Sounds are subject to mutual influence and change depending on the place they occupy in the composition of the word. Changes in sounds are related to their position or position in a word. Such changes are called positional changes. There are several types of positional changes.
combinatorial changes
Positional changes are caused by pronunciation positions, i.e., the position of the sound in relation to the stress or to the place in the word.
Positional changes are divided on the:
§ reduction is a weakening and change of unstressed syllabic sounds, usually vowels.
§ Complete- the complete disappearance of a vowel or a whole syllable in a word
incomplete
ü quantitative - With a qualitative reduction, such changes occur in the vowel, in which it changes its qualities. The vowels a, o, e are subjected to qualitative reduction: house - houses.
ü quality - Means that the consonant sounds shorter and weaker in an unstressed position than under stress. In Russian, vowels and, s, y are subjected to quantitative reduction: singular. [forest] - [fox] pl. h.
§ Stunning - occurs in voiced consonants before a pause.
combinatorial changes are caused by the influence of articulatory closely spaced sounds on each other.
1. Accommodation - this is a partial adaptation of the articulations of adjacent consonants and vowels in the flow of speech. HATCH (BOW)
2. Assimilation - articulatory assimilation of the same type of sounds in the flow of speech. , i.e. acquisition of phonetic similarity. If the preceding sound is voiced and the subsequent sound is deaf, then the previous one can become deaf: coat - coat.
3. Synharmonism - vowels in affixes are likened to a vowel in the root.
4. Dissimilation - Sounds are matched. BO M BA - BO H YES, TO To TOR - TO X TOR - regressive, contact, incomplete.
5. Diereza is the loss of sounds. HOLIDAY, SUN, HELLO.
A type of diarrhoea is haplology(dropping out of a syllable)
6. Epenthesis - the process of inserting letters (in, v, j) - RADIO - RADI AT Oh, LARION - LARI AT HE, WHAT-WHAT AT Oh, SRAM - S T RAM, SPY - SPI Y HE
7. Prosthesis - insert sounds, only at the beginning of a word. eight - AT 8
8. Metathesis - mutual permutation of sounds or syllables within a word. Most often it happens when borrowing, when transitioning into a dialect of verbs, when children master the speech of adults. MARBLE - MARMOR (lat.), PLATE - TALLER (German).
Accommodation
Accommodation (adaptation) occurs between consonants and vowels, standing next to. Accommodation can lead to the appearance of additional sounds (so-called glide).
For example, in the pronunciation of the word will, you can hear a very short sound y between the sounds in and o.
Assimilation
In the process of assimilation, there is an articulatory and acoustic convergence of sounds - consonants with consonants, vowels with vowels.
For example, the word give is pronounced as [add], as a result of which the subsequent sound d likens the previous sound t, creating assimilation.
Dissimilation
Dissimilation is the reverse process of assimilation. When consonants interact with consonants, as well as vowels with vowels, these sounds can be distinguished.
For example, in colloquial speech the word tram is pronounced as [tranvay]. Here dissimilation takes place - two lip-labial sounds m and v are dissimilar, forming an anterior lingual sound n and labial sound in.
epentheses
Processes called epentheses (inserts) have a dissimilative basis. As a result of this process, sounds are inserted in or d between vowels.
For example, the word radio is pronounced as [radivo], the word scorpion is pronounced as [scorpion], and the word cocoa is pronounced as [kakavo]. Sometimes there is an insertion of a very short sound between two consonants, for example, the word nature can be pronounced as [ndrav].
Prostheses
Prostheses (extensions) are a type of epenthesis, but they are attached in front to the beginning of the word. For example, in the South Russian dialects the word went is pronounced as [ishla]. Here, the attached sound allows you to unload the group of initial consonants. Another example is pronouncing the word this as [eto].
Diareza
Dierezes (jumps) can have an assimilation or dissimilation basis. In the first case, sounds between vowels are eliminated, and in the second, one of two identical or similar syllables is thrown out.
For example, the word honest is pronounced as [honest], and mineralogy is pronounced as [mineralogy].
Phonetic alternations
Phonetic alternations changes in sounds in the speech stream caused by phonetic processes are called modern language. For example, in the words water-water-water carrier (read as [vady-vada-vadavoz]), stressed and unstressed vowels alternate, forming various options phonemes about. In the words of each other, there is an alternation of voiced and deaf consonants. These words are read as [druk-friend], while the phoneme k is a variant of the phoneme r.
Traditional alternations
Traditional alternations are not determined by phonetic position, but are formed historically. They have neither a semantic nor a phonetic reason for their appearance, but are preserved only by virtue of tradition. For example, alternating sleep-sleep, stump-stump, simple-simplification, grumble-grumble, late-later.
In the flow of speech, sounds interact with each other, influencing each other with certain phonetic changes. Consonants can be influenced by other consonants or vowels by vowels, i.e. articulatory sounds of the same type interact. But interaction between different types of sounds is also possible, when consonants affect vowels or, conversely, vowels affect consonants.
Among the changes are combinatorial e and positional changes.
Combinatorial(from lat. combinare “combine”, “connect”) are called changes in phonemes under the influence of neighboring (or non-neighboring) phonemes. Most of these changes can be explained by the convenience of pronunciation. In some cases, it is easier to pronounce two identical or two similar sounds, for example, two deaf or two voiced consonants. In other cases, on the contrary, it is more difficult to pronounce two identical adjacent sounds, for example, two stops or two affricates. Therefore, depending on the properties of the interacting sounds, either convergence in pronunciation or divergence can occur between them.
Another type of phonetic change is positional changes (from lat. positio "position"). In this case, the change in phonemes is due to their relationship to stress, as well as their position at the absolute beginning or at the absolute end of the word, i.e. solely by their position and not influenced by other sounds.
The most common combinatorial changes include: assimilation, dissimilation, accommodation.
Let's consider them in more detail.
Assimilation(from lat. assimilatio “Assimilation”) is a phonetic process, as a result of which interacting sounds approach completely or partially. In other words, these sounds become more similar or the same. Assimilation is characterized by the following features:
1. Contact(from lat. contactus "contact") - the interaction of two adjacent sounds and disconnected(from lat. dis "time" and tangere, tactum "touch") - the interaction of non-adjacent sounds separated by other sounds. An example of contact assimilation but lcd a [shk], an example of a disconnected b a d a .
2. Complete- two different sound turn into two identical ones, which usually merge and are pronounced as one long sound(for example, about td at[dd]. With complete assimilation, assimilation occurs according to all the signs characteristic of interacting sounds (by deafness - sonority, hardness - softness, by type of articulation, etc.). H incomplete assimilation - two different sounds remain different, but approach each other on some basis, for example, a word sd both [zd]. With incomplete assimilation, assimilation occurs in terms of the named features. In the word muffin, consonants are likened in sonority, otherwise these sounds remain different.
3. progressive(from lat. progressus “forward movement”) - the influence of the previous sound on the next ( vanka) and regressive(Latin prefix indicates the opposite of the action) - the influence of the subsequent sound on the previous one, for example, to sb a[zb].
Variety progressive assimilation is synharmonism(from Greek. syn "together" and harmonia "connection", "consonance"), vowel harmony in Turkic languages when the corresponding vowel in the subsequent morpheme is determined by the vowel of the root: Turkish.oda- room, odalar- rooms; ev - house, evler- house a.
Dissimilation(from lat. dissimilatio "dissimilarity") - a phonetic change when two identical or two similar sounds are formed or different or less similar sounds. According to its results, it is a process, the reverse of assimilation. Therefore, dissimilation is characterized by the same concepts as assimilation. progressive (February from February), regressive (secretary from secretary), contact (who, dohtor), disconnected (February from February).
There are cases when the same sound is influenced by several factors, resulting in different phonetic changes. So, in the word it is easy (easily) noted regressive assimilation by deafness and dissimilation by the method of education.
Accommodation (from lat. accomodatio "adaptation") - a phonetic process in which different types of sounds interact - vowels and consonants. The influence of consonants on vowels is determined in two directions:
1. after soft consonants, the vowels a, o, y become more forward: small - crumpled, ox - led, bow - hatch. In this case, we observe progressive accommodation.
2. before soft consonants, the same vowels a, o, y become narrower, closed: gave - distance, year - goal, strings - jets. There is regressive accommodation here.
Vowels affect consonants in only one direction - regressively: before vowels and, uh, consonants also become more front - soft: book - book, books.
In addition to the above phonetic changes, other processes can occur in words:
1. Diareza(discard) (from the Greek. Diairesis "gap", "separation"), for example: sun, surroundings. A variety of dieresis are also processes: syncope(abbreviation), for example: pervyazhy(bandage) transfer(change clothes) siniceza(merge), for example: just do(generally), imagine(imagine) and haplology- throwing out a syllable, for example: standard-bearer(bearer).
2. Epenthesis(insert) (from the Greek. Epenthesis ) the opposite phenomenon of diarrhea: n d equal(temper) for the sake of in about(radio), spy and he(spy).
3. Metathesis(permutation of phonemes) (from the Greek. metathesis ) – witch from bear, plate(from it. Teller ), Frol(from lat. flor ), palm from the valleys case(from it. Futteral).
4. Fusion- fusion of consonants: my ts I- my( c)a, we tc I- we( c)a.
5. substitution(adaptation) (from the Greek. substitutio ) - replacement of one phoneme by another: Nikolai - Mykola, Arina - Orina, Nikifor - Mikishka.
When determining phonetic changes, it is necessary to distinguish between the original (primary) form and the derivative (secondary). Depends on correct definition type phonetic change. Due to the fact that the letter, as a rule, reflects more ancient state language, the original form of the spoken word should be considered its written form, its spelling; for a colloquial word - the form that is presented in literary language; for a literary word, the word of the source language.Phenomenon prostheses(gr. prothesis - substitution), or superpositions of the beginning of a word, can be observed in the following words: in eight(out of eight) e roplan(airplane), in spicy(spicy).
Reduction- shortening of the longitude of the phoneme (lat. reductio "pull back").Reduction is also understood asweakening the articulation of the sound and changing its sound (this mainly applies to vowels in an unstressed position). Reduction is both qualitative and quantitative.
Quality reduction - weakening and changing the sound of vowels in an unstressed syllable, accompanied by the loss of certain signs of their timbre, for example, G about fishing[b]. Reduction quantitative- a decrease in the length and strength of the sound of a vowel in an unstressed syllable while maintaining a characteristic timbre. For example, the reduction of the vowel [y] in the first and second unstressed syllables (cf. at bottom, with at yes, with at dovoy).
Phonetic processes- these are changes in sounds that occur over time: one sound is replaced by another sound in the same position, but in a more late time. Some phonetic processes are associated with the interaction of neighboring sounds (such sound processes are called combinatorial), others are due to the position of the sound in the word and are not related to the influence of neighboring sounds (such sound processes are called positional).
Combinatorial ones include assimilation, dissimilation and simplification of consonant groups (sharp).
Positional includes the stunning of voiced consonants at the end of a word (the law of the end of a word).
Assimilation is the likening of a sound to a neighboring sound. Assimilation is characterized by the following features: 1) by direction; 2) by result; 3) by position.
In the direction of assimilation, there are two types: regressive and progressive. With regressive assimilation, the subsequent sound likens the previous one, for example, a shop - Glafk]. The subsequent deaf consonant [k] likens the previous voiced consonant [c] to itself and makes it deaf - [f]. With progressive assimilation, the previous sound likens the next one to itself. The modern Russian literary language is characterized by regressive assimilation; there are no examples of progressive assimilation in the literary language. Progressive assimilation can only be found in dialects and vernacular, for example, in place of the literary Baa they pronounce Va[n"k"]ya.
According to the result, assimilation can be complete and incomplete (partial). With complete assimilation, one sound is likened to another in all respects: 1) at the place where the barrier is formed; 2) according to the method of formation of the barrier; 3) according to the ratio of voice and noise; 4) by hardness and softness. For example, give - o [dd] at - o [d] at. The voiceless consonant [t] is likened to the subsequent voiced consonant [d] and becomes voiced [d], merging into one long sound [d] in pronunciation. Other characteristics of sounds [t] and [d] (according to the place of formation, according to the method of formation,
hardness) are the same. With incomplete assimilation, one sound is likened to another not in all respects, but only in some, for example, everything - [fs "e]. This incomplete assimilation, since the previous voiced consonant sound [v] is likened to the subsequent deaf consonant sound only in deafness. According to the method of formation, the sounds | в] and both are fricative, that is, there is no need for assimilation. The sound [f] also remains a gap. According to other features, there is no likeness: 1) according to the place of formation - [f] labial, a front-lingual; 2) in terms of hardness and softness - [f) hard, a soft.
According to the position, assimilation can be contact and distant. With contact assimilation, the likened and likening sounds are nearby, there are no other sounds between them, for example: low - mιo. Literary language is characterized by contact assimilation. With distant assimilation, there are other sounds (or sound) between the assimilated and assimilated sounds. Examples of distant assimilation are found in dialects and vernacular. For example, in the word highway between the sounds [w] and [s] there is a sound [A].
Types of assimilation:
1. Assimilation by deafness. Paired voiced noisy consonants, being in front of deaf noisy consonants, are likened to them and also become deaf: booth - 6ya, everything - [fs "e]. This is a regressive incomplete contact assimilation by deafness.
2. Assimilation by sonority. Paired deaf noisy consonants, being in front of voiced noisy consonants, are likened to them and become voiced: beat off - o [db] yt, pass [zd] at.
This is a regressive incomplete contact assimilation by voicing.
Assimilation by voicedness and deafness occurs within phonetic word, i.e. it is also observed at the junction official word with the significant: from the mountain - [z g]ora (voiced assimilation), from the park - and [with n] apκa (deafness assimilation).
Consonants [in], [in 1] before deaf noisy ones are deafened: all - [φc "] ex (regressive assimilation by deafness). But deaf noisy consonants before [in], [in 1] do not become voiced: whistle - [ev] ist, not [sv] ist.
3. Assimilation in softness. Paired hard consonants, being in front of soft consonants, are likened to them and become soft: the bridge is mo [s "t"] ik. Previously, before soft consonants, a hard consonant had to be replaced by a soft one, but in modern pronunciation there has been a tendency towards the absence of assimilative softening, although this law applies to consonants.
4. Assimilation by hardness. Paired soft consonants, being in front of hard consonants, are likened to them and become hard: lage [r "] - lage [rn] th, dirty [z "] and - dirty [zn] th. However, such assimilation in the Russian language is inconsistent and occurs in isolated cases. In addition, it is associated with a certain structure of the word: it occurs only in the word formation of adjectives and (less often) nouns at the junction of the generative stem and suffix: zve[r] - zve[rsk"], ko[n] - kouu, cme - cme[ m] ou, knight [r "] ri" tsa [rstv] o, etc.
5. Assimilation at the place of formation (assimilation of those who whistle before those who hiss). Consonants [s], [h] before hissing become hissing themselves and merge with them into one long sound (complete assimilation).
Dissimilation is the dissimilarity of sounds in the flow of speech that are within the same word. Dissimilation is characteristic of irregular speech. In the literary language, it is observed only in two words - soft and light, and in their derivatives.
In the Common Slavic language, dissimilation of tt - st, dt - st took place, since according to the law of an open syllable in the Common Slavic language there should not be a row of two explosive consonants, because in this case the first explosive consonant made the syllable closed. The fricatives did not close the previous syllable; they could be pronounced with the next syllable. Therefore, the confluence of two explosives was eliminated in the common Slavic language by the dissimilation of consonants. This led to the emergence of alternations of explosive consonants with fricatives: meta - revenge, delirium - wander, weave - weave, in colloquial pronunciations: bomb - fights ba, tram - tram.
Simplification of consonant clusters. When three or more consonants collide, in some cases one of the consonants drops out, which leads to a simplification of these groups of consonants. Combinations are simplified: stn (local), zdn (holiday), stl (envious), stack (tourist), stts (plaintiff), zdts (bridles), nts (talenta), ndts (goal
landers), ntsk (giant), rdts or rdch (heart), lnts (sun). In words and forms formed from the basics of feelings-, health-, the consonant c is not pronounced. In almost all cases, the simplification results in the omission of the dental consonants d or t.
Of the historical simplifications of consonant groups, it should be noted that d and t are dropped before the consonant l in past tense verbs: I lead, but led; I weave, but also weaved the loss of the suffix -l in past tense verbs in the masculine gender after stems into a consonant - carried, but carried, could, but could.
Phonetic processes of the Russian language
| Parameter name | Meaning |
| Article subject: | Phonetic processes of the Russian language |
| Rubric (thematic category) | Education |
Phonetics - (Greek background - sound) - the doctrine of sound system language, a section of linguistics that studies the sound means of language (sounds, stress, intonation). Special Section phonetics - orthoepy describes a set of norms of literary pronunciation. Orthoepy takes special place among linguistic disciplines. She studies those units of language that do not matter, but they determine the existence significant units language.
Phonetic laws (sound laws) are the laws of the functioning and development of the sound matter of a language, which govern both the stable preservation and the regular change of its sound units, their alternations and combinations.
1. phonetic law the end of the word. A noisy voiced consonant at the end of a word is deafened, ᴛ.ᴇ. pronounced as the corresponding double deaf. This pronunciation leads to the formation of homophones: threshold - vice, young - hammer, goats - braid, etc. In words with two consonants at the end of the word, both consonants are stunned: breast - sadness, entrance - drive up [pΛdjest], etc.
Stunning of the final voiced occurs under the following conditions:
1) before the pause: [pr "ishol post] (the train came); 2) before next word(without a pause) with the initial not only deaf, but also a vowel, sonorant, as well as [j] and [c]: [praf he], [our sat], [slap ja], [your mouth] (he is right, sad ours, I am weak, your kind). Sonorant consonants are not stunned: rubbish, they say, com, he.
2. Assimilation of consonants by voicedness and deafness. Combinations of consonants, of which one is deaf and the other is voiced, are not characteristic of the Russian language. For this reason, if two consonants of different voicing appear side by side in a word, the first consonant is likened to the second. This change in consonant sounds is called regressive assimilation.
By virtue of this law, voiced consonants before the deaf turn into paired deaf, and deaf in the same position into voiced. The voicing of voiceless consonants is less common than the stunning of voiced ones; the transition of voiced to deaf creates homophones: [dushk - dushk] (shackle - darling), [in "yes" ti - in "yes" t "and] (carry - lead), [fp" yr "em" yeshka - fp " r "eem" yeschka] (interspersed - interspersed).
Before sonorants, as well as before [j] and [c], the deaf remain unchanged: tinder, rogue, [Λtjest] (departure), yours, yours.
Voiced and voiceless consonants are assimilated under the following conditions: 1) at the junction of morphemes: [pΛhotk] (gait), [collection] (collection); 2) at the junction of prepositions with the word: [where "elu] (to business), [zd" elm] (with business); 3) at the junction of a word with a particle: [got-th] (a year), [dod`zh`by] (daughter would); 4) at the junction significant words pronounced without a pause: [rock-kΛzy] (goat horn), [ras-p "at"] (five times).
3. Assimilation of consonants by softness. Hard and soft consonants are represented by 12 pairs of sounds. By education, they differ in the absence or presence of palatalization, which consists in additional articulation ( middle part back of the tongue rises high to the corresponding part of the palate).
Softness assimilation has a regressive character: the consonant softens, becoming like the subsequent soft consonant. AT specified position not all consonants, paired in hardness-softness, soften and not all soft consonants cause a softening of the previous sound.
All consonants, paired in hardness-softness, soften in the following weak positions: 1) before the vowel sound [e]; [b" ate], [c" eu], [m" ate], [s" ate] (white, weight, chalk, villages), etc .; 2) before [and]: [m "silt], [n" silt "and] (mil, drank).
Before unpaired [g], [w], [c], soft consonants are impossible, with the exception of [l], [l "] (cf.
Hosted on ref.rf
end - ring).
Dental [h], [s], [n], [p], [e], [t] and labial [b], [p], [m], [c], [f] are most susceptible to softening. They do not soften before soft consonants [g], [k], [x], and also [l]: glucose, key, bread, fill, keep quiet, etc. Softening occurs within the word, but is absent before the soft consonant of the next word ([here - l "eu]; cf.
Hosted on ref.rf
[Λ tor]) and in front of the particle ([grew-l "and]; cf.
Hosted on ref.rf
[rΛsli]) (here is the forest, otter, did it grow, did it grow).
Consonants [h] and [s] soften before soft [t "], [d"], [s"], [n"], [l"]: [m "ês" t "], [v" iez " d "e], [f-ka with "b], [punishment"] (revenge, everywhere, at the box office, execution). Mitigation [s], [s] also occurs at the end of prefixes and prepositions consonant with them in front of soft lips : [rz "d" iel "it"], [r's" t "ienut"], [b" ez "-n" ievo), [b "yes" -s "il] (split, stretch, without it, no power). Before soft labial softening [h], [s], [d], [t] is possible inside the root and at the end of prefixes on -z, as well as in the prefix s- and in a preposition consonant with it: [s "m" ex] , [s "in" êr], [d "in" êr |, [t "in" êr], [s "p" êt"], [s "-n" them], [is "-pêch"] , [rΛz "d" t "] (laughter, beast, door, Tver, sing, with him, bake, undress).
The labials do not soften before soft teeth: [pt "ên" h "bk], [n" eft "], [vz" at "] (chick, oil, take).
4. Assimilation of consonants by hardness. Assimilation of consonants by hardness is carried out at the junction of the root and the suffix, which begins with a hard consonant: locksmith - locksmith, secretary - secretarial, etc. Before the labial [b], assimilation in hardness does not occur: [prΛs "it"] - [proz "b], [mllt "it"] - [mld" ba] (ask - request, thresh - thresh), etc. [l "] is not subjected to assimilation: [pol" b] - [zΛpol" nyj] (field, outdoor).
5. Assimilation of teeth before hissing. This type of assimilation extends to the dental [h], [s] in the position before the hissing (anteropalatal) [w], [g], [h], [w] and consists in the complete assimilation of the dental [h], [s] to the subsequent hissing .
Complete assimilation[h], [s] happens:
1) at the junction of morphemes: [zh at"], [rΛzh at"] (compress, unclench); [sh yt "], [rΛ sh yt"] (sew, embroider); [w "from], [rΛ w" from] (account, calculation); [different sh "ik], [out of sh" ik] (peddler, cab driver);
2) at the junction of a preposition and a word: [s-zh arm], [s-sh arm] (with heat, with a ball); [bies-zh ar], [bies-sh ar] (no heat, no ball).
The combination of zzh inside the root, as well as the combination of zhzh (always inside the root) turn into a long soft [zh"]: [by zh"] (later), (I drive); [in w "and], [trembling" and] (reins, yeast). Optionally, in these cases, a long hard [g] can be pronounced.
A variation of this assimilation is the assimilation of dental [d], [t] following them [h], [c], which results in long [h], [c]: [Λ h "from] (report), (fkra q] (briefly).
6. Simplification of consonant combinations. Consonants [d], [t] in combinations of several consonants between vowels are not pronounced. Such a simplification of consonant groups is consistently observed in combinations: stn, zdn, stl, ntsk, stsk, vstv, rdts, lnts: [usny], [posn], [w" iflivy], [g "igansk" and], [h " ustv], [heart], [sun] (oral, late, happy, gigantic, feeling, heart, sun).
7. Reduction of groups of identical consonants. When three identical consonants converge at the junction of a preposition or prefix with the next word, as well as at the junction of a root and a suffix, the consonants are reduced to two: [ra sor "it"] (time + quarrel), [with ylk] (with a link), [kΛlo n s] (column + n + th); [Λde with ki] (Odessa + sk + y).
The main phonetic processes occurring in a word include: 1) reduction; 2) stunning; 3) voicing; 4) softening; 5) assimilation; 6) simplification.
Reduction is the weakening of the pronunciation of vowel sounds in unstressed position: [house] - [d ^ ma] - [d ^ voi].
Stunning is a process in which voiced ones agree before deaf ones and are pronounced as deaf at the end of a word; book - book [w] ka; oak - du [n].
Voicing is a process in which the deaf in a position in front of voiced ones are pronounced as voiced: do - [z "] do; selection - o [d] boron.
Softening is a process in which hard consonants are soft under the influence of subsequent soft ones: depend [s ’] t, ka [s ’] n, le [s ’] t.
Assimilation is a process in which a combination of several dissimilar consonants is pronounced as one long one (for example, combinations of sch, zch, shch, zdch, stch are pronounced as a long sound [sh "], and combinations ts (i), ts (i) are pronounced as one long sound [ts]): obs [sh] ik, spring [sh] ty, mu [sh "]ina, [t"] astye, ichi [ts] a. Simplification of consonant groups is a process in which in combinations of consonants stn , zdn, eats, dts, persons and others, sound is lost, although the letter uses a letter denoting given sound: heart - [s "e" rts], sun - [sonts].
8. Vowel reduction. A change (weakening) of vowels in an unstressed position is usually called a reduction, and unstressed vowels are called reduced vowels. Distinguish between the position of unstressed vowels in the first prestressed syllable (weak position of the first degree) and the position of unstressed vowels in other unstressed syllables (weak position of the second degree). Vowels in weak position of the second degree undergo more reduction than vowels in weak position of the first degree.
Vowels in a weak position of the first degree: [vΛly] (shafts); [shafts] (oxen); [bieda] (trouble), etc.
Vowels in a weak position of the second degree: [parʌvos] (locomotive); [kargΛnda] (Karaganda); [kalkla] (bells); [p "l" ie on] (shroud); [voice] (voice), [exclamation] (exclamation), etc.
Synchrony - (from the Greek sýnchronós - simultaneous), consideration of a language (or any other system of signs) in terms of the relationship between its constituent parts in one period of time. For example, the nominative form singularʼʼtableʼʼ in sync has null ending, Unlike genitiveʼʼtable-aʼʼ.
The identification of the dynamics of development in synchrony is also possible by comparing several simultaneously functioning styles (the choice of which is determined by the conditions of communication) - more solemn (high), retaining old features, and more colloquial (low), in which the direction of language development is guessed (for example, abbreviated form [chiek] instead of ʼʼmanʼʼ).
The study of phonetic phenomena in terms of synchrony is the study of the phonetics of a particular language in this moment as a ready system of interconnected and interdependent elements.
Phonetic processes of the Russian language - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Phonetic processes of the Russian language" 2017, 2018.
The sounds of speech, used as part of a syllable, words, phrases influence each other, undergoing changes. These modifications of sounds in the speech chain are called phonetic (sound) processes. Phonetic processes are caused by the mutual influence of the beginning and end of the articulation of neighboring sounds, as well as the position of the sound in the word. Phonetic processes are combinatorial and positional.
combinatorial processes cover mainly consonants: assimilation, dissimilation and accommodation (Latin assimilis - similar, dissimilis - unlike, accommodation - adaptation).
Assimilation- assimilation of neighboring sounds in some component of articulation. She happens complete and partial. Full - two sounds are exactly the same: be ssh smart(w), szh go(and). Partial - assimilation in only one component of articulation: together (in`m`), here (h`d`). Assimilation also happens progressive(straight) and regressive(reverse). Progressive - the imposition of the previous consonant on the next. For example, cloud (from cloud as a result of complete progressive assimilation Russian word). Regressive - the imposition of the subsequent sound on the previous one: two times - twice, before - before, here - here, wedding - wedding.
Dissimilation- a process opposite to assimilation: it consists in dissimilating the articulation of neighboring vowels and consonants. For example, the word lead[c] arose as a result of dissimilation [d] lead; colloquial pronunciation of words tranway, colidor.
Accommodation- the interaction of neighboring vowels and consonants. For example, in Russian, after soft consonants, vowels become more front, pronounced higher; on the contrary, after solid consonants, the vowel becomes more back - to play (game).
Less common are such combinatorial phonetic processes as diarrhea and epenthesis. Diareza(Greek separation) - (discard) loss of sound in a complex combination of sounds: Che sn th - che stn th, co nc e - with lnts e, se rc e - se RDC e. Epenthesis- inserting sound into certain combinations. For example, dialect. indrav(temper).
Positional phonetic processes: reduction of unstressed vowels, vowel harmony, deafening of voiced consonants at the end of a word, addition or loss of sounds at the beginning of a word.
Reduction of unstressed vowels– attenuation and change in sound quality. German K o rrektur
Vowel harmony (vowel harmony). It is especially characteristic of the Turkic and Finno-Ugric languages.
Stunning voiced consonants (German: San d).
Orthoepy(Greek ortho - correct, epic - speech) - a set of pronunciation rules that correspond to the norm of the national language. It relies on phonetic processes and rules for reading individual letter combinations: for example, [h`] in certainly and what like [w]. In orthoepy, the concept of the main (literary) and stylistic variant is important (for example, the full style bud´it- colloquial buit).
Required Literature
1. Kodukhov V.I. Introduction to linguistics. M.: Enlightenment, 1987. - S. 101 - 138.
1. Kochergina V.A. Introduction to linguistics M.: Gaudeamus, 2004.-S.13-87.
2. Girutsky A.A. Introduction to Linguistics: Minsk: Tetra - Systems, 2005.-p. 43-76.
3. Yemets T.V. Introduction to linguistics. Magnitogorsk, 2006, 129p.
Vocabulary
Lecture plan
1. The concept of the word. Semantic structure of the word.
2. Classification of the word. Lexicon as a system.
3. Non-discrete units of vocabulary.
- Word concept. Semantic structure of the word
The word (lexeme) is the central unit of the language. The vocabulary of a language is called vocabulary, and the section studying it is lexicology. It is subdivided into onomasiology and semasiology.
Onomasiology the branch of lexicology that studies vocabulary language, its nominative means, types of vocabulary units of the language, methods of nomination.
Semasiology- a branch of lexicology that studies the meaning dictionary languages, types of lexical meanings, semantic structure of the word.
Depending on the originality of lexemes and compound names, such lexicological disciplines are distinguished as phraseology, terminology, onomastics(the science of proper names). Closely related to lexicology etymology- the science of the origin of words and expressions and lexicography as the theory of compiling dictionaries different types. Word– basic structural – semantic unit language, which serves to name objects, properties, phenomena and relations of reality, which has a set of semantic, phonetic and grammatical features.
Characteristic features the words:
1. integrity
2. indivisibility
3. free reproducibility in speech
The word contains:
1. phonetic structure (an organized set of sound
phonetic phenomena, forming the sound shell of the word)
2. morphological structure (a set of morphemes included in it)
3. semantic structure(set of meanings in the content of the word)
All words included in a particular language form its vocabulary (lexicon, lexicon).
The word has many definitions. One of the more successful prof. Golovin:
Word- the smallest semantic unit of the language, freely reproduced in speech to build statements.
By this definition, the word can be distinguished from phonemes and syllables, which are not semantic units, from morphemes, not reproduced in speech freely, from phrases consisting of 2 or more words.
Any word is included in 3 main types of relationships:
1. attitudes towards objects and phenomena of reality;
2. attitudes towards thoughts, feelings, desires of the person himself;
3. relationship to other words.
In linguistics these relationship types are called:
1. denotative (from the word through its meaning to the subject)
2. significative (from the word through its meaning to the concept)
3. structural (relational) (from word to another word)
In accordance with specified types relations are defined and the functions of the word:
● denotative function- allows a word to designate an object;
● significative function- allows the word to participate in the formation and expression of concepts;
● structural function - allows the word to enter into different rows and groups of words.
concept(denotation) - reflects the most common and at the same time the most essential features object and phenomenon.
The denotative (from Lat. denotatum - marked, designated), or subject, component correlates the word with one or another phenomenon of reality: objects, qualities, relationships, actions, processes, etc. The object designated by the word is called a denotation, or a referent (from Latin to refer - to send, to relate)
denotations- these are images of real or imaginary objects or phenomena, embodied in verbal form. Through denotations, words are related to real (human, tree, dog, cat) or imaginary (mermaid, dragon, brownie) realities.
Meaning (significat)- the highest stage of reflection of reality in the human mind, the same stage as the concept. The meaning of the word reflects the general and at the same time essential features of the subject, known in the social practice of people.
significative(from lat. significatum - denoted) the meaning component correlates the word with the concept it denotes. A significat is a concept embodied in a verbal form. The concept itself is defined as a thought, which in a generalized form reflects objects and phenomena by fixing their properties, features and relationships. Conceptual thinking is carried out with the help of special mental operations - analysis and synthesis, identification and distinction, abstraction and generalization, which receive a verbal form in the language. Any concept always corresponds to a large volume, the content of which is revealed not with the help of one word, but with a detailed description. The word only fixes a certain set of features characteristic of a certain concept. So, the word signification river contains in its meaning the conceptual signs of a river as a "natural significant and continuous water flow, flowing in the channel developed by him".
- Word classifications. Vocabulary as a system
The vocabulary of a particular language includes hundreds of thousands of words, but the vocabulary of a language is characterized not only by the quantity, but also by the quality of its constituent units, which simultaneously have typical and specific features. The properties and differences of language units help to classify them on various grounds.
By way of nomination There are 4 types of words:
● independent (full-valued, denoting directly fragments of reality). These are: nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, numerals.
● official (do not have sufficient independence to be used independently). They form one member of the sentence together with independent word(prepositions, articles), either connect words (conjunctions), or structurally and functionally replace other words (substituent words);
● pronominal words (denoting objects indirectly);
● interjections (denoting the phenomena of reality and the reaction of a person to them in an undivided way, in connection with which they do not have grammatical formality).
According to impact, i.e. words differ phonetically:
● single-beat (eg table);
● multi-beat (railway);
● unstressed (for example, he).
Morphologically words differ:
● changeable and unchangeable;
● simple, derivative, complex (move, walk, lunar rover).
By motivation:
● motivated (environment, cuckoo (because cuckoo), carpenter (because he makes tables));
● unmotivated (flour, beam, bread).
By vocabulary usage:
● active (common and very common words);
● passive (it is made up of words that are not commonly used, or are not commonly used at all for a given era).
In historical terms, the language is continuously updated, while:
1 .new words appear - neologisms(satellite, moon rover). Neologisms that are individual, speech are also called occasionalisms (egologisms). For example, the author's neoplasms of Mayakovsky;
2 .go to passive stock words that have become unnecessary - archaisms - the establishment of words displaced from active use (stable, neck, verb - word) and historicisms– obsolete words, denoting the realities and concepts of previous eras (potbelly stove), which have now come out of the life and life of the people;
3 .famous words acquire new value(pioneer - pioneer, pioneer - member of the pioneer organization).
From point of view areas of use vocabulary is:
● unlimited (typical for oral and written speech);
● limited (sometimes territorially limited - dialect, social - professional, jargon)
FROM positions of stylistic (connotative) allocate:
● neutral vocabulary
● technical vocabulary
● political vocabulary
● official vocabulary - business
Based on the semantic relationships between words, they distinguish:
1. Synonyms(words that are similar in meaning, but differ in form (eyes, eyes, pupils, peepers, flashing lights, Zenks, balls, and also the organ of vision). Synonyms are synonymous rows. In the synonymic series, there is always a word that expresses the "pure" meaning of the given synonymous series without any additional shades, without emotional coloring, call it indifferent;
2. Antonyms(words that are opposite in meaning and differ in form (top - bottom, white - black, speak - be silent);
3. Homonyms(words similar in form but different in meaning). Homonyms are words that have the same sound and writing(onions - plants and onions - weapons). However, in this case, a discrepancy between pronunciation and spelling is possible, and on this basis there are homophones and homographs.
Homophones - different words which, while differing in spelling, are the same in pronunciation. For example, Russian: onion and meadow, take (take) and take (take), German: Saite - string and Seite - side. A significant number of homophones are found in French and especially in English: write - write and right - straight, straight; meat - meat and meet - to meet.
Homographs are different words that have the same spelling, although they are pronounced differently. For example, Russian: castle - castle; English: tear - tear and tear - tear.
4. Paronyms(words that differ both in form and in meaning, but not significantly). For example, Russian: protect - watch out German: gleich-glatt-flach-platt; English: bash - mash - smash (hit, smash) - crash (collapse) - dash (throw) - lash (whip) - rash (throw) - brash (break) - clash (push) - plash (splash) - splash (splatter) ) - flash (flicker).
By source of origin:
native vocabulary
borrowed vocabulary (from the French language album)
In every developed language have their own dictionaries thesauri. Except general dictionaries, which have an alphabetical construction, ideographic dictionaries are also known, where words are distributed according to classes of concepts. First ideographic dictionary modern type was "Thesaurus English words and expressions" by P.M. Roger, published in London in 1852. The entire conceptual field of English language was divided into 4 classes - abstract relations, space, matter and spirit (mind), each class is divided into types, each type into groups: there are only 1000 of them. Large dictionaries are called academic (or thesauri).
Development lexical meaning the words
Polysemy. Most words in the language have not one, but several meanings that have appeared in the process of a long historical development. Yes, noun pear means: 1) fruit tree; 2) the fruit of this tree; 3) an object that has the shape of this fruit. Often words have up to 10-20 meanings. Four-volume academic "Dictionary of the Russian language" in the word go notes 27 meanings, in the word a business - 15 meanings, in words burn, give 10 values, etc. Polysemy is also characteristic of other languages of the world. For example, English do‘do, perform’ has 16 meanings, French a11er ‘ to go somewhere, to move in one way or another’ has 15 meanings, German comment‘come, arrive’ - 6, Czech povoleni, Polish nastaviazh‘set, set’ - at least 5 values each, etc. The ability of a word to have multiple meanings is called ambiguity or polysemy(from Greek. holysemos- multivalued). Words with at least two meanings are called polysemantic or polysemantic.
Metaphor(from Greek metaphorá - transfer) is the transfer of a name from one object to another according to the similarity of certain signs: in shape, size, quantity, color, function, location in space, impression and sensation. The main mechanism for the formation of a metaphor is comparison, therefore it is no coincidence that a metaphor is called a hidden, abbreviated comparison. For example, based on the metaphorical connection of the meanings of a noun nose there is a similarity in shape and location in space: 1) part of a person’s face, an animal’s muzzle; 2) bird's beak; 3) a part of a teapot or jug protruding in the form of a tube; 4) front part of a vessel, aircraft, etc.; 5) cape.
Metonymy(from Greek metōnymia - renaming) - transfer of names from one object to another by adjacency. Unlike metaphor, metonymy does not provide for any similarity between the designated objects or phenomena. It is based on a close and easily understood contiguity, contiguity in space or time, involvement in one situation of designated realities, persons, actions, processes, etc.
For example: porcelain ‘ mineral mass from high-grade clay with various impurities’ and porcelain ‘ utensils, various products from such a mass’; the audience ' room for lectures, reports and the audience ' listeners of lectures, reports’; evening ‘ time of day and evening' meeting, concert’, etc.
Synecdoche(from Greek synekdochē - connotation, hint expression) - this is such a transfer of meaning when the name of the part is used in the meaning of the whole, the smaller - in the meaning of the larger and vice versa. Synecdoche is often considered a form of metonymy. However, its essential difference from metonymy lies in the fact that synecdoche is based on quantitative trait ratio of direct and figurative meanings. Synecdoche is based on the relationship of objects and phenomena that are characterized by unity, integrity, but differ in quantitatively: one is part of the other, that is, one member of the ratio will always be general, wider, and the other private, narrower. Synecdoche covers a significant amount of vocabulary and is characterized by a fairly stable relationship. The transfer of meaning can be carried out according to the following criteria: 1) part of the human body - a person: beard, long hair, head- a man of great intelligence, muzzle - a person with an ugly, rough face; 2) a piece of clothing - a person: ran after each skirt Little Red Riding Hood, pea coat - spy of the tsarist secret police; 3) a tree or plant - their fruits: plum, cherry, pear; 4) plant, cereals - their seeds: wheat, oats, barley, millet; 5) animal - its fur: beaver, fox, sable, nutria etc.
To replace forbidden words, other words were used, which in linguistics were called euphemisms. Euphemism(from Greek euphēmismos - I speak politely) - this is a substitute, permitted word, used instead of a taboo, prohibited. Classic example hunting euphemism - various designations of a bear in Slavic, Baltic, Germanic languages. The original Indo-European name of this animal was preserved in Latin like ursus, in French like ours, in Italian like orso, in Spanish like oso, etc. The Slavic, Baltic and Germanic languages have lost this name, but retained euphemisms for the bear: German Bär - brown, Lithuanian Lokys - slime, Russian bear - the one who eats honey, extinct Prussian clokis - grumbler. Euphemisms could be like new words (cf. Russian bear) so and old, already known to the language, but used with a new value. The classification is very important. according to semantic and grammatical indicators(parts of speech).
