of the national language is connected with the assimilation of culture, with education, it never reaches this ideal, remaining the language of all. educated people. The dialect remains the language predominantly of the peasant population of the region.

All modern countries have intermediate forms, transitional from dialect to national language. From a linguistic point of view, they are characterized by the fact that they eliminated the most striking phonetic, grammatical and lexical features of the dialect. This form of the language merges with the local colloquial form of the national literary language. such intermediate forms are called differently in different national linguistics.

The majority of the modern rural population of Russia speaks either a literary language or a kind of Koine, transitional from the former dialect systems to the literary language.

The dialect is considered the "peasant dialect", the "language of the village" and the semi-dialect has its own social carrier and is called "philistine dialect", "language of the city".

Wherever there is a single normalized language of statehood, there are also transitional forms from it to the language of everyday communication of the population.

The following may also be noted. The Old Russian literary and written language received local coloring, which brought it closer to the language of the population of this particular area. The same is noted in Old French written monuments, for example, "The Song of Roland" reflects the features of the French language in Normandy.

Modern Spanish has "national varieties" in Latin American countries.

Transitional forms also exist in Creole languages. Creole languages ​​arise on the periphery of national languages. These are peculiar mixed languages, which serve as a means of communication between Europeans and local workers, port loaders, small traders, etc. Creole languages ​​include:

Pidgin English (in South China ports);

Beach-la-mar (in Polynesia;

Petit Negro (in the former French colonies in Africa);

Lingua Franca (in the pool mediterranean sea);

Isilololo (in South Africa), etc.

Creole languages ​​can be seen as social dialects.

Dialects, as a rule, do not have their own script. This is one of the features that distinguish the national language from dialects.

The dialect retains some typological features languages primitive communal system:

certain part its vocabulary is being rapidly updated by borrowing from neighboring dialects;

The terms of frequent and important economic use are usually stable and are common to the entire dialect zone. given language;

Terms that are rarely used or relatively minor are often changed and borrowed.

Social dialects of one language are close to local peasant dialects (in contrast to mixed Creole languages). Social dialects are also called "conditional languages". in Russia in the 19th century. There were about 70 such languages. They were extended to large territories and served as a means of communication for tens of thousands of itinerant merchants - ofenes and artisans - wool beaters, saddlers, sheepskins, tailors, etc. Among these conditional languages ​​is the language of the poor, which is close to jargon, the language of the declassed, thieves, and the underworld.

To conventional languages the language of homeless children is also close. The language of homeless children has similarities with children's secret languages.

All social dialects, and partly also age dialects, form a gamut of not sharply demarcated varieties. The language of outgoing artisans and the language of thieves form two poles, between which there are other conditional languages.

The first news about the Ofen language dates back to the 16th century. The origin of this language is not exactly established. It is assumed that originally it was the language of Greek merchants in the Muscovite state. This is evidenced by a large number of Greek roots. The very name of the language is derived from the word Athens. Initially, this language was spread around Suzdal in the Vladimir province. Many other craft languages ​​originated from this language.

Initially, the Ofen language was a means of self-defense for itinerant traders from dashing people. Later, conventional craft languages ​​began to serve as a more serious social purpose- protection of professional shop interests, by means of shop association.

The Ofen language had a Russian grammar, but its own vocabulary, partly composed of encrypted Russian words ( Greek- oven, culoto– gold), partly from foreign borrowings (khirka- the hand of their Greek).

Many words from the Ofen language are still alive and have moved, for example, into student jargon kimat, cool, kerit, leather jacket and etc.

Thieves' jargon, thieves' slang, or "thieves' music", has many similarities with conventional craft languages. In different national variants of these languages, the same unchanging structure, the invariant, is reproduced. The same stable metaphors operate in the vocabulary of these languages: get burned= to be caught fire= arrest, stove – dangerous place, English heat"arrest", hot“pursued by the police, dangerous” /

The peculiarity of this method of naming lies in the fact that general image, or some semantic code, knowing which you can always understand a new expression. The fireproof cabinet is called bear, then flog the bear means - "to open a fireproof cabinet."

Children's secret languages ​​have the same morphological encoding methods as the thieves' slang. For example, the following methods are used:

Permutation of syllables in a word;

Adding sounds at the beginning or end;

Inserting a morpheme-supplement after each word, etc.

Schoolchildren in the United States have a "pig Latin" "hog Latin". This language is built on the same coding principle as Russian children's languages ​​and thieves' slang. For example, the initial consonant of each word is transferred to the end of the word, and is added to it ay.

So the national literary language spreads over the territory of the state and strives to become the single language of the whole people. Along with the national language, local and social dialects are preserved. real language nations exist as a set of regional variations of a single national literary language. Between the national literary language, with its variations, and dialects, there are intermediate forms. The national language and dialects develop in different ways.

systemically organized set language resources nations (see nation) from literary language to territorial and social dialects. Scientists consider the national language as a "system of systems", the polar varieties of which are the literary language and dialect.

Great Definition

Incomplete definition ↓

National language

1. The language of the nation as a socio-historical ethnic community of people. It stands among the concepts of "generic dialect (language)" and "language of the people", "ethnic language". N.I. exists in two forms - oral and written, and is formed on the basis of the language of the people simultaneously with the formation of the nation itself on the basis of the people (one or more). It is a combination of all forms of existence of a given language, both codified (literary language) and non-codified (various territorial dialects, jargons, etc.). From the language of the N. Ya. usually distinguished by the obligatory presence of a literary form of existence, normalization and standardization. N.I. together with other features (community of territory, economic life, culture, etc.) characterizes the concept of "nation". As a rule, the nation has a single language. However existence of two N. I is possible. one nation, for example, in Russia, the Mordovians have two literary languages: Erzya and Moksha, the Mari have Mountain Mari and Meadow Mari. There are also cases when two or more nations (or nationalities) have one language, for example, in the USA, England, Australia, New Zealand they speak the same language, English (or its national variants). Numerous Latin American nations also use variations of the same Spanish. N.I. of a given nation-state, as a rule, is the state language.

Against. meaning: language of the people, tribe

Forms of language existence

See also: Language options, Official language, Ethnic language 2. The ethnic language of one of the peoples living on the territory of the Russian Federation (but not the Russian language). The term is traditionally used in methodological literature, in linguistic works associated with the description of the linguistic life of the Russian Federation, reflects the actual (functional) opposition of the most functionally developed Russian language, which is used in all communicative spheres, to other ethnic languages ​​that have a smaller set of public functions (cf.: Russian and national languages ​​in primary school, national-Russian bilingualism, etc.). In this sense, it is synonymous with the term "mother tongue".

Against. meaning: Russian

See also: public functions, Native language, Sociolinguistic classification of languages, Spheres of communication

Great Definition

Incomplete definition ↓

N. i. is formed along with the formation of a nation, being both a prerequisite and a condition for its emergence and existence, on the one hand, and a result, a product of this process, on the other. V. I. Lenin connects the emergence of bourgeois nations with the era of the final victory of capitalism over feudalism, noting, along with the economic basis for the formation of nations, the unity of the language as one of the most important conditions for the state consolidation of territories “with a population speaking the same language, while eliminating any obstacles to the development of this language and fixing it in literature” (Poln. sobr. soch., 5th ed., vol. 25, pp. 258-59).

N. i. from point of view internal structure is the heir of the national language. Separate language, changing in time, still remains a given language, as long as it does not lose its specific essence, which allows it to save important property transmission from generation to generation of cultural, historical and other traditions.

The understanding of a changing language (the emergence of new language from the language of a nationality) as one and the same “object” belongs to the general philosophical problem of variability and stability. The process of change does not exist without its opposite - relative stability, the preservation of a changing object. N. i. not only loses some elements various levels language (lexicon, phonetics, morphology, syntax) and not only acquires some new features, but also retains important characteristics previous state and therefore continues to maintain its relative stability.

The life of a language is manifested not only in individual acts of speaking, but also in socially typified forms of its use. Language, developing according to its internal laws (see Laws of language development), constantly adapts to social organization, and its functions are socially conditioned. The possibility of such adaptation is generated by the social essence of the language.

With a developed functional system(functional styles, social dialects), N. i. allows you to selectively involve in the message those of its components that provide a focused useful result for the optimal solution of communication problems in society.

With the education of N. I. connect the highest stage in the development of the functional systems of the language. concept top stage is determined not by the entire national language, but mainly by one of its incarnations - the national literary language. The developed differentiation of the literary language is correlated with all spheres of human activity, which provides all the main types of public information. This priority role of the literary language, apparently, gave some linguists a reason to put an equal sign between the literary language and the national language. Another point of view is that all other types of differentiation (territorial and social dialects, vernacular and even jargons) also belong to the national language, are part of it. Not being so developed in functional terms, these varieties of language are in additional distribution in relation to the functional-stylistic system of the literary language and serve as material for replenishment, processing and development of the literary language. A kind of remelting of these elements can be seen in the language of fiction, despite the fact that the main aesthetic and ideological-content tasks are solved by means of a literary processed language.

The initiation of the national collective to the universal human experience takes place in historically specific linguistic forms, and on this path of incorporation, a particular national linguistic experience is manifested, which, due to the specific conditions of emergence and development, can in a certain way expand in some of its parts and, as a result, have a different volume in different N. I. The psychophysiological language basis of mastering knowledge immediately manifests itself as a national one.

The state of the language, denoted by the concept of "N. I.", is determined by the specific composition of the components: uniform form literary language (cf. Russian, French) or variant (cf. two forms of the literary language in Albanian, in Norwegian), the presence of one or another number of dialects, adverbs or dialects, the presence of transitional forms of speech (semi-dialects, koine, etc. .).

The functional and structural unpreparedness of the national language was (among other socio-historical reasons), obviously, one of the reasons for the use of not one's own, but someone else's as a written and literary language: among the Romanesque, West Slavic and Germanic peoples - Latin, among the southern and eastern Slavs - Old Slavonic, among the Iranians and Turks - classical Arabic, among the Japanese and Koreans - classical Chinese.

The protection of emerging national languages ​​from the influence of "foreign" literary languages ​​(from Latin, Arabic, etc.) has always acquired the character of a "struggle for functions." The history of the formation of each N. I. individual and unique, but can be reduced to several types and subtypes. N. i. arise: on the basis of one more or less homogeneous dialect; based on the concentration of dialects; by changing dialects and their parallel concentration.

Since the states of the language are considered in sociolinguistics from the point of view of its existence in a certain society (human community different type), then the types of states themselves turn out to be derived from the types of societies: a society called “tribe” corresponds to an idiom characterized by the state “language of the tribe”; if a certain territorially limited unit is considered as a society, within which a given idiom is used, then its state corresponds to an idiom, which is called a dialect or dialect. N. i. there is such an idiom that serves the society, which has the essential features of a nation (a common territory, economic life, a mental warehouse, manifested in a common culture). If the types of language states as elements of an external system are isomorphic to the types of societies, then the conjugation of an idiom as a semiological object with a society is devoid of the character of isomorphism.

The most typical formula for the conjugation of a language with societies, structure is the formula "one idiom (language) - one society". For N. I. often, but by no means always, the characteristic society is the state (Icelandic in Iceland, Italian in Italy, etc.).

Fairly common in modern world we can consider the formula "one idiom (language) - different societies". If society is also understood as the state, then we are talking about the fact that the same idiom (language) serves different national states. In fact, a single language exists in various nation states in the form of its variants, i.e. special sociolinguistic objects that can be called national variants common language(in England there is a British version of English, in the USA - an American version of English, in Portugal - a Lusitanian version of the Portuguese language, in Brazil - a Brazilian version of the Portuguese language, along with Iberian Spanish there are two dozen Latin American national variants, etc.).

The desire of the people that make up the national society to have their own national language, different from the language of other nations, belongs to the sphere of feelings and passions, which, although they are caused by objective reasons of a cultural-historical, political, psychological, social nature, often bear an imprint subjective value orientations, often contradicting actual linguistic situations. Awareness of N. I. as one’s own, regardless of whether the same language is the property of other nations, should be based on an understanding of the possibility of independent and independent development of one’s own language, even if it relates to the language of another nation, as one variety (variant) of a single language refers to its other variety (variant). This relationship should be considered as parity in the social, political and linguistic aspects.

There are cases when variants of a single language are not divorced in different societies, but coexist in one linguistic situation in one society (the formula “regional variants of a national or literary language is one society”, for example, in Switzerland, where there are 6 variants of the national Romansh language, in Albania, Norway, where two literary variants are known). Finally, a multinational state is characterized by the formula “different idioms (languages) - one society” (for example, in Spain: Spanish, Catalan, Galician, Basque, in Switzerland: German, French, Italian, Romansh, etc.). AT multinational states one language can be elevated to the rank of a state or official language, while the rest do not have this status (for example, in Malaysia), or two or more N. I are given equal status. (for example, in Switzerland). The legal equality of languages ​​can be combined with the actual predominance of one of them, for example, in Canada, English is compared to French (see Language situation).

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• Tolstoy N. I., Cultural and literary-historical prerequisites for the formation of national literary languages, in the book: Formation of nations in Central and South East Europe, M., 1981;
• Khanazarov K. Kh., Solution of the national language problem in the USSR, 2nd ed., M., 1982;
• Isaev M. I., Sociolinguistic problems of the languages ​​of the peoples of the USSR, M., 1982;
• Gukhman M. M., On the question of the correlation of pre-national and national literary languages, in the book: Socio-historical conditionality of the development of the Moldavian national language, Kish., 1983;
• Schweitzer A. D., Social differentiation of the English language in the USA, M., 1983.

National language

the language of the nation that has developed in the process of its development; system of several forms of language existence: literary language (oral and written form), vernacular varieties of the language and dialects.

National language

the language of the nation, formed on the basis of the language of the people in the process of the development of the people into a nation. The intensity of this process depends on the pace and special conditions for the development of a nationality into a nation. different peoples. N. i. ≈ a system of several forms of the existence of a language: literary language (oral and written forms), folk colloquial varieties of language and dialects. In the course of N.'s formation I. the ratio between the literary language and dialects changes significantly. The national literary language is a developing form that occupies a leading position, gradually replacing the dialects that dominated the early stages of language development, especially in the sphere of oral communication. At the same time, the formation of new dialect features ceases, and under the influence of the literary language, the sharpest dialect differences are leveled. At the same time, the scope of the literary language is expanding, and its functions are becoming more complex. This is due to the increasing complexity and development national culture people, as well as the fact that literary form N. Ya., which is developing on a popular basis, displaces those alien to the people written languages(for example, Latin in Western Europe, Church Slavonic in Russia). The national literary language also penetrates into the sphere of oral communication, where the dialect previously dominated. The most important feature national literary language is its normalized nature (see Norm language). In connection with the need to satisfy the increasingly complex and diverse needs of society, caused by the development of fiction, journalism, science and technology, as well as various forms of oral speech, the syntactic system and vocabulary of the national literary language are intensively developing and enriching. In the era of the existence of bourgeois society, the national literary language serves mainly the ruling stratum of society (that is, its educated part). Rural population, as a rule, continues to use dialects, and urban Koine compete with the literary language in cities. Under the conditions of the development of socialist nations, a single normalized nationwide literary language becomes, in connection with democratization and the widespread dissemination of education, the property of every member of the nation.

Lit .: Questions of the formation and development of national languages, M., 1960.

The concept of a national language is not generally accepted: for example, S. B. Bernshtein denied any linguistic content behind this concept, understanding it as a purely ideological construct. On the contrary, V. V. Vinogradov defended the linguistic reality of the national language as a hierarchical integrity, within which a regrouping of linguistic phenomena takes place - in particular, the pushing of dialects further and further to the periphery:

Only in the era of the existence of developed national languages, especially in a socialist society, does the literary language, as the highest standardized type of the national language, gradually supplant dialects and interdialects and become, both in oral and written communication, the spokesman of the true national norm.

The formation of the national language goes in the direction of the formation and strengthening of the language norm, the acquisition of a priority position by the literary language in relation to regional dialects, and also, in some cases, in the struggle to oust the foreign language dominant in culture and / or politics (Latin, Church Slavonic, languages ​​of countries metropolises in former colonies). The colloquial form of the national language, which is based on one or more dialects, according to some experts, is already formed under the influence of the literary language.

Russian literary language.

Oral and written forms

The concept of the literary language;

The concept of the national language;

Forms of language existence

(national language / literary language)

Plan:

Language is created by the people and serves them from generation to generation. However, language, being a complex phenomenon, cannot be inherently homogeneous. Speaking about the language, it is necessary to distinguish at least two concepts - the concept of the Russian national (national) language and the concept of the Russian literary language.

A common (national) language is the result of the process of the formation of a nation and at the same time a prerequisite and condition for its formation. A nation as a historical community of people is characterized primarily by a common language, as well as a common territory, economic life, mental make-up, manifested in a common culture.

The national (national) Russian language is the language of the Russian people, which covers all areas speech activity people, regardless of education, upbringing, place of residence, profession. In other words, it includes all the diversity of the linguistic form of expressing the way of thinking of the representatives of the Russian nation. This is a combination of all words, all forms of words, their use in speech, pronunciation features inherent in the Russian people.

The national language as the property of the people exists in several forms of its manifestation. This is due to the fact that people of the same nationality, at the same time, differ from each other in their place of residence, profession and social position, level of culture, degree of education. In the national (national) Russian language, it is customary to distinguish the following forms of its existence:

Ø dialect

Ø colloquial

Ø slang

Dialect speech is the speech of people united territorially. These are the most archaic and natural forms linguistic existence. Territorial dialects exist only in oral form, they serve for everyday communication. They have a set of phonetic, grammatical, and lexical differences characteristic of each dialect. So, for the South Russian dialect, akanye is characteristic, that is, indistinguishability about and a in an unstressed position, their coincidence in the sound [ a]: [ina Yes], [ma grew up], and for the North Russian dialect - okanye, i.e. distinction about and a not only under stress, but also in unstressed: [ inabout Yes], [mabout grew up], [mabout labout dabout th], [Ga habout n], [Ga habout nabout toabout silka ], [inabout Rabout bishkabout ].

The South Russian dialect is widespread south of Moscow, on the territory of Smolensk, Kaluga, Tula, Oryol, Kursk, Tambov, Voronezh and some other regions. In addition to akanya, he has:

Ø pronunciation G fricative (slit - a sound similar to X, pronounced with a voice);

Ø yakane (typical of some southern dialects), i.e. pronunciation a after a soft consonant in place of an unstressed e: b I yes, n I su, in I zu, l I zhu, l I gko, in I draw etc.

The Northern Russian dialect is widespread north of Moscow, on the territory of the Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Vologda, Arkhangelsk, Novgorod and some other regions. In addition to the okanya prevailing here, it has:

Ø pronunciation G explosive, as in literary language;

Ø pronunciation of verb word forms with a drop-down sound [j] between vowels: you know or you know or you know(instead of literary you know);

Ø coincidence of instrumental forms with forms dative case: go for mushrooms and berries;

Ø clatter (or clatter) / for some of the northern dialects /, i.e., indistinguishability of sounds c and h: c aces(instead of clock), before c b(instead of daughter), smoke h a(instead of hen).

Central Russian dialects occupy an intermediate position between the northern and southern Russian dialects and in their own territory (they are located between the areas of distribution of the northern and southern dialects), and in terms of their main features: they have both North Russian and South Russian dialect features.

The essentially dialectal form of existence of the national Russian language affects vocabulary and morphology. In a particular area, it is customary to call the same object or the same phenomenon in its own way, as it happened a long time ago and passed into the minds of native speakers living in the area from their ancestors:

Ø chalysh(Ivanovo region) - instead of boletus

Ø toy soldiers instead of boletus

Ø kanky instead of turkeys (Ryazan Oblast)

Ø kochet instead of rooster(in the south of Russia)

Ø sulphates instead of matches(in the south of Russia)

Ø teapot or chapels instead of pan(in the south of Russia)

Ø zhamki instead of gingerbread (Tula region)

Peculiar, different from the literary grammatical norm, residents of different territories use separate forms of words: gotta run instead of gotta run, in 3 l. units hours / many h. use such forms of verbs as sing, talk, go instead of they sing, they talk, he goes.

Vernacular is one of the forms of the national Russian language, which does not have own signs systemic organization and is characterized by a set of linguistic forms that violate the norms of the literary language. This is the speech of uncultured people, the speech is rough, reduced. Vernacular is used for the purpose of a reduced, rough characterization of an object / phenomenon of reality:

Ø showing off instead of imagines or capricious

Ø stole instead of stole

Ø on all fours instead of On knees

Ø tutya, squishy, ​​mumble, burdock instead of slob

Ø huddled instead of tired or died

Over time, the term "vernacular" takes on a double meaning:

1. national (non-dialect) means of speech that remained outside the literary language, i.e., the non-literary part of the national language, excluding other forms of its existence;

2. reduced, coarse elements in the composition of the literary language itself.

Non-literary vernacular is represented at all language levels, it is especially pronounced in stress:

Ø callabout nit instead of calland t

Ø MonI l instead of Pabout nyal

Ø drainabout out instead of sland new

Ø etcabout cent instead of percente nt

Ø ransomabout rit instead of openat smacks

Ø handsomee e instead of beautifuland in her

Vernacular also captures grammatical word usage:

Ø how many cases instead of how many cases

Ø What time is it? instead of What time is it now?

Ø who is extreme? instead of who is last?

Ø my callus instead of my callus

Ø put instead of put

Ø go instead of drive

Ø worse instead of worse

Ø slip instead of slip

At present, non-literary vernacular is preserved among insufficiently educated, uncultured people, and begins to merge with dialect speech, i.e., with the speech of speakers of various kinds of dialects who have received an education, but have not fully mastered the literary language.

Another kind of vernacular - vernacular as a reduced, emotionally colored way of depicting reality is part of the literary language. In the literary language, vernacular in some cases to solve certain communication tasks can also be included in the speech of educated people: baclush beats instead of lazy(this is what a teacher who has lost the patience to reason with a negligent student may well say), fooling around, fooling around- about someone who deliberately does not do it the right way, although he understands everything.