Tatiana Prokofieva

A talented student and colleague of Z. Freud, Carl Gustav Jung (1875 - 1961), a Swiss scientist, psychiatrist and psychotherapist, had a large psychiatric practice, which he led for about sixty years. In the course of his work, he systematized his observations and came to the conclusion that there are stable psychological differences between people. These are differences in the perception of reality. Jung noted that the structure of the psyche, described by Z. Freud, does not manifest itself in people in the same way, its features are associated with the psychological type. Studying these features, Jung described eight psychological types. The developed typology, which was used and refined for decades in the practice of Jung himself and his students, was embodied in the book " Psychological types, published in 1921.

From the point of view of the typology of C. G. Jung, each person has not only personality traits, but also traits characteristic of one of the psychological types. This type shows relatively strong and relatively weak points in the functioning of the psyche and the style of activity that is preferable for a particular person. “Two faces see the same object, but they do not see it in such a way that both pictures obtained from this picture are absolutely identical. In addition to the different acuteness of the sense organs and personal equation, there are often profound differences in the nature and extent of the mental assimilation of the perceived image, ”wrote Jung.

Each person can be described in terms of one of Jung's psychological types. At the same time, typology does not cancel the whole variety human characters, does not establish insurmountable barriers, does not prevent people from developing, does not impose restrictions on the freedom of choice of a person. The psychological type is the structure, the framework of the personality. Many different people of the same type, having great similarities in appearance, manners, speech and behavior, will not be similar to each other in absolutely everything. Each person has his own intellectual and cultural level, his own ideas about good and evil, his own life experience, his own thoughts, feelings, habits, taste.

Knowing your personality type at the same time helps people find exactly their means to achieve goals, be successful in life, choosing the most appropriate activities and achieving them. best results. According to the compiler of the anthology, "Jungian typology helps us understand how in various ways people perceive the world, how different criteria they use in actions and judgments.

To describe observations, C. G. Jung introduced new concepts that formed the basis of typology and made it possible to apply analytical methods to the study of the psyche. Jung argued that each person is initially focused on perception or outside parties life (attention is mainly directed to objects outside world), or internal (attention is mainly directed to the subject). He called such ways of understanding the world, oneself and one's connection with the world installations human psyche. Jung defined them as extraversion and introversion:

« extraversion have, up to to some extent, the transposition of interest outside, from the subject to the object.

Introversion Jung called the inward turning of interest when "the motivating force belongs first of all to the subject, while the object has the most secondary significance" .

There are no pure extroverts or pure introverts in the world, but each of us is more inclined towards one of these attitudes and operates predominantly within its framework. "Every person has common mechanisms, extraversion and introversion, and only the relative predominance of one or the other determines the type.

Further, C. G. Jung introduced the concept psychological functions. The experience of working with patients gave him reason to assert that some people are better at operating with logical information (reasoning, inference, evidence), while others are better with emotional information (people's relationships, their feelings). Some have more developed intuition(premonition, perception in general, instinctive grasping of information), others are more developed senses(perception of external and internal stimuli). Jung identified four basic functions on this basis: thinking, feeling, intuition, feeling and defined them like this:

Thinking there is that psychological function which brings the data of the content of representations into a conceptual connection. Thinking is occupied with truth and based on impersonal, logical, objective criteria.

Feeling is a function that gives the content a certain value in terms of accepting or rejecting it. Feeling based on value judgments: good - bad, beautiful - ugly.

Intuition there is that psychological function which conveys to the subject perception in an unconscious way. Intuition is a kind of instinctive apprehension, the certainty of intuition resting on certain psychic data, the realization and existence of which, however, remained unconscious.

Feeling - that psychological function that perceives physical irritation. Sensation is based on the direct experience of perceiving concrete facts.

The presence of all four psychological functions in each person gives him a holistic and balanced perception of the world. However, these functions are not developed to the same extent. Usually one function dominates, giving a person real means to achieve social success. Other functions inevitably lag behind it, which is by no means a pathology, and their "backwardness" is manifested only in comparison with the dominant one. “As experience shows, the basic psychological functions rarely or almost never have equal force or the same degree of development in the same individual. Usually this or that function outweighs both in strength and in development.

If, for example, in a person, thinking is on the same level as feeling, then, as Jung wrote, we are talking about “relatively undeveloped thinking and feeling. Uniform consciousness and unconsciousness of functions is a sign of a primitive state of mind.

According to the dominant function, which leaves its mark on the whole character of the individual, Jung defined types: thinking, feeling, intuitive, sensing. The dominant function suppresses the manifestations of other functions, but not to the same extent. Jung argued that “the feeling type suppresses thinking the most, because thinking is most likely to interfere with feeling. And thinking mainly excludes feeling, for there is nothing that would be so capable of hindering and distorting it as precisely the values ​​of feeling. Here we see that Jung defined feeling and thinking as alternative functions. Similarly, he defined another pair of alternative functions: intuition-sensation.

Jung divided all psychological functions into two class: rational(thinking and feeling) and irrational(intuition and feeling).

« Rational there is a reasonable, correlated with the mind, corresponding to it.

Jung defined mind as an orientation towards the norms and objective values ​​accumulated in society.

Irrational according to Jung, it is not something anti-rational, but lying outside the mind, not based on the mind.

“Thinking and feeling are rational functions, since the moment of reflection, reflection has a decisive influence on them. The irrational functions are those whose goal is pure perception, such are intuition and sensation, because they must, in order to fully perceive, as much as possible to renounce everything rational. … In accordance with their nature [intuition and sensation] must be directed towards absolute contingency and towards every possibility, therefore they must be completely devoid of rational direction. As a result, I designate them as irrational functions, as opposed to thinking and feeling, which are functions that reach their perfection in full accordance with the laws of reason.

Both rational and irrational approaches can play a role in dealing with different situations. Jung wrote: "too much expectation, or even the certainty that for every conflict there must be the possibility of a reasonable resolution, can prevent its actual resolution on an irrational path."

Using the introduced concepts, Jung built a typology. To do this, he considered each of the four psychological functions in two settings: both in extraverted and introverted, and defined accordingly 8 psychological types. He stated: "both the extraverted and the introverted type can be either thinking, or feeling, or intuitive, or feeling." Jung gave detailed descriptions of types in his book Psychological Types. For a better understanding of Jung's typology, let's summarize all 8 types in a table (Table 1).

Table 1. Psychological types of C. G. Jung

It should not be forgotten that a living person, although belonging to one of the personality types, will not always show typological features. We are talking only about preferences: it is more convenient for him, it is easier to act in accordance with his psychological type. Each person is more successful in activities characteristic of his type of personality, but if he wishes, he has every right to develop in himself and apply in life and work his weak qualities. At the same time, it is necessary to know that this path is less successful and often leads to neuroticism. Jung wrote that when trying to change the type of personality, a person "becomes neurotic, and his cure is possible only through the identification of an attitude naturally corresponding to the individual."

Literature:

1. K.G. Jung. Psychological types. - St. Petersburg: "Juventa" - M.: "Progress - Univers", 1995.

2. Theories of personality in Western European and American psychology. Anthology on the psychology of personality. Ed. D.Ya. Raygorodsky. - Samara: "Bahrakh", 1996.

Freud's works, despite their debatable nature, aroused the desire of a group of leading scientists time to work with him in Vienna. Some of these scientists moved away from psychoanalysis over time to seek new approaches to understanding the human being. Carl Gustav Jung was the most prominent among the defectors from Freud's camp.

Like Freud, K. Jung devoted himself to the teaching of dynamic unconscious drives on human behavior and experience. However, unlike the first, Jung argued that the content of the unconscious is something more than repressed sexual and aggressive urges. According to Jung's theory of personality, known as analytical psychology , individuals are motivated by intrapsychic forces by images whose origin goes back into the history of evolution. This innate unconscious contains deeply rooted spiritual material that explains the inherent desire for creative self-expression and physical perfection inherent in all mankind.

Another source of disagreement between Freud and Jung is the attitude towards sexuality as the dominant force in the structure of personality. Freud treated the libido mainly as sexual energy, while Jung saw it as a diffuse creative life force that manifests itself in a variety of ways - as, for example, in religion or the desire for power. That is, in Jung's understanding, the energy of the libido is concentrated in various needs - biological or spiritual - as they arise.

Jung claimed that soul(in Jung's theory, a term analogous to personality) consists of three separate but interacting structures: the ego, the personal unconscious, and the collective unconscious.

Ego

Ego is the center of the sphere of consciousness. It is a component of the psyche, which includes all those thoughts, feelings, memories and sensations, thanks to which we feel our integrity, constancy and perceive ourselves as people. This is the basis of our self-consciousness, and thanks to it we are able to see the results of our ordinary conscious activities.

Personal unconscious

Personal unconscious contains conflicts and memories that were once conscious but are now repressed or forgotten. It also includes those sensory impressions that lack brightness in order to be noted in consciousness. Thus, Jung's concept of the personal unconscious is somewhat similar to Freud's. However, Jung went further than Freud, emphasizing that the personal unconscious contains complexes, or accumulation of emotionally charged thoughts, feelings and memories carried by an individual from his past personal experience or from ancestral, hereditary experience. According to Jung, these complexes, arranged around the most common topics, can have a fairly strong influence on the behavior of the individual. For example, a person with a power complex can expend a significant amount of psychic energy on activities that are directly or symbolically related to the theme of power. The same may be true of a person who is under the strong influence of his mother, father, or under the power of money, sex, or some other kind of complexes. Once formed, the complex begins to influence the behavior of a person and his attitude. Jung argued that the material of the personal unconscious in each of us is unique and, as a rule, accessible to awareness. As a result, the components of the complex, or even the entire complex, can become conscious and have an excessively strong influence on the life of the individual.

collective unconscious

And, finally, Jung suggested the existence of a deeper layer in the structure of personality, which he called collective unconscious. The collective unconscious is a repository of latent memory traces of humanity and even our own. anthropoid ancestors. It reflects the thoughts and feelings that are common to all human beings and are the result of our common emotional past. As Jung himself said, “the collective unconscious contains the entire spiritual heritage of human evolution, reborn in the structure of the brain of each individual.” Thus, the content of the collective unconscious is formed due to heredity and is the same for all mankind. It is important to note that the concept of the collective unconscious was the main reason for the divergence between Jung and Freud.

archetypes

Jung hypothesized that the collective unconscious consists of powerful primary mental images, the so-called archetypes(literally, “ primary models”). Archetypes are innate ideas or memories that predispose people to perceive, experience, and respond to events in a particular way. In reality, these are not memories or images as such, but rather predisposing factors, under the influence of which people implement in their behavior universal models of perception, thinking and action in response to some object or event. What is innate here is precisely the tendency to respond emotionally, cognitively and behaviorally to specific situations- for example, in an unexpected encounter with parents, a loved one, a stranger, a snake or death.

Among the many archetypes described by Jung are the mother, the child, the hero, the sage, the sun deity, the rogue, God, and death.

Examples of archetypes described by Jung

	Definition
	The unconscious feminine side of a man's personality	Woman, Virgin Mary, Mona Lisa
	The unconscious masculine side of a woman's personality	Man, Jesus Christ, Don Juan
	The social role of the individual stemming from societal expectations and early learning
	The unconscious opposite of what the individual insists on consciously	Satan, Hitler, Hussein
	The embodiment of integrity and harmony, the regulating center of personality
	Personification life wisdom and maturity
	The ultimate realization of psychic reality projected onto the outside world	solar eye

Jung believed that each archetype is associated with a tendency to express certain type feelings and thoughts about the relevant object or situation. For example, in a child's perception of his mother, there are aspects of her actual characteristics, colored by unconscious ideas about such archetypal maternal attributes as upbringing, fertility, and dependence.

Further, Jung suggested that archetypal images and ideas are often reflected in dreams, and also often found in culture in the form of symbols used in painting, literature, religion. In particular, he emphasized that the symbols characteristic of different cultures, often reveal a striking similarity, because they go back to archetypes common to all mankind. For example, in many cultures he met images mandalas, which are symbolic embodiments of the unity and integrity of the “I”. Jung believed that understanding the archetypal symbols helped him in the analysis of a patient's dreams.

The number of archetypes in the collective unconscious can be unlimited. However, special attention in Jung's theoretical system is given to the person, anime and animus, shadow and self.

A person

A person(from the Latin word “persona”, meaning “mask”) is our public face, that is, how we manifest ourselves in relationships with other people. The persona refers to the many roles that we play in accordance with social requirements. In Jung's understanding, a persona serves the purpose of impressing others, or hiding one's true identity from others. The persona as an archetype is necessary for us to get along with other people in Everyday life. However, Jung warned that if this archetype becomes of great importance, then the person can become shallow, superficial, reduced to a single role, and alienated from true emotional experience.

Shadow

In contrast to the role played in our adaptation to the world around us, the persona, the archetype shadow represents the repressed dark, evil and animal side of the personality. The shadow contains our socially unacceptable sexual and aggressive impulses, immoral thoughts and passions. But the shadow has positive sides. Jung viewed the shadow as a source of vitality, spontaneity and creativity in the life of the individual. According to Jung, the function of this is to channel the energy of the shadow in the right direction, to curb the evil side of our nature to such an extent that we can live in harmony with others, but at the same time openly express our impulses and enjoy a healthy and creative life.

Anima and Animus

The anima and animus archetypes express Jung's recognition of the innate androgynous nature of humans. Anima represents internal image women in a man, his unconscious feminine side; while animus- the inner image of a man in a woman, her unconscious male side. These archetypes are based on at least partly, on the biological fact that in the body of a man and a woman, both male and female hormones are produced. This archetype, according to Jung, evolved over many centuries in the collective unconscious as a result of experience of interaction with the opposite sex. Many men have been "feminized" to some extent as a result of years of living together with women, but for women the opposite is true. Jung insisted that the anima and animus, like all other archetypes, must be expressed harmoniously without disturbing overall balance so that the development of the individual in the direction of self-realization is not inhibited. In other words, a man must express his feminine qualities along with his masculine ones, and a woman must show her masculine qualities as well as her feminine ones. If these necessary attributes remain undeveloped, the result will be one-sided growth and functioning of the personality.

Self

Self is the most important archetype in Jung's theory. The self is the core of the personality around which all other elements are organized.

When the integration of all aspects of the soul is achieved, a person feels unity, harmony and integrity. Thus, in Jung's understanding, the development of the self is the main objective human life. The main symbol of the archetype of the self is the mandala and its many varieties (abstract circle, saint's halo, rose window). According to Jung, the integrity and unity of the "I", symbolically expressed in the completeness of figures, such as a mandala, can be found in dreams, fantasies, myths, in religious and mystical experience. Jung believed that religion is great power contributing to the human desire for integrity and completeness. At the same time, the harmonization of all parts of the soul is a complex process. The true balance of personality structures, as he believed, is impossible to achieve, at least, this can be achieved no earlier than middle age. Moreover, the archetype of the Self is not realized until there is an integration and harmony of all aspects of the soul, conscious and unconscious. Therefore, the achievement of a mature "I" requires constancy, perseverance, intelligence and a lot of life experience.

Introverts and extroverts

Jung's most famous contribution to psychology is considered to be the two main directions he described, or life attitudes: extraversion and introversion.

According to Jung's theory, both orientations coexist in a person at the same time, but one of them becomes dominant. In an extraverted attitude, the direction of interest in the outside world is manifested - other people and objects. An extrovert is mobile, talkative, quickly establishes relationships and attachments, external factors are his driving force. An introvert, on the contrary, is immersed in the inner world of his thoughts, feelings and experiences. He is contemplative, reserved, seeks solitude, tends to move away from objects, his interest is focused on himself. According to Jung, the extraverted and introverted attitudes do not exist in isolation. Usually they are both present and are in opposition to each other: if one appears as a leader, the other acts as an auxiliary. The combination of leading and auxiliary ego-orientation results in individuals whose behavior patterns are defined and predictable.

Shortly after Jung formulated the concept of extraversion and introversion, he came to the conclusion that these opposite orientations cannot fully explain all the differences in people's attitudes to the world. Therefore, he expanded his typology to include psychological functions. Four main functions highlighted by them are thinking, feeling, feeling and intuition.

Thinking and Feeling

Thinking and feeling Jung referred to the category of rational functions, since they allow the formation of judgments about life experience. The thinking type judges the value of certain things using logic and arguments. The opposite function of thinking - feeling - informs us about reality in the language of positive or negative emotions. The feeling type focuses on emotional side life experience and judges the value of things in terms of “good or bad”, “pleasant or unpleasant”, “encourages or calls out boredom”. According to Jung, when thinking acts as a leading function, a person is focused on building rational judgments, the purpose of which is to determine whether the evaluated experience is true or false. And when the leading function is feeling, the personality is oriented towards making judgments about whether the experience is primarily pleasant or unpleasant.

Feeling and intuition

The second pair of opposite functions - sensation and intuition - Jung called irrational, because they simply passively "grasp", register events in the external or internal world, without evaluating them otherwise explaining their meaning. Sensation is a direct, nonjudgmental realistic perception of the world. The sensing type is particularly perceptive to taste, smell, and other sensations from environmental stimuli. On the contrary, intuition is characterized by subliminal and unconscious perception of current experience. The intuitive type relies on hunches and hunches to get to the point. life events. Jung argued that when the leading function is sensation, a person comprehends reality in the language of phenomena, as if he were photographing it. On the other hand, when intuition is the leading function, a person reacts to unconscious images, symbols, and the hidden meaning of what is being experienced.

Each person is endowed with all four psychological functions. However, as soon as one personal orientation is usually dominant, just like that, only one function from a rational or irrational pair usually dominates and is realized. Other functions are immersed in the unconscious and play an auxiliary role in the regulation of human behavior. Any function can be leading. Accordingly, one observes thinking, feeling, sensing and intuitive type s individuals. According to Jung's theory, an integrated personality uses all opposite functions to co-ownership with life situations.

The two ego orientations and the four psychological functions interact to form the eight various types personality. For example, the extraverted thinking type focuses on objective having practical value facts about the world. He usually gives the impression of a cold and dogmatic person who lives according to established rules.

It is quite possible that prototype of the extraverted thinking type was Z. Freud. The introverted intuitive type, on the other hand, focuses on the reality of their own inner world. This type is usually eccentric, keeps aloof from others. AT this case Jung probably had himself in mind as a prototype.

Unlike Freud, who paid special attention early years life as a decisive stage in the formation of personality behavior patterns, Jung considered personality development as a dynamic process, as evolution throughout life. He said almost nothing about socialization in childhood and did not share Freud's views that only past events (especially psychosexual conflicts) are decisive for human behavior.

From Jung's point of view, a person constantly acquires new skills, achieves new goals, realizes himself more and more fully. He attached great importance to such a life goal of the individual as “acquisition of selfhood”, which is the result of the desire of all components of the personality for unity. This theme of striving for integration, harmony and integrity was later repeated in the existential and humanistic theories personality.

According to Jung, ultimate life goal - this is the complete realization of the "I", that is, the formation of a single, unique and holistic individual. The development of each person in this direction is unique, it continues throughout life and includes a process called individuation. Simply put, individuation is a dynamic and evolving process of integrating many opposing intrapersonal forces and tendencies. In his final expression individuation involves the conscious realization by a person of his unique psychic reality, the full development and expression of all elements of personality. The archetype of the self becomes the center of the personality and balances the many opposite qualities that make up the personality as a single main whole. Due to this, the energy necessary for the ongoing personal growth. The result of the realization of individuation, which is very difficult to achieve, Jung called self-realization. He believed that this final stage of personality development is available only to capable and highly educated people who have sufficient leisure for this. Because of these limitations, self-realization is not available to the vast majority of people.

We invite the reader to familiarize themselves with the main provisions of the work of the Swiss psychologist Carl Gustav Jung "Psychological Types" and the possibilities of its use in modern practical psychology. In the first part of the article, brief analysis chapters of this book by C. G. Jung. The second part presents some of the applications of the theory of psychological types in our day, illustrated by examples.

The quintessence of C. G. Jung's theory of psychological types

In the course of its medical practice Carl Jung drew attention to the fact that patients differed not only in many individual psychological characteristics, but also typical features. As a result of the study, scientists identified two main types: extraverted and introverted. This division is due to the fact that in the process of life of some people their attention, their interest were directed to an external object, outside, for others - to their own. inner life, that is, the subject was the priority.

However, Jung warned that in its pure form one or the second type is almost impossible to meet, since for social adaptation this can be a big hindrance. This is where the idea of ​​the existence mixed types arising as a result of compensation for the one-sidedness of one type of personality, but with a predominance of extraversion or introversion in it. As a result of this compensation, secondary characters and types appear that complicate the definition of a person as extraverted or introverted. Even more confusing is the individual psychological reaction. Therefore, in order to more accurately determine the prevailing extraversion or introversion, extreme care and consistency must be observed.

Jung emphasizes that the division of people into two main psychological types was made long ago by "experts in human nature and reflected by deep thinkers, in particular Goethe" and has become a generally accepted fact. But different prominent personalities described this division in different ways, based on own feeling. Regardless of the individual interpretation, one thing remained common: those whose attention was directed and was dependent on the object, turning away from the subject, that is, themselves, and those whose attention was torn away from the object and directed towards the subject, his mental processes, that is, addressed to his inner world.

C. G. Jung notes that any person is characterized by both of these mechanisms, with a greater severity of one or the second. Their integration is the natural rhythm of life, similar to the function of breathing. And yet the difficult circumstances in which most people find themselves, and the external social environment, and internal discord rarely allow these two types to coexist harmoniously within one or another person. Therefore, there is an advantage either in one direction or in the other. And when one or the other mechanism begins to dominate, the formation of an extraverted or introverted type occurs.

After a general introduction, Jung conducts a study in the field of the history of the identification of mental types, from ancient times to his own. detailed description extraverted and introverted types. In the first chapter, Jung analyzes the problem of mental types in ancient and medieval thought. In the first section of this chapter, he draws a comparison between ancient Gnostics and opposite point of view - by the early Christians Tertullian and Origen, in order to show by their example that one was an introverted personality type, and the second an extraverted personality type. Jung notes that the Gnostics proposed a division of people into three types of character, where in the first case thinking (pneumatic) predominated, in the second - feeling (psychic), in the third - sensation (gilik).

Revealing Tertullian's personality type, Jung points out that in his commitment to Christianity he sacrificed what was his most valuable asset - his highly developed intellect, his desire for knowledge; to fully concentrate on the internal religious feeling, on his soul, he cast aside his mind. Origen, on the contrary, introducing Gnosticism into Christianity in a mild form, strove for external knowledge, for science, and in order to free the intellect on this path, he performed self-castration, thereby removing the obstacle in the form of sensuality. Jung sums up by arguing that Tertullian was a clear example of an introvert, and a conscious one, because in order to focus on the spiritual life, he abandoned his brilliant mind. Origen, in order to devote himself to science and the development of his intellect, sacrificed what was most expressed in him - his sensuality, that is, he was an extrovert, his attention was directed outward, to knowledge.

In the second section of the first chapter, Jung examines the theological disputes in the early Christian church in order to show by the example of the opposition of the Ebionites, who claimed that the Son of Man had a human nature, and the docets, who defended the point of view that the Son of God only had the appearance of flesh, belonging to one of the extroverts, the second - to introverts, in the context of their worldview. The intensity of these disputes led to the fact that the former began to put human sensory perception, directed outward, at the forefront, the latter main value began to consider abstract, extraterrestrial.

In the third section of the first chapter, Jung considers psychotypes in the light of the problem of transubstantiation, relevant to the middle of the 9th century AD. Again he takes two opposing sides for analysis: one - in the person of Paskhazy Radbert, the abbot of the monastery, who claimed that during the rite of the sacrament, wine and bread turn into the flesh and blood of the Son of Man, the second - in the person of the great thinker - Scott Erigena, who did not want to accept the general opinion, defending his point vision, "fabrications" of his cold mind. Without belittling the significance of this sacred Christian ritual, he argued that the sacrament is a memory of the last supper. Rudbert's statement received universal recognition and brought him popularity, since he, without having a deep mind, was able to feel the trends of his environment and give a coarse sensual coloring to the great Christian symbol, so Jung points us to clearly pronounced features extraversion in his behavior. Scott Erigen, having an extraordinary mind, which he was able to show, defending a point of view based only on personal conviction, on the contrary, met a storm of indignation; unable to feel into the trends of his environment, he was killed by the monks of the monastery in which he lived. C. G. Jung refers to him as an introversive type.

In the fourth section of the first chapter, Jung, continuing his study of the extraverted and introverted types, compares two opposite camps: nominalism (bright representatives - Atisthenes and Diogenes) and realism (leader - Plato). The beliefs of the former were based on the attribution of universals (generic concepts), such as goodness, man, beauty, etc. to ordinary words, behind which there is nothing, that is, they were nominalized. And the latter, on the contrary, gave each word spirituality, a separate existence, asserting the abstractness, the reality of the idea.

In the fifth section of the first chapter, developing his thought, Jung examines the religious dispute between Luther and Zwingi about the sacrament, noting the opposite of their judgments: for Luther, the sensual perception of the rite was important, for Zwingli, spirituality, the symbolism of the sacrament, had priority.

In the second chapter of "Schiller's Ideas on the Problem of Types", C. G. Jung relies on the work of F. Schiller, whom he considers one of the first who resorts to the analysis of these two types, linking them with the concepts of "sensation" and "thinking". Noting, however, that this analysis bears the imprint of Schiller's own introverted type. Jung contrasts Schiller's introversion with Goethe's extraversion. In parallel, Jung reflects on the possibility of an introverted and extraverted interpretation of the meaning of the universal "culture". The scientist analyzes Schiller's article "On the Aesthetic Education of Man", arguing with the author, discovering the origins of his intellectual constructions in his feeling, describing the struggle between the poet and the thinker in it. Jung is attracted by Schiller's work primarily as a philosophical and psychological reflection that raises questions and problems of a psychological nature, albeit in Schiller's terminology. Great importance to understand Jung's theory have his reasoning about the symbol in Schiller as a middle state, a compromise between the opposing conscious and unconscious motives.

Next, Jung considers Schiller's division of poets into naive and sentimental and comes to the conclusion that we have a classification based on creative features poets and the features of their works, which cannot be projected onto the doctrine of personality types. Jung dwells on naive and sentimental poetry as examples of the action of typical mechanisms, the specifics of the relationship to the object. Since Schiller proceeds directly from typical mechanisms to mental types similar to those of Jung, the scientist states that Schiller distinguishes two types that have all the features of extraverted and introverted.

Continuing his research, in the third chapter, C. G. Jung examines the work German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche in the light of the latter's vision of the division into psychotypes. And if Schiller called his pair of typical opposites idealistic-realistic, then Nietzsche calls it Apollonian-Dionysian. The term - Dionysian - owes its origin to Dionysus - a character of ancient Greek mythology, half a god, half a goat. Nietzsche's description of this Dionysian type coincides with the characterological feature of this character.

Thus, the name "Dionysian" symbolizes the freedom of unlimited animal desire, the collective comes to the fore here, the individual - to the background, the creative power of the libido, expressed in the form of attraction, captures the individual as an object and uses it as a tool or expression. The term "Apollonian" comes from the name of the ancient Greek god of light Apollo and conveys, in the interpretation of Nietzsche, a sense of the inner silhouettes of beauty, measure and feelings that obey the laws of proportions. Identification with a dream clearly focuses on the property of the Apollonian state: it is a state of introspection, a state of observation directed inward, a state of introversion.

Nietzsche's consideration of types is on the aesthetic plane, and Jung calls this "partial consideration" of the problem. However, according to Jung, Nietzsche, like no one before him, came closer to understanding the unconscious mechanisms of the psyche, the motives underlying the opposing principles.

Further - in the fourth chapter "The Problem of Types in Human Studies" - Jung studies the work of Furneau Jordan "Character from the point of view of the body and human genealogy", in which the author examines in detail the psychotypes of introverts and extroverts, using his own terminology. Jung criticizes Jordan's position on the use of activity as the main criterion for distinguishing types.

The fifth chapter is devoted to the problem of types in poetry. Based on the images of Prometheus and Epimetheus in the poetry of Karl Spitteler, the scientist notes that the conflict between these two characters expresses, first of all, the confrontation between introverted and extraverted variants of development in the same person; however, the poetic creation embodies these two directions in two separate figures and their typical destinies. Jung compares the images of Prometheus in Goethe and Spitteler. Reflecting in this chapter on the meaning of the unifying symbol, Jung notes that poets are able to "read in the collective unconscious." In addition to the contemporary cultural interpretation of the symbol and spirit of opposites, Jung dwells on both the ancient Chinese and the Brahminist understanding of opposites and the unifying symbol.

Further, Jung considers psychotypes from the position of psychopathology (chapter six). For research, he chooses the work of psychiatrist Otto Gross "Secondary cerebral function". K. G. Jung notes that in the presence of mental abnormalities, it is much easier to identify the psychotype, because they are a magnifying glass in this process.

Then the scientist turns to aesthetics (seventh chapter). Here he relies on the works of Worringer, who introduces the terms "empathy" and "abstraction", which, as well as possible, characterize the extraverted and introverted type. Empathy feels the object to a certain extent empty and for this reason can fill it with its life. On the contrary, abstraction sees the object as alive and functioning to a certain extent, and because of this tries to avoid its impact.

In the eighth chapter of his work, Jung proceeds to consider psychotypes from the point of view modern philosophy. For research, he chooses the position of the representative of pragmatic philosophy, William James. He divides all philosophers into two types: rationalists and empiricists. In his opinion, a rationalist is a sensitive person, an empiricist is a rigid personality. If free will is important to the first, then the second is subject to fatalism. Asserting something, the rationalist imperceptibly plunges into dogmatism, while the empiricist, on the contrary, adheres to skeptical views.

In the ninth chapter, Jung turns to such a science as biography, in particular the work of the German scientist Wilhelm Ostwald. Compiling biographies of scientists, Ostwald discovers the opposite of types, and gives them a name. classical type and romantic type. First specified type he tries to improve his work as much as possible, therefore he works slowly, he does not have a significant impact on the environment, as he is afraid to make a mistake in front of the public. The second type - classical - exhibits absolutely opposite properties. It is characteristic of him that his activities are varied and numerous, the result of which is big number successive works, and he has a significant and strong influence on his fellow tribesmen. Ostwald notes that it is precisely the high speed of mental reaction that is a sign of a romantic and distinguishes him from a slow classic.

And finally, in the tenth chapter of this work, C. G. Jung gives his "general description of types." Jung describes each type in a certain strict sequence. First, in context general installation consciousness, then, in the context of the installation of the unconscious, after - taking into account the characteristics of the main psychological functions, such as thinking, feelings, sensations, intuition. And on this basis, he also identifies eight subtypes. Four for each main type. Thinking and feeling subtypes, according to Jung, are rational, sensing and intuitive - to irrational, regardless of whether the extrovert in question or an introvert.

Practical application of the concept of K. Jung's psychotypes today

Today, it will not be difficult for a psychologist to determine the main type of personality. The main use of this work of Jung is career guidance. Indeed, if a person is closed and does everything slowly, for example, as a seller in a trading floor with high traffic, as well as in general, it is better for him not to work as a seller. Since this profession involves a large number of contacts during the day, and not always comfortable, which can greatly undermine mental health introvert. Yes, and the effectiveness of such activities will be low. If, on the contrary, a person belongs to the main extrovert type, he can safely choose activities related to large quantity personal contacts, including as a leader - manager or director.

This theory is also used in family psychology. Moreover, at the stage of family planning. Since, if a couple, for example, consists of a typical extrovert or a typical introvert, the life of such a marriage will be short-lived. After all, if the wife wants to focus on her husband, limiting his extra-work communication, being the most introverted person, and the husband, on the contrary, being a typical extrovert, will have a need for a large number of guests in their house or the desire to often be in the company of friends, this can serve the cause of discord, and possibly divorce. But, since psychotypes with the most prevailing one typical setting are quite rare, it is possible to choose a partner who, even being an extrovert, will be able to pay enough attention to a life partner and have a not particularly pronounced need for frequent friendly contacts.

Literature:

1. Jung KG Psychological types. M., 1998.
2. Babosov E.M. Carl Gustav Jung. Minsk, 2009.
3. Leybin V. Analytical psychology and psychotherapy. St. Petersburg, 2001.
4. Khnykina A. Why is Jung a genius? 5 main discoveries of a psychiatrist // Arguments and facts -26/07/15.

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11.05.2016 10:28

Carl Gustav Jung, a student and associate of Sigmund Freud, had an extensive psychiatric practice for almost sixty years. He observed people a lot and became convinced that the structure of the psyche that Freud described does not manifest itself in the same way. People perceive reality differently.

Summarizing and systematizing observations, his own and those of his students, Jung described eight psychological types. His work formed the basis of the book Psychological Types, which was published in 1921. From Jung's point of view, each person has individual traits and traits inherent in one of the psychological types. The psychological type manifests itself in early childhood and almost does not change during life, although as it grows older it can be smoothed out. It is worth emphasizing that the typology does not limit the freedom of choice of a person, is not an obstacle to a career or love, does not hinder its development. This is a kind of framework, the structure of personality. It does not negate the diversity of characters and individuality of a person, ideas about good and evil, his personal life experience, own thoughts, cultural level. Jung's theory helps to understand how people perceive the world.

Jung introduced new concepts into science - extraversion and introversion.

An extrovert is focused on the outside world. An introvert draws strength from within. There are no pure extroverts and introverts in the world. Each person is just inclined to one or another perception of the world, sometimes behaves differently at home and at work. Extroverts are more active than introverts. They are comfortable in today's free market society. They strive for status, awards, achievements, superiority, relax and draw strength in the company of friends. Negative manifestations of extraversion - selfishness, arrogance, willfulness. Since extroverts tend to lead, relationships develop better in a pair where a man is an extrovert in his psychological type, and a woman is an introvert.

Introverts are no better or worse than extroverts. They have their own weaknesses and advantages. Introverts recuperate by immersing themselves in their own inner world. In order to successfully interact with the external world that is difficult for them, they purposefully focus on its individual aspects. Introverts are good strategists, thoughtful and reasonable. They are able to see the situation deeper and further. Unlike introverts, extroverts are tacticians and strive to win here and now. Negative manifestations of introversion - wandering in the clouds, unwillingness to follow their own appearance inability to express one's thoughts.

But back to Jung's theory. The next concept that belongs to him is psychological functions. According to the scientist's observations, some people operate well with logical data, while others cope better with emotional information. There are people with great intuition, and people who have better developed sensations. The four basic psychological functions, according to Jung, are thinking, feeling, intuition, sensation.

Thinking helps a person to establish conceptual connections between the content of his ideas. In the process of thinking, he is guided by objective criteria, logic. Feelings, on the contrary, are based on the assessment of representations: good or bad, beautiful or ugly. The next psychological function is intuition. It is connected with the unconscious perception of what is happening, instincts. The fourth psychological function - Feel, which are based on physical stimuli caused by specific facts. Every person has all four psychological functions. They help him build a unified picture of the world. Functions are developed differently. As a rule, one dominates over the others.

Depending on the predominance of the function, Jung first identified types: thinking, feeling, intuitive, sensing. He further divided psychological functions into two classes: rational functions- thinking and feeling, irrational - intuition and sensation. Functions also form alternative pairs: feeling and thinking, intuition and sensation. The scientist argued, for example, that feelings suppress thinking, and thinking can interfere with feeling.

Rational functions Jung called reasonable, because they are focused on objective values ​​and norms accumulated and accepted in society. Irrational behavior, from the scientist's point of view, is behavior that is not based on reason. These psychological functions are neither bad nor good. In dealing with all sorts of situations, both rational and irrational approaches can be important. Jung noted that sometimes an excessive focus on a reasonable resolution of the conflict can prevent you from finding an answer on an irrational level.

Jung analyzed each of the psychological functions from the standpoint of extraversion and introversion and defined eight psychological types. Extroverts and introverts are rational and irrational. Rational extroverts and rational introverts, in turn, meet thinking and feeling. Irrational extroverts and irrational introverts are sentient and intuitive.

Most clearly, the psychological type is manifested in relationships. Usually happy couples, ideal friends and colleagues are people who complement each other. Two introverts can wait for initiative from a partner and not wait. Two extroverts are not able to get along or work together because they are too enterprising, each pulling the blanket over himself. A person will be more successful in the field of activity that is inherent in his psychological type, but nothing prevents him from developing in himself other qualities necessary in work, in public or in his personal life.

Knowing your psychological type will help you understand your predisposition, actively use your strengths and find ways to compensate for weaknesses. There are times when the type of person is very blurred, but this is rather an exception.

If you cannot independently determine your psychological type, most likely you simply do not have enough information or you do not want to be honest with yourself. Contact a professional psychologist who will test you and give you the resolution recommendations you need life situations, self-development and achievement of goals.

Jung Carl Gustav

Psychological types

Carl Gustav Jung

Psychological types

Carl Gustav Jung and analytical psychology. V. V. Zelensky

Preface. V. V. Zelensky

From the editor of the Russian edition of 1929 E. Medtner

Preface to the first Swiss edition

Preface to the seventh Swiss edition

Preface to the Argentine edition

Introduction

I. The problem of types in the history of ancient and medieval thought

1. Psychology of the classical period: Gnostics, Tertullian, Origen

2. Theological disputes in the early Christian Church

3. The problem of transubstantiation

4. Nominalism and realism

5. Dispute between Luther and Zwingli about the sacrament

II. Schiller's ideas on the problem of types

1. Letters on the aesthetic education of a person

2. Reflections on Naive and Sentimental Poetry

III. Apollonian and Dionysian beginning

IV. The problem of types in human science

1. Overview of Jordan types

2. Special exposition and criticism of Jordan types

V. The problem of types in poetry. Prometheus and Epimetheus by Karl Spitteler

1. Preliminary remarks on Spitteler typing

2. Comparison of Spitteler's Prometheus with Goethe's Prometheus

3. The meaning of the unifying symbol

4. Symbol Relativity

5. The nature of the unifying symbol in Spitteler

VI. The problem of types in psychopathology

VII. The problem of typical attitudes in aesthetics

VIII. The problem of types in modern philosophy

1. Types according to James

2. Characteristic pairs of opposites in James types

3. Toward a critique of the James concept

IX. The Problem of Types in Biography

X. General description of types

1. Introduction

2. Extrovert type

3. Introvert type

XI. Definition of terms

Conclusion

Applications. Four works on psychological typology

1. To the question of learning psychological types

2. Psychological types

3. Psychological theory types

4. Psychological typology

Carl Gustav Jung and Analytical Psychology

Among the most prominent thinkers of the 20th century, it is safe to name the Swiss psychologist Carl Gustav Jung.

As you know, analytical, more precisely - depth psychology is the general designation of the series psychological directions, putting forward, among other things, the idea of ​​the independence of the psyche from consciousness and striving to substantiate the actual existence of this psyche independent of consciousness and to reveal its content. One of these directions, based on the concepts and discoveries in the field of the mental, made by Jung in different time, is analytical psychology. Today in everyday cultural environment such concepts as a complex, an extrovert, an introvert, an archetype, once introduced into psychology by Jung, have become common and even stereotyped. There is a misconception that Jung's ideas grew out of idiosyncrasy towards psychoanalysis. And although a number of Jung's provisions are indeed based on objections to Freud, the very context in which different periods"building elements" arose, which subsequently constituted the original psychological system, of course, is much broader and, most importantly, it is based on ideas and views that are different from Freud's as human nature and interpretation of clinical and psychological data.

Carl Jung was born on July 26, 1875 in Kesswil, Canton Thurgau, on the shores of the picturesque Lake Konstanz in the family of a pastor of the Swiss Reformed Church; my paternal grandfather and great-grandfather were doctors. Studied at the Basel Gymnasium, favorite subjects gymnasium years were zoology, biology, archeology and history. In April 1895 he entered the University of Basel, where he studied medicine, but then decided to specialize in psychiatry and psychology. In addition to these disciplines, he was deeply interested in philosophy, theology, and the occult.

At the end Faculty of Medicine Jung wrote a dissertation, "On the Psychology and Pathology of So-Called Occult Phenomena," which turned out to be a prelude to his creative period that lasted almost sixty years. Based on carefully prepared séances with her extraordinarily gifted mediumistic cousin Helen Preiswerk, Jung's work presented a description of her messages received in a state of mediumistic trance. It is important to note that from the very beginning of his professional career, Jung was interested in unconscious mental products and their meaning for the subject. Already in this study /1-V.1. S.1-84; 2- P.225-330/ can be easily seen logical basis all his subsequent works in their development - from the theory of complexes to archetypes, from the content of libido to ideas about synchronicity, etc.

In 1900, Jung moved to Zurich and began working as an assistant to Eugene Bleuler, a well-known psychiatrist at the time, at the Burchholzli mental hospital (a suburb of Zurich). He settled in the hospital area, and from that moment on, the life of a young employee began to pass in the atmosphere of a psychiatric monastery. Bleuler was the visible embodiment of work and professional duty. From himself and his employees, he demanded accuracy, accuracy and attentiveness to patients. Morning tour ends at 8:30 am working meeting staff, which listened to reports on the condition of patients. Two or three times a week at 10.00 in the morning there were meetings of doctors with a mandatory discussion of the case histories of both old and newly admitted patients. The meetings took place with the indispensable participation of Bleuler himself. The obligatory evening round took place between five and seven o'clock in the evening. There were no secretaries, and the staff themselves typed the medical records, so sometimes they had to work until eleven o'clock in the evening. The hospital gates and doors were closed at 10.00 pm. The junior staff had no keys, so if Jung wanted to get home from the city later, he had to ask for the key from one of the senior staff. Dry law reigned on the territory of the hospital. Jung mentions that he spent the first six months completely cut off from the outside world and read the fifty-volume Allgemeine Zeitschrift fur Psychiatrie in his spare time.

Soon he began to publish his first clinical papers, as well as articles on the application of the word association test he had developed. Jung came to the conclusion that through verbal connections it is possible to detect (“grope”) certain sets (constellations) of sensually colored (or emotionally “charged”) thoughts, concepts, ideas and, thereby, enable painful symptoms to emerge. The test worked by evaluating the patient's response by the time delay between stimulus and response. As a result, a correspondence was revealed between the reaction word and the subject's behavior itself. Significant deviation from the norm marked the presence of affectively loaded unconscious ideas, and Jung introduced the term "complex" to describe their whole combination. /3- P.40 et seq./