Least of all did I want to state these rules didactically: de-i and not otherwise. Every person is unique. Everyone has their own character, their own circumstances of life and way of thinking, different abilities. and mental characteristics and spiritual level. So work out [yourself manners and rules rational labor each one must do it himself.) For one, it is better to work in the morning or in the afternoon, for another in the evening. One I can create only in complete solitude and silence, the other composes poetry in a subway car packed with passengers. Therefore, the main \ Noah principle - creativity and variability, independent development of individual rules for rational work.
But still, there are some well-established, time-tested methods of the culture of mental labor. Perhaps they will \ are used in the development of your own program. Or maybe such a program will be programlessness, spontaneity, prompted each time only by circumstances and intuition. The main course of your behavior. Be the creators of your life and the process of comprehension of knowledge, the process of creation! The main prerequisite for the effectiveness of your educational process will be strongly developed motivation for mastering a profession, for knowledge and broadening of one's horizons, enthusiasm for the very process of cognition and creativity. K. Markelov ("Journalist's Career") investigated success ^ creative career different groups of journalists and came to the conclusion that one of the main factors is a highly developed creative dominant.
What about the rules? Let them be ten for good measure. Rule one: give yourself a strong, motivated work order. Develop creative dominance and a pronounced, motivation for creativity, knowledge, ultimate goals, connected-("Lye with mastering a profession. In our case, the profession of a journal is to draw up a program, set a clear goal, try to visualize the process of work and the result you want- " reach.
Remember, the Bible said, "In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God." The word is the beginning of the deed. We have also learned to understand the deep essence and creative possibilities of a word, a thought; sometimes we do not understand what colossal power it possesses. Our brain and the information environment around us have a huge store of information, and we will give the brain a mental order to find the right solution, it will do this job and make it more efficient.
Scientists have already developed a “mind power technique” (see, for example, the book “The Power of the Mind” by J. Scott), built on awakening and mental vision, internal assignment. Research connects intuitive functions with the work of the right hemisphere of the brain, which, unlike the logical, rational left hemisphere, uses a holistic, figurative perception of the world and therefore is connected with creativity, feelings, images, symbols and synthesis. analytical thinking associated with logic writing and mathematics.
Unfortunately, in the learning process, we mainly develop | the left hemisphere and try to remember the verbal information. But, not being perceived figuratively, emotionally, it bys “disappears” from memory. That is why it is so important to use logical thinking, but also figurative: try to clearly and vividly present the object of memorization, imagine, done! voluminous and colorful, as if emotionally, visually trans live, perceive in all its versatility.
Rule two: do any business with interest, develop a positive attitude to work, be a creator.
Interest, inspiration, creativity - this is what constitutes the basis of any effective work. It has been noticed that when you like work, it is done easily and quickly, minutes and even hours fly unnoticed. And uninteresting, tedious, monotonous work is tiring, and it seems to lie, it lasts an eternity.
V. M. Bekhterev explains this way physiological significance resa. Any work excites a protective reflex of resistance-! Therefore, the body, as if moving away from overwork, produces! toxic products that make him rest, hinder the performance of labor operations. In contrast to this * reflex, another arises, which develops mainly o6paf| zom in the cardiovascular sphere. This is an emotional factor - I interest in work. By raising the activity of the heart, this reflex counteracts fatigue.
You will say: “But there are obviously boring classes, there are courses that do not arouse interest.” Of course, fiction
content cannot be compared with algebra, although some consider mathematics the most interesting and creative area human knowledge. What about economics or law? For some, darkness, for others - the poetry of patterns and trends, an endless variety of situations, creative solution actual problems of life. Journalism, as a rule, interests everyone, and the disciplines associated with it seem interesting, although also to a different extent.
In short, there are no boring activities, there is a routine attitude towards them. After all, even washing the floor can be done an exciting activity if you draw flowers on the floor with a rag or write poetry. Look for interesting and useful things in seemingly boring subjects, if not in content, then in the form of learning. Remember that you can't do without them in future profession. Invent, play, turn on the imagination, fantasize. Be creative. And then things will go smoothly and productively.
Rule three: use useful stereotypes in your work, try, if possible, to always work at the same time, in the same place, under the same conditions.
When this rule is followed, the body is easily included in
We already touched on such an important topic when we talked about time planning. Dynamic stereotype is relative stable system body responses to influences external environment. It is formed under the influence of factors that are repeated in certain sequence. This is the physiological basis for the automation of skills, their best performance, a means of adapting the body to the environment.
Our central nervous system works very hard to develop such a stereotype. Therefore, any rearrangement of it causes great voltage cerebral cortex and sometimes leads to nervous breakdowns. I will cite the reasoning of A. B. Zalkind on this subject: “The bark should not think and take care of ordering biological functions- the environment should do this for her - with its correct organization, its system of rhythmic signals (hours of food, sleep, work, movements). And if she, the cortex, is forced to actively serve these lower functions - woe to her, woe to creativity.
For example, if we eat at certain hours, then the body automatically, without coercion, does all the preparatory work (allocates digestive juices, sets
* Zalkinda. B. Brainwork. S. 114.
Movement of food, blood circulation tends to the abdominal cavity, etc.). “The factory is loaded,” as A.B. Kind figuratively says, but the owner did not appear, he does not eat, and all the wise work of the preparers turned out to be in vain. When eating at different times, digestive preparation requires a large additional cost on the part of the brain.
It's the same with work. Our body builds its activity depending on time sensors. By the beginning of work, the activity of the cardiovascular sphere decreases, the excitability of the nervous system grows. And the more precisely the beginning of work coincides with the general rise in the tone of the body, the more effective it is and the less the person gets tired. Again, I will quote Mayakovsky, often mentioned by specialists in NOT, “To ensure that the work goes smoothly, follow the rules of the internal regulations.”
During lectures and seminars, it is useful to sit in the same place, if, moreover, you can see and hear well there. Don't bhoci undue variety in working conditions at home.
Rule four: observe the dynamics of the stages of work.
A person enters into any work gradually, reaches the highest optimal level in it, and then - a decline in creative activity, after which rest is needed.
Let's call these steps.
prelaunch, prework the period of adjustment of the body to work, when a person is psychologically and physiologically ready * for it. The heart rate increases by 15-2C compared to the initial value.
working period, during which the body mobilizes its resources to reach the optimal level, the period, depending on the content and degree of difficulty of pat, lasts from 3 to 20 minutes, and for some even more than an hour. Poeto" it is expedient to enter into business gradually, and never take; difficult from the start. The productivity of the second hour is approximately 10% higher than that of the first.
Steady state period of high performance, when is it installed optimal mode nervous, circulatory respiratory and other body systems necessary for productive work. The duration of this period is 1.5-3 hours! depending on the nature and degree of a person's passion for cboi-business.
Then comes fatigue, decreased performance, although an hour at the end of the work there is a period of "ultimate breakthrough", which4| ry associated with the emotional expectation of completion and | recreation.
It is logical to conclude that you need to do simple things first, plan the most difficult work for the second hour, and then distribute it as the complexity decreases.
Rule five: work rhythmically, constantly, using any work opportunities.
Long breaks in work lead to a decrease in its productivity, because a person has to re-tune, get into the essence of the problem, into the rhythm. It is very important to bring each case to the end, to do certain finished pieces of work, to set realistic achievable goals, the fulfillment of which will certainly be achieved.
You need to clearly imagine for what time period how much work you need to do, and try to meet the deadline. But if you still have to interrupt the work, it is better to do it in the most interesting place, so that you want to take it up again, as M. Shaginyan advised.
Rule six: be constant in solving complex creative problems, do not turn off for a long time from the labor process.
Mental, especially creative work loves constancy, immersion in the problems and ideas posed. Parts of the brain involved in complex mental work should not switch too often. This is connected with the concept of a dominant (according to Ukhtomsky's definition), or a focus of optimal excitation (according to Pavlov).
As experts say, additional energy, mental, informational resources the body and the environment, an additional mass of nerve fibers is involved, the necessary amount of blood flows, etc. Then the quality of work is high. If there is no dominant, the energy resources go to other, non-creative areas and the person loses the ability to accomplish his plan.
Therefore, the constant focus on work, “feeling into the object”, as the philosopher I. Ilyin said, especially when solving complex creative problems (writing an abstract, term paper and diploma work, journalistic publication, etc.), has a huge positive value.
Of course, distractions from work are possible and necessary, but given the above.
L. Tolstoy said: “I would kill myself if I didn’t work for at least one day” (and he usually worked at his desk from 9 am to 3 pm daily). It is useful to recall the statement of Charles Darwin: "I never considered half an hour an insignificant time." And many-
Gee of us argue like Oblomov: "Is it possible to do anything: after all, there are two hours left before dinner."
It is worth listening to the words of the ancient Greek scientist ", Pocrates, who lived 104 years: “Idleness and nothingness entail perversity. On the contrary, aspiration; anything brings with it cheerfulness, eternally directed towards the "strengthening of life."
Rule seven: use 1 subconscious or intuition for creative work. Learn to create conditions for the subconscious.
Here it is necessary to say a few words about the greatest significance of the creative work of the subconscious. If you are solving some simple problem, it is useful to “order” your subconscious mind to search< на заданный ему вопрос. И тогда поиски решения идут беспрерь но, мозг перебирает варианты, ищет информацию, пока не пс скажет вам решение. Поэтому чередование работы за столом с: рерывами для подсознательной работы, для возбуждения va tion is extremely important. And such a thought process can pass during walks or physical labor. It is well known that great people often created, composed their works on walks in the garden.
An important component of creative inspiration is the lowering of a certain rhythmic background, in the presence of which it is easier to work. It can be soft music, the rhythm of wag steps, the tapping of wheels if you are going to the subway or tram, etc. Many creative people it was recognized that for fruitful work they need to enter a concentrated state of rhythm. However, extraneous noises and intrusions disrupt the creative process and can “frighten away” the idea or the progress of its implementation.
Rule eight: alternate types of work.
In the process of such a change, the inclusion of various \ cells to work, so the brain is less tired. In the working area of the brain, the bloodstream expands, but correspondingly decreases in other areas. This is both good, because it is productive, dominant, and bad, because if one system is overloaded, it loses elasticity, and non-working areas are deprived of nutrition and part of its activity. Therefore, as A. B. Zalkind says, the body worked "life-giving rhythm." Respiratory muscles work * 5 hours a day, in groups. The heart divides duties between: the ventricle, which is busy for 8 hours, and the atrium with a four-hour rhythm. The central nervous system is loaded with 16 owls - the time of wakefulness.
The alternation of types of work is an organic necessity. This property was known and successfully used by many great people. It is known that after working at the desk Tolstoy mowed, dug, stitched boots (in the museum in Khamovniki you can see a pair of boots made by him). Borodin was not only a musician, but also a professor of chemistry, Chekhov was a doctor. Pushkin and Lermontov drew beautifully. Griboyedov wrote music. In general, one of the main properties of geniuses is their versatile talent.
Voltaire had five desks in his office and moved from one to another from time to time. Five tables in your room is a utopia, but the principle of alternating activities is useful to learn and apply in your studies and life.
It is recommended to change the type of work after 1.5-3 hours, although this is also an individual matter. But here it is necessary to recall some features. It is best to alternate simple and complex work, and it is important that the type of follow-up activity is very different from the previous one and is of a different complexity. This contributes not only to less fatigue, but also to a better fixation in the memory of the studied material. Therefore, it is advisable to alternate the study of theoretical material with preparatory work (search for information, for example, or taking notes), the study of foreign languages with reading fiction, etc. However, it should be remembered that if you are solving some important creative task, then you should not interrupt it with another difficult creative task. But you can change the types of work within the framework of the chosen topic: reading with writing the text, editorial editing with reflection on the future course of work.
Rule nine: study the features of your personality: temperament, character, mindset, memory, attention, will. Use them positive properties, overcome shortcomings, learn to activate your mental processes, especially attention and memory, master the method of self-education.
On these issues, there are many good books. It is possible to develop, train attention, perception, observation, thinking, imagination, memory using special techniques, tests, psychological workshops. We recommend at least a "Workshop on general psychology» (M., 1979). Read more about this in the section “Activation of mental processes”.
Rule tenth and last: Alternate work and rest, give the body the opportunity to recuperate.
Resting, the body is freed from harmful substances that are formed during mental work (carbon dioxide, urea, lactic acid, etc.). Therefore, it is very important to do
Breathes for rest for 10-15 minutes every 40-45 minutes of work, and after 3-4 hours, rest for at least half an hour. At this time, it is useful to do a little warm-up, gymnastics, take a walk in the fresh air, i.e. voluntarily relax. This is helped by the technique of relaxation (relaxation) and auto-training. Rest, of course, is better during the period of decline. creative activity taking into account daily biorhythms.
During periods of hard work at the table, at the computer, it is important to rest your eyes and do special exercises that relieve their stress. Experts advise to blink more often when reading, periodically do palming, i.e. cover your eyes with your palms and give them rest in complete darkness. It is good to do exercises for the eyes: move your eyes up and down 6 times, from side to side, rotate your eyes 2-3 times in a circle, look from near objects to distant ones. This takes a little time, but will allow you to save your eyesight, especially if you sit at the computer for hours. A good effect is given by cold rinsing of the eyes: splash up to 20 times in closed eyes cold water*.
It is useful to relax in the fresh air, best of all not in a gassed part of the city, but in a forest or park. There are a lot of substances in the forest air that are essential for the body: phytoncides that kill microbes, aromatic substances, resins, essential oils. Ionized particles that form in green areas have a restorative effect on a person and stimulate the creative process (there are especially many ions in a winter forest when the crown and roots are bipolar charged). In general, the forest restores the energy balance of a person. And if in the forest you still do physical education, run, play football or volleyball, then you will fully restore your working capacity and improve your health.
Anything that promotes health also stimulates the mental faculties. History knows the names of remarkable people who had enviable health and were colossally efficient: Leonardo da Vinci, Lomonosov, Tolstoy. Byron was one of the first to swim across the English Channel, and Lermontov tied bows from ramrods.
Research shows that what worse health the lower the performance level. Such students spend more time and effort preparing assignments. Naturally, the time for
* See: How to restore vision yourself. M., 1998.
(there is not enough breath. Fatigue turns into overwork when the body is already having difficulty restoring its working capacity. It is so important for the poem to work on tempering health, sports, physical training and, at a minimum, physical exercises. Skating, rowing, volleyball are especially useful for workers , diving, skiing, hiking.Do not regret the time spent on
physical education - it will pay off handsomely. Do not save on walks: at this time, the brain is doing the most important subconscious work, solving the tasks that you gave it, processing the information received and packing it into memory. It is better to walk without exciting and meaningless conversations, at least an hour a day. You can use erogu to the university and back for this (at least part of the way). The mountain air is very useful, and it is not for nothing that many great people go to the mountains. Good baths and saunas. The action of high temperature and its sharp changes cause increased blood circulation, help to avoid congestion. But also cool, suitable water procedures during breaks or after intensive creative work, they also help. Schiller, resting his labors, dipped his feet into the cold water, while Pushkin took cold baths.
Special mention should be made of dream, the longest rest during le days. Shakespeare called sleep a balm for a sick soul, the source of all strength. People engaged in intense mental ra-hey are recommended to sleep 8 hours a day. The best time to go to bed is at 23.00-23.30. In any case, scientists recommend lying down at midnight. Moreover, if choleric people, people of an optimistic attitude, sometimes 6-7 hours of sleep are enough, then phlegmatic people, meinholics, people living in conflict situations, inclined to experiences, need to sleep 8-9 hours. Naturally, I change the time of sleep for "owls" and "larks".
But in general, the duration of sleep is an individual category. I know that Napoleon slept for 4-5 hours with two breaks: he lay down at 21.00-24.00 and slept until 2 in the morning. Then he got up, worked at 15:00 in the morning and slept again until 7:00. Albert Einstein slept for hours and it was in his sleep that he made some of the most important discoveries (other great people often made discoveries in their sleep). In general, sleep is the secret of secrets. Obviously, this is a state in which the body not only rests, but also processes information that is not present during the day. As some scientists say, during sleep there is a connection with the information and energy structures of the world around us. But this is still the little-known jaws of science. But it is well known that the reduction or increase
Determining the optimal duration for a given person 4 reduces the performance of mental activity by 15- 2Sch
A survey of first-year students of the Faculty of Journalism showed that SCH every tenth sleeps more than 9 hours and about the same half 6 hours, i.e. one in five violates the accepted norms of sleep. They go to bed after midnight, trying to make up for the time I missed during the day to prepare for classes. Naturally, they get up with the patient: they are late for lectures, they constantly feel tired, they reach nervous breakdowns.
American psychiatrist Dan Kripke has made a clear connection between health and sleep duration*. Surveyed 1958-1960 million people over the age of 30 and repeating this study after 6 years, he found that the death rate was minimal among those who sleep 7-8 hours, the rate increased sharply among those who slept less or more of this time, and the graph resembled a sharp arc with ends, nq| taken up.
It is advisable to go to bed at the same time. Before going to bed, lie outdoors, ventilate the room well. For two, stop intense mental activity in order to calm down the brain. But before going to bed, you can read what you don't remember. A warm bath before bed is helpful. In the evening hours] avoid coffee, alcohol, rich food, overexcitation. You still have insomnia, you can apply the techniques of autoheal training, relax and give yourself a mental order mustache * It is useful to massage your head, above your forehead. But if nothing can, it's better to get up and do some simple thing to read something that is not defiant. strong emotions. Do not sleep during the day if you did not sleep well at night. A spoonful of honey or a glass of warm milk is very useful for insomnia.
Now about nutrition. Scientists have found that mental
requires about 2400 calories, while the physical from 3000 to 500 |
Does mental work consume a lot of proteins and phosphorus?
salts, so meat, fish, eggs, cheese, milk are recommended
Big role the pancreas is playing, and it needs food
iodine (sorrel, fish oil). With nervous mental work, org.
nism needs iron, which is found in meat, bake*
cauliflower, egg yolk, wholemeal bread. Useful*
nuts, mushrooms, of course, vegetables and fruits. There is always desirable!
the same time, 4 times is better. But nutrition is also an individual matter *
Really, everyone chooses their diet. sch
* See this in detail in the book: Borbeli A. Sleep secrets. M., 1989.
Two words about the dangers of such a "rest" as smoking. Science has proven that 3-4 cigarettes reduce the ability to memorize and the amount of memorization by 5-6%. Of course, you will not be surprised by the information that a drop of nicotine kills a horse, and every fifth cause of death is smoking and every cigarette smoked (according to German scientists) shortens life by 12 minutes, that smokers are five times more likely to get cancer .
But perhaps the following facts will affect you: smoking causes deformities and various anomalies in children born to smoking mothers, the body weight of newborns is on average 150-200 g less than in children of non-smoking women, premature births occur two to three times more often. childbirth. Smokers have impaired hearing, vision, and smell. Moreover, passive smoking, i.e. inhaling smoke in a smoky room is also very harmful, especially for babies.
There is a legend that smoking helps in mental work. But experiments have shown that the pace and quality of solving mathematical, chess, logical and other problems is deteriorating sharply. Some refer to the fact that many great people smoked. I will quote the words of L. Tolstoy on this subject: “From the fact that people who are spiritually strong, being subjected to the degrading action of intoxicating substances, nevertheless produced great things, we can only conclude that they would have produced even more if they had not been intoxicated.”
Alcohol has an even worse effect on mental activity. A bottle of beer and dry wine is also not safe if they are taken regularly, because the body gets used to drinking alcohol, alcohol addiction develops, which turns into a terrible disease - alcoholism. And the earlier a person is addicted to alcohol, the faster this incurable disease. Large doses of alcohol cause swelling and then shrinkage and death. nerve cells. Only one strong intoxication leads to the death of tens of thousands of nerve cells. Alcohol abuse leads to thinning and smoothing of the convolutions of the brain. Penetrating into germ cells, ethanol partially destroys the DNA that carries hereditary information, which leads to deformities and diseases of children born from drinking parents.
But on the other hand, laughter is very useful for creativity, for improving well-being, health. Researchers at Stanford University called it "running in place" after finding that the effect of laughter is similar to that of exercise and has a long duration. With laughter, the content of adrenaline in the blood increases and endorphins enter the brain, which improve well-being. Lower your heart rate, relieve headaches. In the West
There are even laughter clinics. In general, good intentions, benevolence, the desire to help a person will increase vitality, creative possibilities and able-bodied person.
And the last thing I would like to say, ending the conversation ^ rest: do not forget about the need join the common cultural values, rationally use this time to become widely educated, cultured people High common culture helps and deep development of the narrow X sociality. This is especially true of the journalistic profession,
Mental work requires extensive connections with general cultures, a fund of information that is now easily obtained from the search engine. Libraries, museum collections, exhibitions, concerts: theaters are your wealth. But it is important to develop a system sch information about really noteworthy phenomena of culture, to get acquainted, first of all, with the best image*, do not waste precious time on second-rate productions, i we, gray literature. Although, of course, everything is determined by taste predilections. The results of film festivals can become a good reference point in the sea of cinema and video. Undoubtedly, the spiritual is enriched by acquaintance with works that have been awarded at music and ballet competitions, theater festivals (for example, ■ a lota mask). AT contemporary literature better oriented to literary publications, the results of literary awards, to meddle in the reading circle of people you respect, including famous writers.
There is now a competition for TEFI TV journalists as well, = the best works are nominated. Print media journals are also celebrated annually.
Do not waste time, join the cultural treasury* of mankind. This will enrich and develop you, help you become not only a well-educated person, but also a good cnei-list.
Energy frontiers various groups physical condition, kcal/min
The results of many studies indicate the inadmissibility of exceeding 33-40% of the maximum aerobic capacity during physical activity throughout the full working day. Therefore, it can be roughly considered, taking into account age fluctuations, that for persons of group I of physical condition, 8-hour labor energy costs should not exceed 15 kJ/min(3,5 kcal/min), II - groups - 15-19 kJ/min,(3,5-4,5 kcal/min), Group III -19-23 kJ/min(4,5-5,5 kcal/min), Group IV - 23.4-27 kJ/min(5, 6-6,5 kcal/min) for persons of group V, they may be higher than these values.
There is a widespread misconception that mental work is easy work. This idea is based on the fact that during mental labor energy costs (and this is one of the main criteria for assessing the severity of labor) are much lower than during physical labor.
In physiological terms, the main feature of mental labor is that during it the brain performs the functions of not only a coordinating, but the main working organ. At the same time, the analytical and synthetic functions of the central nervous system are significantly activated, the reception and processing of information becomes more complicated, new functional connections, new complexes of conditioned reflexes, the role of the functions of attention, memory, the tension of the visual and auditory analyzers and the load on them increases.
Despite significant physiological differences, division labor activity on the physical and mental somewhat conditionally. With the development of science and technology, the boundaries between them are increasingly smoothed out.
Nevertheless, the majority of types of labor activity can be classified as predominantly mental: managerial work, creative (labor scientists, writers, artists, composers, designers, etc.) the work of operators, teachers and lecturers, medical workers. One of the most numerous groups where mental labor predominates are pupils and students. Their work activity is characterized by a strain of memory, attention, perception, frequent stressful situations (control classes, tests, exams), and a largely sedentary lifestyle.
Physiological features mental labor. Low mobility, a forced monotonous posture during mental work contribute to a weakening of metabolic processes, congestion in the muscles of the legs, abdominal organs and small pelvis, and worsen the supply of oxygen to the brain. Making up only 1.2-1.5% relative to body weight, the brain consumes more than 20% of its energy resources. The blood flow to the working brain increases by 8-10 times compared to the state of rest, and its consumption of oxygen and glucose will increase.
The content of glucose in the blood increases by 18-36%, the concentration of adrenaline, norepinephrine and free fatty acids in the blood increases. In the brain tissue, the consumption of glucose, methionine, glutamine and other essential amino acids, vitamins of group B increases. The functions of the visual analyzer deteriorate - visual acuity, stability of clear vision, contrast sensitivity, visual performance. Increased visual-motor reaction time.
Mental labor inherent and highest degree tension of attention: when reading specialized literature, the tension is almost twice as high as when driving a car in the city, and 5-10 times higher than when performing many types of mechanized physical work.
The formal completion of the working day often does not stop the process of professionally directed mental activity. They say that a thought cannot be folded like hands, and even in a dream it does not quite sleep. Developing special condition body - fatigue can turn into overwork. This condition should be considered already as a serious violation of the normal physiological functioning of the body, as a pre-pathology, and sometimes even a pathology. During mental work, the state of overwork is characterized by the lack of a full recovery of working capacity by the next working day, sleep disturbances (up to persistent insomnia), a decrease in resistance to the effects of adverse environmental factors, and an increase in neuro-emotional excitability.
During mental labor, the state of overwork is not as demonstrative as during physical labor. People who are engaged in mental work, even in a state of overwork, are able to long time perform their professional duties without a noticeable decrease in the level of labor activity and labor productivity.
Labor intensity. Developing criteria for the professional assessment of the degree nervous tension in the process of labor, they use characteristics that reflect the tension of the sensory apparatus, higher nerve centers that provide the functions of attention, thinking, and regulation of movements. Special tables have been compiled for the classification of labor according to the degree of neuro-emotional stress based on 14 indicators (intellectual load; duration of concentrated observation, the number of production-important "objects of simultaneous" observation; the number of signals per hour; the number of signals for action per hour; time of active actions; the need for an independent search for mismatches; monotony; visual strain; accuracy of work; shift; mode of work and rest). Using such tables, sanitary doctors and other specialists can determine the degree of stress in certain types of work in various industries (for example, Table 4.3).
activities.
After you have mastered the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
Explain the mechanisms of physiological changes in the body during mental work.
characterize mental labor functions: Attention,
memory, thinking, creative imagination.
Show the dynamics of changes in mental performance during the day.
Describe the state of mental-emotional fatigue and overwork.
To reveal the physiological mechanism and risk factors for the formation of nervous tension.
Characterize educational stress factors and manifestations of emotional stress.
§one. Physiological bases of mental activity.
The basis of mental work is the perception, processing of information and decision-making. The perception of information is mainly carried out by visual and auditory analyzers. This includes such higher mental functions as attention, memory, intellectual activity. A feature of some types of labor is increased emotional stress, others - the monotony and simplicity of the functions performed. In all cases of mental activity, the main part is the participation of the central nervous system, its higher departments.
The human brain is a complex functional system that acts as a single differentiated whole. In this regard, the so-called higher intellectual centers do not exist, and many elements or the entire cortex take part in the implementation of intellectual functions. hemispheres.
The brain is neither day nor night in an inactive state. Thanks to tens of billions of neurons, it can accumulate over 10 billion units of information per second, which is several times more than the most advanced computer. At the same time, it is generally accepted that only about 20% of the capabilities of the brain are used by a person in his activity.
In the process of mental labor, new functional connections are formed, new complexes of conditioned reflexes. The teachings of I.P. Pavlova about conditioned reflexes and GNI allows us to understand the mechanism of the formation of labor skills that determine the success of mental work. A conditioned reflex is the body's response to external stimuli. Human behavior, in particular, during mental work is regulated by the laws of the conditioned reflex, the processes of excitation and internal inhibition, saving human strength.
The interaction of two main nervous phenomena - excitation and inhibition - provides a person with the opportunity to be always cheerful and well oriented in the external environment. The formation and change of conditioned reflexes during mental labor is more difficult than during physical labor.
An important form of regulation of nervous processes in the cerebral cortex is nerve induction - a complex interaction of the processes of excitation and inhibition. Distinguish positive induction, in which the process of inhibition that has arisen in one point of the brain part of the analyzer immediately causes the appearance of an excitation process in another point. Negative induction, which occurs when the reflex evoked by us intensifies the state of inhibition existing in other points. Negative induction is expressed, for example, in a person's forgetfulness.
During training, the processes of irradiation - distribution, concentration of excitation and inhibition, the phenomenon of induction associated with them, occur faster and more accurately. As a result, the highest level of adaptation to working conditions is achieved.
The creation of a stable system of conditioned reflexes developed in labor is ensured by emotional interest in the work being done.
The role of emotions in the process of mental work. Emotional activity acts as a necessary condition for productive intellectual activity, if this activity is complex enough for a person that only subjectively easy tasks can be solved without emotional activity. Emotions play a very important role in cognitive activity in the interaction of motives of an intellectual nature. The readiness for action of the higher parts of the brain depends on the normal functioning of the centers of emotions.
Neurophysiological studies show that emotions are the source of creative and cognitive activity. For higher intellectual acts, there is no sharp distinction between positive and negative emotions.
In the process of intellectual and educational activity, negative and positive emotions, i.e. emotions from success or failure, pleasure or suffering, not only often replace each other, but also intertwine with each other. For example, passing an exam even as "excellent" can sometimes cause dissatisfaction for a strong student, since in a calm state he could present the material much better.
Under the influence of positive emotions, the functional capabilities of the brain increase and associative activity is stimulated. Positive emotions contribute to the emergence of an emotional dominant and the emergence of new needs and motives, accelerate the pace of intellectual processes. At the same time, the individual becomes more active, mobile, cheerful. Voice, facial expressions, posture and gestures also become expressive.
Labor creative activity, training, high intellectual development and social and ethical determinism peculiarly modify emotions and their external manifestation. In humans, emotional reactions in the past were much more related to muscle movements. The development of higher intellectual processes subjugated and accordingly changed the nature of emotions. Although the division of emotions into emotions of a higher and lower order is somewhat artificial, it facilitates the understanding of the nature of emotions and the identification of their role in the adaptive mechanisms of the body, especially in the process of work and learning. Emotions of a higher order control human behavioral acts, and also contribute to the solution of various mental and cognitive tasks of an educational nature.
A person purposefully uses all his rich emotional fund to solve certain problems, achieve a goal, creative activity, learning. Modification of emotional manifestations should not mean that the potential resources of emotions decrease. It testifies to their qualitative change - one qualitative manifestation of emotions passes into another. Emotional discharge is possible not only with various affective manifestations. With intense creative work and training, these emotional potencies are used gradually and purposefully, without any special external manifestations.
The volitional qualities of the individual also determine the refinement of emotional manifestations. Difficulties and obstacles in work and study often concentrate emotional energy on solving the task, which is not without the purposeful influence of the will. P.I. Tchaikovsky said that by inhuman exertion of will, a person will achieve more than a brilliant loafer.
Physiological changes in the body during mental work. Primary functional changes in the human body during mental labor occur primarily in the dynamics of changes in higher nervous activity.
Local activation processes develop in many areas of the brain, capturing the left and right hemispheres. The integrative interaction of the cerebral hemispheres ensures the interaction of two levels of information processing: sensory and abstract. critical role in the implementation of mental functions, the frontal lobes of the brain play.
Under the influence of mental work, the state of mental functions undergoes phase changes. At the beginning of work, attention, memorization, speed of performing intellectual test tasks and professional performance are improved. Prolonged mental stress has a depressing effect on mental activity: the functions of attention deteriorate - volume, concentration, switching, memory - short-term and long-term, perception - a large number of errors appear.
Daily energy consumption during mental work ranges from 10.5 to 12.5 MJ. The increase in energy expenditure in certain types of mental activity is different. So, when reading aloud while sitting, energy consumption increases by 48%, when delivering a public lecture - by 94%, for computer operators - by 60-100%.
The increase in total energy costs during mental work is determined by the degree of neuro-emotional tension. With neuro-emotional arousal, there is an acceleration of catecholamine metabolism, an increase in norepinephrine in sympathetic endings, blood levels of adrenaline and corticosteroids that stimulate energy processes and increase the excitability of neurons.
Any mental work is accompanied by a certain psycho-emotional stress, which leads to an increase in energy metabolism, an increase in muscle tone. intellectual activity the energy needs of the brain increase to 15-20% of the total metabolism in the body, while the weight of the brain is only 2% of the body weight. At the same time, the oxygen consumption of 100 g of the cerebral cortex turns out to be 5–6 times greater than that consumed by a skeletal muscle of the same weight at maximum load.
Despite a significant increase in the energy needs of the brain, during mental work, gas exchange does not change, or increases very slightly. With a brain mass of 1500 g, the amount of oxygen consumed by it per minute is about 50 ml. This value does not change significantly during mental work. The observed increase in gas exchange during certain types of mental activity, such as reading, is explained by an increase in muscle activity during this period.
During mental work, significant changes in blood circulation are not observed. Due to the fixed posture and lack of movement, there is insufficient mobilization of the circulatory functions. An exception is emotionally intense work: excitement, impatience affect the state of the cardiovascular system and lead to increased heart rate, EEG changes, and increased blood pressure. Thus, interpreters during simultaneous translation have an average pulse rate of 100 beats per minute, sometimes increasing to 160. doing physical labor.
When developing rational modes of work and rest, it is necessary to take into account the fact that during mental work the brain is prone to inertia to continue mental activity in a given direction. After the end of mental work, the “working dominant” does not completely fade away, causing deeper fatigue and exhaustion of the central nervous system during mental work to a greater extent than during physical work.
Report "Types of mental activity»
Critical thinking is a fulcrum for human thinking, it is a natural way of interacting with ideas and information. Critical thinking means evaluative, reflective thinking. This is open thinking, not accepting dogmas, developing by imposing new information on life's personal experience. This is the difference critical thinking from creative thinking, which does not provide for evaluation, but involves the production of new ideas, very often beyond the framework of life experience, external norms and rules. However, to draw a clear line between critical and creative thinking complicated. We can say that critical thinking is the starting point for the development of creative thinking, moreover, both critical and creative thinking develop in synthesis, interdependently.
We and our students are faced with the problem of choosing information. It is necessary not only to skillfully master the information, but also to critically evaluate, comprehend, and apply it. Encountering new information, students should be able to consider it thoughtfully, critically, consider new ideas with various points view, drawing conclusions about the accuracy and value of this information.
Types of mental activity that are called critical thinkingit is forbidden.
memorization- the most important mental operation, without which the educational process is impossible, but it is fundamentally different from critical thinking. A computer has a much better memory than almost any of us, but we understand that its ability to remember is not yet thinking.
Understanding complex ideas. In the lessons of biology and chemistry, history and geography, students sometimes have to work hard with their heads to understand what the teacher says or what is written in the textbook. Understanding is a complex mental operation, especially if the material is not easy. However, when we are working on understanding someone else's idea, our own thinking is passive in the first stage: we only perceive what someone else has created before us. And critical thinking occurs when new, already understood ideas are tested, evaluated, developed and applied. The memorization of facts and the understanding of ideas are essential preconditions for critical thinking, but they themselves, even in their totality, do not constitute critical thinking.
Creative or intuitive thinking. The brain of an athlete, artist, musician also does hard work, but they themselves - unless, of course, we are talking about beginners - do not even notice this. As a rule, such thought processes remain unconscious.
How, then, to define critical thinking?
Critical thinking is independent thinking. When the lesson is based on the principles of critical thinking, everyone formulates their ideas, assessments and beliefs independently of the others. No one can think critically for us, we do it solely for ourselves. Therefore, thinking can be critical only when it has an individual character. Students should have enough freedom to think for themselves and decide for themselves even the most difficult questions. Critical thinking does not have to be completely original: we are free to accept another person's idea or belief as our own. We are even pleased to agree with someone else's opinion - it seems to confirm our innocence. Critically thinking person it's not uncommon to share someone's point of view. Independence is thus the first and perhapsthe most important characteristic of critical thinking.
Information is the starting point, not the end point, of critical thinking. Knowledge creates motivation, without which a person cannot think critically. As it is sometimes said, "It's hard to think with an empty head." To give birth complex thought, you need to process a mountain of “raw materials” - facts, ideas, texts, theories, data, concepts. It is possible to think critically at any age: even first-graders have accumulated enough life experience and knowledge for this. Of course thinking ability children will still improve with learning, but even toddlers are able to think critically and quite independently. In their cognitive activity, students and teachers, writers and scientists subject each new fact to critical reflection. It is thanks to critical thinking that the traditional process of cognition acquires individuality and becomes meaningful, continuous and productive.
Critical thinking begins with asking questions and understanding the problems that need to be solved. Human beings are curious by nature. We notice something new and want to know what it is. We see some landmark - and we already want to get inside. “Throughout the animal world,” notes the chemist and philosopher Mikael Polany, “beginning from such simple forms as worms and, perhaps, even amoeba, we observe the eternal alert swarming, purely exploratory activity, not related to the direct satisfaction of needs: the desire of every living creatures to intellectual control over their environment” (quoted in Meyers, p. 41). Curiosity, therefore, is an inherent property of all living things. You and I are more accustomed to observing this property in toddlers than in high school students - alas, this is often the effect of school education on children's minds. However, the true cognitive process at any stage is characterized by the desire of the cognizer to solve problems and answer questions arising from his own interests and needs.
Critical thinking strives for persuasive reasoning. The critical thinker finds own solution problems and supports this decision with reasonable, well-founded arguments. He is also aware that other solutions to the same problem are possible, and he tries to prove that the solution he has chosen is more logical and rational than the others. Any argument contains three main elements. The center of the argument, its main content is the statement (also called the thesis, the main idea or position). The assertion is supported by a number of arguments. Each of the arguments, in turn, is supported by evidence. As evidence, statistical data, excerpts from the text, personal experience and, in general, everything that speaks in favor of this argument and can be recognized by other participants in the discussion can be used. Under all these elements of argumentation - assertion, arguments and evidence - lies the fourth element: the basis. The basis is a certain general premise, a starting point that is common to the speaker or writer and his audience and which provides the rationale for the entire argument.
Critical thinking is social thinking. Every thought is tested and refined when it is shared with others. When we argue, read, discuss, object, and exchange opinions with other people, we refine and deepen our own position. Therefore, teachers working in line with critical thinking always try to use all kinds of pair and group work in their classes, including debates and discussions, as well as various types of publication of students' written work.
Estimated (development of one's own position).
RCM technology techniques
1. "Keywords"
The call stage in the lesson can be implemented by many methods, including well-known ones, for example, "keywords" , according to which you can come up with a story or arrange them in a certain sequence, and then, at the stage of comprehension, look for confirmation of your assumptions, expanding the material.
2. Reception "What I know."
1) Sounding the topic;
2) Within 3 minutes, write down on the sheet the answers to the question:
What do I know about the topic of the lesson or do I think I know?;
3) Discussion with a partner or with a group of their knowledge;
3. Reception "Free letter"
1) Sounding the topic;
2) For 3 minutes, write down on a piece of paper everything that comes to mind on this topic in any form (coherent text, supporting phrases, drawings);
3) Discuss with a partner or group for 2-3 minutes, capturing ideas and highlighting assumptions that are not entirely sure;
4) All ideas are written down by the teacher on a blackboard or sheet of drawing paper;
5) Discuss all the differences that arose during the discussion.
4. Reception "Association"
1) Sounding the topic;
2) Answers to questions:
What can be discussed in the lesson?
What association do you have when you hear the phrase: "---"?;
3) The teacher writes down all associations on a blackboard or sheet of drawing paper.
5.
"Faithful and not true statements or "do you believe"
This technique can be the beginning of the lesson. Students, choosing "true statements" from those proposed by the teacher, describe a given topic (situation, environment, system of rules).
For example: on the topic "The Age of Stagnation" the following statements can be proposed:
In the era of stagnation was adopted new constitution in which the fundamental rights of citizens were proclaimed;
It was the heyday of literature and art;
The Gulag system was restored;
Censorship was tightened;
Prominent figures of science and art were expelled from the USSR, and so on.
Then ask students to determine if the statements are true by giving reasons for their answer. After getting acquainted with the basic information (the text of the paragraph, a lecture on this topic), we return to these statements and ask students to evaluate their reliability using the information received in the lesson.
For example: Lesson 7 grade “Features external structure reptiles"
Tritons and salamanders are typical representatives of the class of reptiles;
The second name of reptiles is reptiles;
The skin of reptiles is naked and moist;
Some reptiles lack limbs;
Even those reptiles that live in water, lay eggs on land;
Lizards, like snakes, swallow their prey whole;
Highlighting the semantic units of the text and graphic design in a certain order in the form of a bunch. Clusters (clusters) can become the leading technique. Making some notes, sketches for memory, we, often intuitively, distribute them in a special way, arrange them into categories. Clusters - a graphic technique in the systematization of the material. Our thoughts are no longer piled up, but "piled up", that is, arranged in a certain order. The rules are very simple. Draw the Model solar system: star, planets and their satellites. In the center, the star is our theme, around it the planets are large semantic units, we connect them with a straight line with the star, each planet has its own satellites, satellites have their own. Clusters help students when they run out of ideas during writing. The cluster system covers more information than you would get in a typical writing job.
This technique can be applied at the call stage, when we systematize information before getting to know the main source (text) in the form of questions or headings of semantic blocks.
It is suggested that you create your own logic diagram study of this topic and protect it (it is advisable to use it before the stage of reflection).
The keyword is written out;
Words and sentences on the topic are recorded;
The material is divided into separate blocks;
Logical connections between blocks are established and expressed graphically (used as a means for summing up, as a stimulus for the emergence of new associations and graphic images new knowledge)
For example: ROOT
Root structure
Types of roots (main, lateral, adventitious)
Types of root systems (rod, fibrous)
Root functions (soil nutrition, strengthening in the soil, storage of substances)
Root modifications (root crops, respiratory roots, support roots, clothespin roots)
For example, when studying the topic "The end of the Second World War. The role of Japan", we ask students to suggest in what directions we will study this country (these directions can be suggested by the teacher). Thus, students come to their own goal-setting. We arrange these block headings around the main topic, it looks like this:
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The next step will be the task of the teacher in groups to discuss and make assumptions about the development of the region in these areas. The information is being recorded. To resolve the contradictions that will inevitably arise during the recording of assumptions, and to answer all the questions that arose during the systematization, to confirm or refute our assumptions, to expand knowledge on this topic, a text is proposed.
Work continues with this technique at the stage of comprehension: in the course of working with the text, corrections and additions are made to the bunches.
This technique has great potential at the stage of reflection: it is the correction of incorrect assumptions in "preliminary clusters", filling them in on the basis of new information, establishing cause-and-effect relationships between separate semantic blocks (work can be carried out individually, in groups, on the whole topic or on individual semantic blocks). A very important point is the presentation of "new" clusters. The task of this form is not only the systematization of the material, but also the establishment of causal relationships between the clusters. For example, how semantic blocks are interconnected: features of the region and domestic politics. The task may also be the enlargement of one or several "clusters", the allocation of new ones. For example: I want to take a closer look at the material about the features of the region. At the reflection stage, work with clusters will be completed. The teacher can reinforce this phase by giving students the opportunity to continue research on the topic, to complete a creative task.
Or the "marginal notes" technique.
Reception "Marginal notes"
Students work with the text and make notes in the margins:
"+" - if they think they know it;
"-" - if they think that it contradicts the knowledge that they have;
"v" - if what is read is new;
"?" - if what you read turned out to be incomprehensible and requires clarification.
While reading the text, it is necessary to ask students to make notes in the margins, and after reading the text, fill in the table, where the icons will become the headings of the table columns. The table summarizes information from the text.
Let's formulate some rules: "How to read the text while maintaining interest in the topic?" Take notes. We offer you several marking options: 2 "+" and "V" icons, 3 "+", "V", "?" , or 4 icons "+" , "V", "-", "?" . Put icons as you read the text in the margins. After reading once, return to your original assumptions, remember what you knew or assumed about this topic before, perhaps the number of icons will increase. The next step may be to fill in the table ("Insert"), the number of columns of which corresponds to the number of marking icons.
Marking table or "Insert" table
| "V" | " + " | " - " (minus), in the margin, if what you are reading contradicts what you already knew or thought you knew; | " ? " |
This technique works at the stage of comprehension. To complete the table, you will need to return to the text again, thus providing a thoughtful, careful reading. Technological technique "Insert" and table "Insert" will make visible the process of accumulation of information, the path from the "old" knowledge to the "new". An important milestone work will be a discussion of the entries made in the table, or the marking of the text.
8. "Effective lecture"
The lecture material is divided into semantic units, the transmission of each of them is built in the technological cycle "challenge - comprehension - reflection". To organize activities, the "Logbook" technique is used.
The "call" stage for each semantic unit is carried out by methods already known to you: list known information, its systematization, answers to the teacher's questions, keywords, etc. Information received at the call stage is discussed in pairs and entered on the left side. "Logbook".
Logbook.
At the semantic stage, the work can be organized as follows: one of the members of the pair works with the list in the "assumptions" column, puts the "+" and "-" signs, depending on the correctness of the assumptions; the second writes only new information. Students work individually.
At the stage of reflection (reflection) there is a preliminary summing up: a comparison of two parts " logbook", summarizing information, recording it and preparing for discussion in the class. The organization of records can be individual, i.e. each member of the pair keeps records in both parts of the table independently, the results of the work are discussed in pairs.
Then follows a new cycle of work with the next part of the text. Very important is the final reflection or final summing up, which can be an exit to a new task: research, essay, etc.
9. "Diaries and logbooks"
Ways to visualize the material can become a leading technique at the semantic stage, for example, diaries and "flight logs" (Goodlat).
Logbooks - generic name various tricks teaching writing, according to which students write down their thoughts while studying a topic. When the log book is used in its simplest form, before reading or any other form of study, students write down responses to next questions:
Having met key points in the text, students enter them in their logbook. When reading, during pauses and stops, students fill in the columns of the logbook, linking the topic being studied with their vision of the world, with their personal experience. Conducting similar work, the teacher, together with the students, tries to demonstrate all the processes visibly, so that later the students can use it.
10. An interesting approach is "Two Part Diary".
This technique allows the reader to link the content of the text with his personal experience. Double diaries can be used when reading a text in a lesson, but it is especially productive to work with this technique when students are given the task of reading a large text at home.
The concept of "intellect" (from Latin Intellectus - understanding, understanding, comprehension) does not have unambiguous definition, but it is generally recognized that the level of ability inherent in each person to use mental operations is one of the fundamental characteristics of intelligence. The creators of the first intelligence tests A. Bige, T. Simon and D. Wexler believed that a person with intelligence is one who “correctly judges, understands and reflects” and who, thanks to these abilities, can cope well with life circumstances, i.e. adapt to the environment, to the circumstances of life.
Another point of view is not intelligence due to the fact that here the main importance is attached to the connection of intelligence with the psychophysiological abilities of a person to process incoming information faster or slower (speed of perception, memorization and reproduction, etc.), otherwise - with speed parameters of response to external stimuli. And in later studies, the main indicator of intelligence in this approach is the time spent by a person on solving the proposed tasks.
Quite a few definitions of intelligence have been proposed in the past, based on the presence and severity of abilities for intellectual activity. However, it should be remembered that the concept of abilities defines a wider range of mental phenomena than the concept of intelligence.
Intelligence is often defined as the generalized ability to learn. The adequacy of this approach has been substantiated by many researchers. For example, it is shown that the scores for intelligence tests correlate well with school performance and other educational institutions. However, it is well known that many gifted people did not perform well at school (Einstein, Darwin, Churchill).
According to the psychologist Gilford, creative people are characterized by divergent thinking, in which the search for a solution to a problem is carried out in all possible directions. This "fan-shaped" search allows a creative person to find a very unusual solution to a problem or to suggest many solutions where a common person can only find one or two. People with creative minds sometimes find it difficult to adapt to traditional learning, which requires direct and clear answers from the student to the question posed, concentrates on the search for the only right decision which is characteristic of convergent thinking.
Psychologist Spearman (1904) formulated the following postulates: intelligence does not depend on others personality traits person; intelligence does not include non-intellectual qualities (interests, achievement motivation, anxiety, etc.) in its structure. Intelligence acts as a general factor of mental energy. Spearman showed that the success of any intellectual activity depends on some common factor, general ability, thus, it singled out the general factor of intelligence (factor G) and the factor S, which serves as an indicator of specific abilities. According to Spearman, each person is characterized by a certain level general intelligence, on which depends how this person adapts to the environment. In addition, all people have varying degrees developed specific abilities, manifested in the decision specific tasks. Subsequently, Eysenck interpreted the general factor as the speed of information processing by the central nervous system (mental pace).
Later, Thurstone (1938), using statistical factorial methods, investigated various parties general intellect, which he called the primary mental potencies. He identified seven such potencies:
counting ability, i.e. the ability to operate with numbers and perform arithmetic operations;
verbal (verbal) flexibility, i.e. the ease with which a person can communicate using the most appropriate words;
spatial orientation, or the ability to identify various objects and forms in space;
reasoning ability;
the speed of perception of similarities or differences between objects and images.
Factors of intelligence, or primary mental potencies, as shown further research, correlate, are connected with each other, which indicates the existence of a single general factor.
Later, Guilford (1959) singled out 120 factors of intelligence, based on what mental operations they are needed for, what results these operations lead to and what their content is (content can be figurative, symbolic, semantic, behavioral). Under the operation, Guilford understands the ability of a person, or rather, mental process- concept, memory, divergent productivity, convergent productivity, evaluation. Results - the form in which information is processed by the subject: element, classes, relationships, systems, types of transformations and conclusions. Currently, appropriate tests have been selected for the diagnosis of more than 100 factors indicated by Gilford.
According to Catell (1967), each of us has a potential intelligence from birth, which underlies our ability to think, abstract and reason. By about age 20, this intelligence reaches greatest flourishing. On the other hand, a "crystal" intellect is formed, consisting of various skills and knowledge that we acquire as we accumulate life experience, a "crystal" intellect is formed precisely when solving problems of adaptation to the environment and requires the development of some abilities at the expense of others, as well as acquiring specific skills. Thus, the "crystal" intellect is determined by the measure of mastering the culture of the society to which the person belongs. The factor of potential or free intelligence correlates with the factor of "crystalline or connected intelligence", since potential intelligence determines the primary accumulation of knowledge. From Cattell's point of view, potential or free intelligence is independent of cultural involvement. Its level is determined by the level of development of the tertiary zones of the cerebral cortex. Partial, or private, factors of intelligence (for example, visualization - manipulation of visual images) are determined by the level of development of individual sensory and motor areas of the brain.
Hebb (1974) considers intelligence from a slightly different perspective. It highlights intelligence A - this is the potential that is created at the moment of conception and serves as the basis for development intellectual abilities personality. As for intelligence B, it is formed as a result of the interaction of this potential intelligence with environment. This "resulting" intellect can only be assessed by observing how a person performs mental operations. Therefore, we will never be able to know what intelligence A was.
Genetic and environmental factors in the development of intelligence,
So far, very little is known about the genetic preconditions for intelligence. Of the hundreds of thousands of genes located on chromosomes, only a few have been identified, which, being responsible for a number of physical signs of the body, can cause gross violations when damaged.
intellect. The most well-known chromosomal abnormalities in Down's disease, where a typical "Mongoloid" appearance the patient is accompanied by mental retardation. However, only 3-4% of Down syndrome cases are inherited. In other cases, the main factor of the disease is the elderly age of the parents.
It is also known that anomalies in the content of the number of sex chromosomes in the nucleus of a fertilized egg do not so much lead to a change in secondary sexual characteristics, but are accompanied by mental retardation and behavioral disorders. A greater number of boys among the mentally retarded became clear when it was found that very often this trait is linked to the X chromosome.
The mental development of the child can be affected by the mother’s illness during pregnancy (rubella, diabetes, syphilis), as well as her use of a number of medicinal and toxic substances. However, with whatever hereditary inclinations a child is born, his further development largely due to environmental factors - nutrition, upbringing and others.
A lot of discussion is also caused by the discovery of lower average scores on intelligence tests among people from less well-off strata of society and some ethnic groups. The results of these studies are interesting in themselves, but they did not answer the main question - about the causes of group differences.
Probably, it is impossible to consider intelligence as a certain unambiguous phenomenon, explained by one cause or one mechanism. It is necessary to recognize the existence of a complex structure of intelligence, including general and specific factors. At the core common factors Rather, there are certain neurophysiological mechanisms of information processing, and private (specific) factors are the main types of actions, information processing operations learned during learning and accumulation of life experience. It is also obvious that the inheritance is not
general intelligence or specific actions and operations, but certain neurophysiological characteristics brain areas, which are included in functional systems related to intelligence factors. These neurophysiological features can be considered as the makings of abilities.
