The problem of environmental pollution is now very acute. Modern environmental problems and ways to solve them

Planets are a real scourge of the 21st century. Also, many think about the issue of preserving and restoring the environment. After all, otherwise future generations will get only a lifeless surface.

No man is an island!

It is likely that at least once in a lifetime each of us asked ourselves the question: "What environmental problems of the planet exist at the present time and what can I do to solve them?" It would seem, indeed, that only one person can? Nevertheless, each of us is capable of much. First, begin to "look after" the environment on your own. For example, throwing garbage into strictly designated containers, and it will not be superfluous to also pay attention to the separation of waste into specific materials (glass in one tank, and plastic in another). In addition, you can regulate and gradually reduce the consumption of both electricity and other resources (water, gas) necessary for your comfortable living. In the event that you are a driver and are faced with the choice of a suitable vehicle, then you should pay attention to cars that have a low content of harmful compounds in exhaust gases. It will also be right - both for you and for the whole planet - a small engine size installed in the selected car model. And, as a result, reduced fuel consumption. With such simple and accessible activities for everyone, we can solve the environmental problems of the planet.

Let's help the whole world

Despite everything described earlier, you will not be left alone in this struggle. As a rule, the policy of many modern states is aimed at the well-known environmental problems of the planet and, of course, ways to solve them. In addition, there is an active propaganda program, the purpose of which is to limit and exterminate rare representatives of flora and fauna. Nevertheless, such a policy of world powers is quite purposeful and allows you to create conditions for the normal life of the population, which at the same time do not violate natural ecosystems.

Environmental problems of the planet: list

Modern scientists identify about a few dozen basic issues that require special attention. Such planets arise as a result of significant changes in the natural environment. And those, in turn, are the result of devastating natural disasters, as well as the ever-increasing environmental problems of the planet, it is quite easy to list. One of the first places is air pollution. Each of us from an early age knows that, thanks to the content a certain percentage oxygen in the air space of the planet, we are able to exist normally. However, every day we not only consume oxygen, but also exhale carbon dioxide. But there are still plants and factories, cars and planes are traveling all over the world and knocking on the rails of the train. All of the above objects in the process of their work emit substances of a certain composition, which only aggravates the situation and increases the environmental problems of the planet Earth. Unfortunately, even despite the fact that modern production facilities are equipped with the latest developments in cleaning systems, the state of the airspace is gradually deteriorating.

Deforestation

Since school course biology, we know that representatives of the plant world contribute to maintaining the balance of substances in the atmosphere. Thanks to natural processes, such as photosynthesis, the green spaces of the Earth not only purify the air of harmful impurities, but also gradually enrich it with oxygen. Thus, it is easy to conclude that the extermination of flora, in particular forests, only exacerbates the global environmental problems of the planet. Unfortunately, the economic activity of mankind leads to the fact that felling is carried out on an especially large scale, but the replenishment of green spaces is often not carried out.

Reducing fertile land

Similar ecological problems of the planet arise as a result of the previously mentioned deforestation. In addition, the misuse of various agricultural techniques and improper farming also leads to the depletion of the fertile layer. And pesticides and other chemical fertilizers for many years poison not only the soil, but also all living organisms that are interconnected with it. But, as you know, the layers of fertile land are restored much more slowly than forests. It will take more than one century to fully replace the lost land cover.

Reducing fresh water supplies

If you are asked: "What environmental problems of the planet are known?", you have the right to immediately recall the life-giving moisture. Indeed, in some regions there is already an acute shortage of this resource. And as time goes on, this situation will only get worse. Therefore, the above topic can be considered one of the most important in the list of "Ecological problems of the planet". Examples of misuse of water can be found everywhere. Starting from the pollution of lakes and rivers by all kinds of industrial enterprises and ending with the irrational consumption of resources at the household level. In this regard, already at the present time, many natural reservoirs are closed areas for swimming. However, the environmental problems of the planet do not end there. The list can be continued with the next paragraph.

Extermination of flora and fauna

Scientists have calculated that in the modern world, one representative of the animal or plant world of the planet dies every hour. At the same time, it is important to remember that not only poachers are involved in such actions, but also ordinary people who consider themselves respectable citizens of their country. Every day, mankind conquers more and more new territories both for the construction of their own housing and for agricultural and industrial needs. And animals have to move to new lands or die, remaining to live in an ecosystem destroyed by anthropogenic factors. Among other things, it must be remembered that all of the above factors also adversely affect the state of flora and fauna, both present and future. For example, pollution of water bodies, destruction of forests, etc., entails the disappearance of the diversity of the animal and plant world that our ancestors used to see. Even over the last hundred years, the species diversity has significantly decreased under the direct or indirect impact of the anthropogenic factor.

Earth's protective shell

If the question arises: "What environmental problems of the planet are currently known?", then holes in the ozone layer are easily remembered. Modern human economic activity involves the release of special substances that cause thinning protective shell Earth. Consequently, the formation of new so-called "holes", as well as an increase in the area of existing ones. Many people know this problem, but not everyone understands how all this can turn out. And it leads to the fact that dangerous solar radiation reaches the Earth's surface, which negatively affects all living organisms.

desertification

The global environmental problems presented earlier are causing the development of a severe catastrophe. It's about desertification. As a result of improper agriculture, as well as pollution of water resources and deforestation, there is a gradual weathering of the fertile layer, drainage of soils and other negative consequences, under the influence of which the land cover becomes unsuitable not only for further use for economic purposes, but also for living. of people.

Reduction of mineral reserves

A similar topic is also present in the list "Ecological problems of the planet." It is quite easy to list the currently used resources. These are oil, coal of various varieties, peat, gas and other organic components of the solid shell of the Earth. According to scientists, in the next hundred years, mineral reserves will come to an end. In this regard, humanity has begun to actively introduce technologies that work on renewable resources, such as wind, solar, and others. However, the use alternative sources still quite small compared to more familiar and traditional ones. In connection with this state of affairs, modern governments of countries are conducting various incentive programs that contribute to a deeper introduction of alternative energy sources both in industry and in the everyday life of ordinary citizens.

overpopulation

Over the past century, a significant increase in the number of people has been observed on the globe. In particular, over a period of just 40 years, the world's population has doubled - from three to six billion people. According to scientists, by 2040 this number will reach nine billion, which, in turn, will lead to a particularly acute shortage of food, water and energy resources. The number of people living in poverty will increase significantly. There will be an increase in deadly diseases.

Municipal solid waste

In the modern world, a person daily produces several kilograms of garbage - these are cans from canned food and drinks, and polyethylene, and glass, and other waste. Unfortunately, at present, their secondary use is carried out only in countries with a highly developed standard of living. In all others, such household waste is taken to landfills, the territory of which often occupies vast areas. In countries with a low standard of living, heaps of garbage can lie right on the streets. This not only contributes to soil and water pollution, but also increases the growth of disease-causing bacteria, which in turn leads to widespread acute and sometimes fatal diseases. It should be noted that even the Earth's atmosphere is filled with tons of debris left after the launch of research probes, satellites and spacecraft into the vastness of the Universe. And since it is quite difficult to get rid of all these traces of human activity in a natural way, it is necessary to develop effective methods for processing solid waste. Many modern states implement national programs that promote the dissemination of easily recyclable materials.

Introduction

Mankind is too slow to understand the extent of the danger that a frivolous attitude towards the environment creates. Meanwhile, the solution (if it is still possible) of such formidable global problems as environmental ones requires urgent energetic joint efforts of international organizations, states, regions, and the public.
During its existence, and especially in the 20th century, humanity has managed to destroy about 70 percent of all natural ecological (biological) systems on the planet that are capable of processing human waste, and continues their "successful" destruction. The amount of permissible impact on the biosphere as a whole has now been exceeded by several times. Moreover, a person releases into the environment thousands of tons of substances that have never been contained in it and which are often not amenable or poorly recyclable. All this leads to the fact that biological microorganisms that act as a regulator of the environment are no longer able to perform this function.
According to experts, in 30 - 50 years will begin irreversible process, which at the turn of the XXI - XXII centuries will lead to a global environmental catastrophe. A particularly alarming situation has developed on the European continent. Western Europe has basically exhausted its ecological resources and, accordingly, uses others.
There are almost no intact biosystems left in European countries. The exception is the territory of Norway, Finland, to some extent Sweden and, of course, Eurasian Russia.
On the territory of Russia (17 million sq. km) there are 9 million sq. km. km of untouched, and therefore, working ecological systems. A significant part of this territory is tundra, which is biologically unproductive. But the Russian forest-tundra, taiga, sphagnum (peat) bogs are ecosystems without which it is impossible to imagine a normally functioning biota of the entire globe.
Russia, for example, ranks first in the world in absorbing (thanks to its extensive forests and marshes) carbon dioxide - about 40 percent.
It remains to state: in the world there is, perhaps, nothing more valuable for mankind and its future than the preserved and still functioning natural ecological system of Russia, with all the complexity of the ecological situation.
In Russia, the difficult environmental situation is exacerbated by the protracted general crisis. The state leadership is doing little to correct it. The legal instrument for environmental protection is slowly developing - environmental law. True, several environmental laws were adopted in the 1990s, the main of which was the Law of the Russian Federation "On the Protection of the Environment", which has been in force since March 1992. However, law enforcement practice has revealed serious gaps, both in the law itself and in the mechanism for its implementation.

ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION

Atmospheric air is the most important life-supporting natural environment and is a mixture of gases and aerosols of the surface layer of the atmosphere, which has developed during the evolution of the Earth, human activities and is located outside residential, industrial and other premises, which is why this essay pays more attention to this problem. The results of environmental studies, both in Russia and abroad, unequivocally indicate that pollution of the surface atmosphere is the most powerful, constantly acting factor influencing humans, the food chain and the environment. Atmospheric air has an unlimited capacity and plays the role of the most mobile, chemically aggressive and all-penetrating agent of interaction near the surface of the components of the biosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere.

In recent years, data have been obtained on the significant role of the day of conservation of the biosphere of the ozone layer of the atmosphere, which absorbs the ultraviolet radiation of the Sun that is harmful to living organisms and forms a thermal barrier at altitudes of about 40 km, which prevents the cooling of the earth's surface. The air of dwellings and work areas is of great importance due to the fact that a person spends a significant part of his time here.

The atmosphere has an intense impact not only on humans and biota, but also on the hydrosphere, soil and vegetation cover, geological environment, buildings, structures and other man-made objects. Therefore, the protection of atmospheric air and the ozone layer is the highest priority environmental problem and it is given close attention in all developed countries.

The polluted surface atmosphere causes cancer of the lungs, throat and skin, a disorder of the central nervous system, allergic and respiratory diseases, defects in newborns and many other diseases, the list of which is determined by the pollutants present in the air and their combined effects on the human body. The results of special studies carried out in Russia and abroad have shown that there is a close positive relationship between the health of the population and the quality of atmospheric air.

The main agents of the impact of the atmosphere on the hydrosphere are precipitation in the form of rain and snow, and to a lesser extent smog and fog. The surface and ground waters of the land are mainly atmospheric nourishment and, as a result, they chemical composition depends mainly on the state of the atmosphere. According to the data of ecological and geochemical mapping of different scales, the melted (snow) water of the Russian Plain, in comparison with surface and ground waters and in many areas, is noticeably (several times) enriched in nitrite and ammonium ions, antimony, cadmium, mercury, molybdenum, zinc, lead, tungsten, beryllium, chromium, nickel, manganese. This is especially pronounced in relation to groundwater. Siberian ecologists-geochemists revealed the enrichment of mercury and snow water in comparison with surface water in the Katun River basin Kuraisko-Sarasinskaya mercury-ore zone Gorny Altai).

The calculation of the balance of the amount of heavy metals in the snow cover showed that their main part is dissolved in snow water, i.e. are in a migration-mobile form, capable of quickly penetrating surface and groundwater, the food chain and the human body. In the conditions of the Moscow region, zinc, strontium, nickel are almost completely dissolved in snow water.

The negative impact of the polluted atmosphere on the soil and vegetation cover is associated both with the fallout of acidic precipitation, which leaches calcium, humus and trace elements from the soil, and with the disruption of photosynthesis processes, leading to a slowdown in the growth of plant death. The high sensitivity of trees (especially oak birch) to air pollution has been identified for a long time. The combined action of their factors leads to a noticeable decrease in soil fertility and the disappearance of forests. Acid atmospheric precipitation is now considered as a powerful factor not only in the weathering of rocks and the deterioration of the quality of bearing soils, but also in the chemical destruction of man-made objects, including cultural and cultural monuments. land lines connections. Many economically developed countries are currently implementing programs to address the problem of acid precipitation. As part of the National Program for the Assessment of the Impact of Acid Precipitation, approved in 1980. Many US federal agencies have begun to fund research into the atmospheric processes that cause acid rain to assess the impact of the latter on ecosystems and develop appropriate conservation measures. It turned out that acid rain has a multifaceted effect on the environment and is the result of

volume of self-purification (washing) of the atmosphere. The main acidic agents are dilute sulfuric and nitric acids formed during the oxidation reactions of sulfur and nitrogen oxides with the participation of hydrogen peroxide.

Studies in the central part of European Russia have established that snow waters here, as a rule, have a near-neutral or slightly alkaline reaction. Against this background, areas of both acidic and alkaline atmospheric precipitation stand out. Snow waters with a neutral reaction are characterized by low buffering capacity (acid-neutralizing capacity) and therefore even a slight increase in the concentrations of sulfur and nitrogen oxides in the surface atmosphere can lead to acid precipitation over large areas. First of all, this applies to large swampy lowlands, in which atmospheric pollutants accumulate due to the manifestation of the low-lying effect of emergency precipitation.

The processes and sources of pollution of the surface atmosphere are numerous and varied. By origin, they are divided into anthropogenic and natural. Among the anthropogenic, the most dangerous processes include the combustion of fuel and garbage, nuclear reactions during the production of atomic energy, testing nuclear weapons, metallurgy and hot metal working, various chemical production, including processing of oil and gas, coal.

During fuel combustion processes, the most intense pollution of the surface layer of the atmosphere occurs in megacities and large cities, industrial centers due to the wide distribution of vehicles, thermal power plants, boiler houses and other power plants operating on coal, fuel oil, diesel fuel, natural gas and gasoline. The contribution of vehicles to the total air pollution here reaches 40-50%. A powerful and extremely dangerous factor in atmospheric pollution are catastrophes at nuclear power plants (Chernobyl accident) and nuclear weapons tests in the atmosphere. This is due both to the rapid spread of radionuclides over long distances and to the long-term nature of the contamination of the territory.

The high danger of chemical and biochemical industries lies in the potential for emergency releases of extremely toxic substances into the atmosphere, as well as microbes and viruses that can cause epidemics among the population and animals.

The main natural process of pollution of the surface atmosphere is the volcanic and fluid activity of the Earth. Special studies have established that the entry of pollutants with deep fluids into the surface layer of the atmosphere takes place not only in areas of modern volcanic and gas thermal activity, but also in such stable geological structures as the Russian platform. Large volcanic eruptions lead to global and long-term pollution of the atmosphere, as evidenced by the chronicles and modern observational data (the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines in 1991). This is due to the fact that huge amounts of gases are “instantly” ejected into the high layers of the atmosphere, which are picked up at high altitude by air currents moving at high speed and quickly spread throughout the globe. The duration of the polluted state of the atmosphere after major volcanic eruptions reaches several years. In some cases, due to the presence in the air large mass scattered fine solid aerosols, buildings, trees and other objects on the surface of the Earth did not give a shadow. It should be noted that in the snowfalls of many regions of European Russia, environmental and geochemical mapping revealed anomalously high concentrations of fluorine, lithium, antimony, arsenic, mercury, cadmium and other heavy metals, which are confined to the junctions of active deep faults and are probably of natural origin. . In the case of antimony, fluorine, and cadmium, such anomalies are significant.

These data indicate the need to take into account modern fluid activity and other natural processes in the pollution of the surface atmosphere of the Russian Plain. There are reasons to believe that in the air basins of Moscow and St. Petersburg there are also chemical elements (fluorine, lithium, mercury, etc.) coming from the depth along the zones of active deep faults. This is facilitated by deep depression funnels, which caused a decrease in hydrostatic pressure and an inflow of gas-bearing water from below, as well as high degree violations of the underground space of megacities.

A little-studied, but environmentally important natural process on a global scale is photochemical reactions in the atmosphere and on the Earth's surface. This is especially true of the heavily polluted surface atmosphere of megacities, large cities and industrial centers, where smog is often observed.

The impact on the atmosphere of cosmic bodies in the form of comets, meteorites, fireballs and asteroids should be taken into account. The Tunguska event of 1908 shows that it can be intense and have a global scale.

Natural pollutants of the surface atmosphere are mainly represented by oxides of nitrogen, sulfur, carbon, methane and other hydrocarbons, radon, radioactive elements and heavy metals in gaseous and aerosol forms. Solid aerosols are emitted into the atmosphere not only by ordinary, but also by mud volcanoes.

Special studies It has been established that the intensity of aerosol flows of mud volcanoes of the Kerch Peninsula is not inferior to that of the "dormant" volcanoes of Kamchatka. The result of the modern fluid activity of the Earth can be complex connections such as saturated and unsaturated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, carbonyl sulfide, formaldehyde, phenols, cyanides, ammonia. Methane and its homologues have been recorded in the snow cover over hydrocarbon deposits in Western Siberia, the Urals, and Ukraine. In the uranium province of Athabasca (Canada), based on high concentrations of uranium in the needles of black Canadian spruce, the Wallastone biochemical anomaly 3,000 km2 in size was discovered, associated with the entry of uranium-containing gas emanations into the surface layer of the atmosphere along deep faults.

Photochemical reactions produce ozone, sulfuric and nitric acids, various photooxidants, complex organic compounds and equimolar mixtures of dry acids and bases, and atomic chlorine. Photochemical pollution of the atmosphere noticeably increases in the daytime and during periods of solar activity.

Currently, many tens of thousands of pollutants of anthropogenic origin are found in the surface atmosphere. Due to the continued growth of industrial and agricultural production, new chemical compounds, including highly toxic ones. The main anthropogenic air pollutants, in addition to large-tonnage oxides of sulfur, nitrogen, carbon, dust and soot, are complex organic, organochlorine and nitro compounds, man-made radionuclides, viruses and microbes. The most dangerous are dioxin, benz (a) pyrene, phenols, formaldehyde, and carbon disulfide, which are widespread in the air basin of Russia. Heavy metals are found in the surface atmosphere of the Moscow region mainly in a gaseous state and therefore they cannot be captured by filters. Solid suspended particles are mainly represented by soot, calcite, quartz, kaolinite, feldspar, less often sulfates, chlorides. Oxides, sulfates and sulfites, sulfides of heavy metals, as well as alloys and metals in native form were found in snow dust by specially developed methods.

In Western Europe, priority is given to 28 especially dangerous chemical elements, compounds and their groups. The group of organic substances includes acrylic, nitrile, benzene, formaldehyde, styrene, toluene, vinyl chloride, and inorganic substances - heavy metals (As, Cd, Cr, Pb, Mn, Hg, Ni, V), gases (carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide, oxides nitrogen and sulfur, radon, ozone), asbestos. Lead and cadmium are predominantly toxic. Carbon disulfide, hydrogen sulfide, styrene, tetrachloroethane, toluene have an intense unpleasant odor. The impact halo of sulfur and nitrogen oxides extends over long distances. The above 28 air pollutants are included in the international registry of potentially toxic chemicals.

The main indoor air pollutants are dust and tobacco smoke, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, radon and heavy metals, insecticides, deodorants, synthetic detergents, drug aerosols, microbes and bacteria. Japanese researchers have shown that bronchial asthma may be associated with the presence of domestic ticks in the air of dwellings.

According to the study of gas bubbles in the ice of Antarctica, the content of methane in the atmosphere has increased over the past 200 years. Measurements in early 1980s content carbon monoxide in the air basin of the state of Oregon (USA) for 3.5 years showed that it increased by an average of 6% per year. There are reports of an increasing trend in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere and the associated threat greenhouse effect and climate warming. Both modern and ancient carcinogens (PAH, benz(a)pyrene, etc.) have been found in the glaciers of the volcanic region of Kamchatka. AT last case they are apparently of volcanic origin. Patterns of changes in time of atmospheric oxygen, which has the most importance for life support, are poorly studied.

An increase in the atmosphere of nitrogen and sulfur oxides in winter was found due to an increase in fuel combustion and more frequent smog formation during this period.

The results of regime testing of snowfall in the Moscow region indicate both synchronous regional changes in their composition over time and local features of the dynamics of the chemical state of the surface atmosphere associated with the functioning local sources dust and gas emissions. In frosty winters, the content of sulfates, nitrates and, accordingly, the acidity of snow water increased in the snow cover. The snow water of the initial period of winter was characterized by an increased content of sulfate, chlorine, and ammonium ions. As snow fell by the middle of the winter period, it noticeably (2-3 times) decreased, and then again and sharply (up to 4-5 times for chlorine ion) increased. Such features of the change in the chemical composition of snowfall over time are explained by the increased pollution of the surface atmosphere during the first snowfalls. As its “washing” intensifies, the pollution of the snow cover decreases, increasing again during periods when there is little snow.

The atmosphere is characterized by extremely high dynamism, due to both rapid movement air masses in the lateral and vertical directions, and high speeds, a variety of physical and chemical reactions occurring in it. Atmosphere rass It is now maturing like a huge "chemical cauldron", which is under the influence of numerous and variable anthropogenic and natural factors. Gases and aerosols released into the atmosphere are highly reactive. Dust and soot generated during fuel combustion, forest fires absorb heavy metals and radionuclides and, when deposited on the surface, can pollute vast areas and enter the human body through the respiratory system. Aerosols are divided into primary (those emitted from pollution sources), secondary (formed in the atmosphere), volatile (transported over long distances) and non-volatile (deposited on the surface near the zones of dust and gas emissions). Stable and volatile finely dispersed aerosols (cadmium, mercury, antimony, iodine-131, etc.) tend to accumulate in lowlands, bays and other relief depressions, to a lesser extent on watersheds.

Aerodynamic barriers are large forests, as well as active deep faults of considerable length (the Baikal Rift). The reason for this is that such faults control physical fields, ionic flows of the Earth and serve as a kind of barrier to the movement of air masses.

The tendency of joint accumulation of lead and tin in solid suspended particles of the surface atmosphere of European Russia has been revealed;

chromium, cobalt and nickel; strontium, phosphorus, scandium, rare earths and calcium; beryllium, tin, niobium, tungsten and molybdenum; lithium, beryllium and gallium; barium, zinc, manganese and honey. Lithium, arsenic, bismuth are often not accompanied by high levels of other trace elements. High concentrations of heavy metals in snow dust are due to both the presence of their mineral phases formed during the combustion of coal, fuel oil and other fuels, and the sorption of soot, clay particles of gaseous compounds such as tin halides. The revealed features of spatio-temporal distribution of pollutants should be taken into account when interpreting observational data on air pollution.

The "lifetime" of gases and aerosols in the atmosphere varies in a very wide range (from 1 - 3 minutes to several months) and depends mainly on their chemical stability, size (for aerosols) and the presence of reactive components (ozone, hydrogen peroxide, etc.). ). Therefore, transboundary transfers of pollutants are mainly involved chemical elements and compounds in the form of gases that are not capable of chemical reactions and are thermodynamically stable under atmospheric conditions. As a result, the fight against transboundary transport, which is one of the most pressing problems of air quality protection, is very difficult.

Estimating and even more so forecasting the state of the surface atmosphere is a very complex problem. At present, her condition is assessed mainly according to the normative approach. MPC values for toxic chemicals and other standard air quality indicators are given in many reference books and guidelines. In such guidelines for Europe, in addition to the toxicity of pollutants (carcinogenic, mutagenic, allergenic and other effects), their prevalence and ability to accumulate in the human body and the food chain are taken into account. The shortcomings of the normative approach are the unreliability of the accepted MPC values and other indicators due to the poor development of their empirical observational base, the lack of consideration of the combined effects of pollutants and abrupt changes in the state of the surface layer of the atmosphere in time and space. There are few stationary monitoring posts for the air basin and they do not allow an adequate assessment of its condition in large industrial and urban centers. Needles, lichens, and mosses can be used as indicators of the chemical composition of the surface atmosphere. At the initial stage of revealing the centers of radioactive contamination associated with the Chernobyl accident, pine needles were studied, which have the ability to accumulate radionuclides in the air. Reddening of the needles of coniferous trees during periods of smog in cities is widely known.

The most sensitive and reliable indicator of the state of the surface atmosphere is the snow cover, which deposits pollutants for a relatively a long period time and allowing to establish the location of sources of dust and gas emissions by a set of indicators. Snowfall contains pollutants that are not captured by direct measurements or calculated data on dust and gas emissions. Snow-chemical survey makes it possible to estimate the stocks of pollutants in the snow cover, as well as "wet" and "dry" environmental loads, which are expressed in determining the amount (mass) of pollutant precipitation per unit time per unit area. Wide application shooting is facilitated by the fact that the main industrial centers of Russia are located in the zone of stable snow cover.

One of the promising directions for assessing the state of the surface atmosphere of large industrial and urban areas is multichannel remote sensing. The advantage of this method lies in the ability to characterize large areas quickly, repeatedly and in the same way. To date, methods have been developed for estimating the content of aerosols in the atmosphere. The development of scientific and technological progress allows us to hope for the development of such methods in relation to other pollutants.

The forecast of the state of the surface atmosphere is carried out on the basis of complex data. These primarily include the results of monitoring observations, the patterns of migration and transformation of pollutants in the atmosphere, the features of anthropogenic and natural processes of pollution of the air basin of the study area, the influence of meteorological parameters, relief and other factors on the distribution of pollutants in the environment. For this purpose, heuristic models of changes in the surface atmosphere in time and space are developed for a particular region. Biggest successes in solving this complex problem have been achieved for the areas where nuclear power plants are located.

The end result of applying such models is a quantitative assessment of the risk of air pollution and an assessment of its acceptability from a socio-economic point of view.

The experience of conducting snow chemical surveys indicates that monitoring of the state of the air basin is most effective in the zone of stable accumulation of pollutants (lowlands and floodplains, areas and areas controlled by aerodynamic barriers).

The assessment and forecast of the chemical state of the surface atmosphere, associated with the natural processes of its pollution, differ significantly from the assessment and forecast of the quality of this natural environment, due to anthropogenic processes. Volcanic and fluid activity of the Earth, others natural phenomena cannot be controlled. We can only talk about minimizing the consequences of a negative impact, which is possible only in the case of a deep understanding of the features of functioning natural systems different hierarchical levels and, above all, the Earth as a planet. It is necessary to take into account the interaction of numerous factors that change in time and space.

The main factors include not only the internal activity of the Earth, but also its connections with the Sun, Cosmos. Therefore, thinking in "simple images" when assessing and predicting the state of the surface atmosphere is unacceptable and dangerous.

Anthropogenic processes of air pollution in most cases are manageable. However, the fight against transboundary transfers of pollutants in the atmosphere can be successfully carried out only if there is close international cooperation, which presents certain difficulties for different reasons. It is very difficult to assess and predict the state of atmospheric air,

when it is affected by both natural and anthropogenic processes. Features of this interaction are still poorly understood.

Environmental practice in Russia and abroad has shown that its failures are associated with incomplete consideration of negative impacts, the inability to select and evaluate the main factors and consequences, the low efficiency of using the results of field and theoretical environmental studies in decision-making, the insufficient development of methods for quantifying the consequences of pollution of the surface atmosphere and other life-supporting natural environments.

All developed countries have laws on the protection of atmospheric air. They are periodically revised to take into account new air quality requirements and new data on the toxicity and behavior of pollutants in the air basin. In the United States, the fourth version of the Clean Air Act is now being discussed. The fight is between environmentalists and companies with no economic interest in improving air quality. The Government of the Russian Federation has developed a draft law on the protection of atmospheric air, which is currently being discussed. Improving air quality in Russia is of great socio-economic importance

This is due to many reasons, and above all, the unfavorable state of the air basin of megacities, large cities and industrial centers, in which the bulk of the skilled and able-bodied population lives.

NATURAL AND ANTHROPOGENIC WATER POLLUTION.

Water is one of the most important life-supporting natural environments formed as a result of the evolution of the Earth. It is an integral part of the biosphere and has a number of anomalous properties that affect the physicochemical and biological processes occurring in ecosystems.

These properties include very high and maximum medium liquids, heat capacity, heat of fusion and heat of evaporation, surface tension, dissolving power and dielectric constant, transparency. In addition, water is characterized by an increased migration capacity, which is important for its interaction with adjacent natural environments.

The above properties of water determine the potential for the accumulation in it of very high amounts of a wide variety of pollutants, including pathogenic microorganisms.

In connection with the continuously increasing pollution of surface waters, groundwaters are practically the only source of household and drinking water supply for the population. Therefore, their protection from pollution and depletion, rational use are of strategic importance

The situation is aggravated by the fact that groundwater suitable for drinking lies in the uppermost, most polluted part of artesian basins and other hydrogeological structures, while rivers and lakes make up only 0.019%. total volume water. Water of good quality is required not only for drinking and cultural needs, but also for many industries.

The danger of groundwater pollution lies in the fact that the underground hydrosphere (especially artesian basins) is the ultimate reservoir for the accumulation of pollutants of both surface and deep origin. Long-term, in many cases irreversible nature is the pollution of inland water bodies.

Of particular danger is the contamination of drinking water with microorganisms that are pathogenic and can cause outbreaks of various epidemic diseases among the population and animals.

Practice has shown that the main cause of most epidemics was the use of water contaminated with viruses, microbes for drinking and other needs. Human exposure to water with high concentrations of heavy metals and radionuclides is shown in the sections on these environmental pollutants.

The most important anthropogenic processes of water pollution are runoff from industrial-urbanized and agricultural territories, precipitation of anthropogenic products with atmospheric precipitation. These processes pollute not only surface waters (endorheic reservoirs and inland seas, watercourses), but also underground hydrosphere(artesian basins, hydrogeological massifs), the World Ocean (especially water areas and shelves). On the continents, the upper aquifers (ground and confined), which are used for domestic drinking water supply, are most affected.

Accidents of oil tankers, oil pipelines can be a significant factor in the sharp deterioration of the environmental situation on the sea coasts and water areas, in inland water systems. There has been a trend towards an increase in these accidents in the last decade.

The set of substances that pollute water is very wide, and the forms of their occurrence are varied. The main pollutants associated with natural and anthropogenic processes of water pollution are similar in many respects. The difference lies in the fact that as a result of anthropogenic activities, significant amounts of such extremely hazardous substances as pesticides and artificial radionuclides can enter the water. Besides, artificial origin have many pathogenic and pathogenic viruses, fungi, bacteria.

On the territory of the Russian Federation, the problem of pollution of surface and groundwater with nitrogen compounds is becoming more and more urgent. Ecological and geochemical mapping of the central regions of European Russia has shown that the surface and ground waters of this territory are in many cases characterized by high concentrations of nitrates and nitrites. Regime observations indicate an increase in these concentrations over time.

A similar situation develops with the contamination of groundwater with organic substances. This is due to the fact that the underground hydrosphere is not capable of oxidizing a large mass of organic matter entering it. The consequence of this is that the pollution of hydrogeochemical systems gradually becomes irreversible.

However, the increasing amount of non-oxidized organic substances in the water shifts the denitrification process to the right (in the direction of nitrogen formation), which contributes to a decrease in the concentrations of nitrates and nitrites.

In agricultural areas with a high agricultural load, a noticeable increase in phosphorus compounds in surface waters was revealed, which is a favorable factor for eutrophication of endorheic water bodies. There is also an increase in persistent pesticides in surface and ground waters.

The assessment of the state of the aquatic environment according to the normative approach is carried out by comparing the pollutants present in it with their MPC and other standard indicators adopted for objects of household, drinking, cultural and household water use.

Such indicators are beginning to be developed not only to identify an excess amount of pollutants, but also to establish a deficiency in drinking water of vital (essential) chemical elements. In particular, such an indicator for selenium is available for the EEC countries.

Everyone's efforts should be focused primarily on minimizing the negative impacts.

It is especially difficult to assess and predict the state of a water body when it is affected by both natural and anthropogenic processes.

Studies in the Moscow artesian basin have shown that such cases are not uncommon.

NUCLEAR POLLUTION

Radioactive contamination poses a particular danger to humans and their environment. This is due to the fact that ionizing radiation has an intense and constant detrimental effect on living organisms, and the sources of this radiation are widespread in the environment. Radioactivity - spontaneous decay atomic nuclei, leading to a change in their atomic number or mass number and accompanied by alpha, beta and gamma radiation. Alpha radiation is a stream of heavy particles, consisting of protons and neutrons. It is delayed by a sheet of paper and is not able to penetrate human skin. However, it becomes extremely dangerous if it enters the body. Beta radiation has a higher penetrating ability and passes through human tissue by 1 - 2 cm. Gamma radiation can only be delayed by a thick lead or concrete slab.

Levels terrestrial radiation are not the same in different areas and depend on the concentration of radionuclides near the surface. Anomalous radiation fields of natural origin are formed during enrichment with uranium, thorium of some types of granites, other igneous formations with increased coefficient emanation, in deposits of radioactive elements in various rocks, with the modern introduction of uranium, radium, radon into underground and surface waters, the geological environment. High radioactivity is often characterized by coals, phosphorites, oil shale, some clays and sands, including beach ones. Zones of increased radioactivity are unevenly distributed on the territory of Russia. They are known both in the European part and in the Trans-Urals, in the Polar Urals, in Western Siberia, the Baikal region, in Far East, Kamchatka, Northeast. In most geochemically specialized rock complexes for radioactive elements, a significant part of uranium is in a mobile state, is easily extracted and enters surface and underground waters, then into the food chain. It is the natural sources of ionizing radiation in the zones of anomalous radioactivity that make the main contribution (up to 70%) to the total exposure dose to the population, equal to 420 mrem/year. At the same time, these sources can create high levels of radiation that affect human life for a long time and cause various diseases, including genetic changes in the body. If on uranium mines Since a sanitary and hygienic examination is being carried out and appropriate measures are being taken to protect the health of employees, the impact of natural radiation due to radionuclides in rocks and natural waters has been studied extremely poorly. In the uranium province of Athabasca (Canada), the Wallastone biogeochemical anomaly with an area of about 3000 km2 was detected, expressed by high concentrations of uranium in the needles of black Canadian spruce and associated with

aerosols along active deep faults. On Russian territory

such anomalies are known in Transbaikalia.

Among natural radionuclides, radon and its daughter decay products (radium, etc.) have the greatest radiation-genetic significance. Their contribution to the total radiation dose per capita is more than 50%. The radon problem is currently considered a priority in developed countries and is given increased attention by the ICRP and the UN ICDA. The danger of radon (half-life 3.823 days) lies in its wide distribution, high penetrating ability and migration mobility, decay with the formation of radium and other highly radioactive products. Radon is colorless, odorless and is considered an "invisible enemy", a threat to millions of people in Western Europe and North America.

In Russia, the radon problem began to pay attention only in recent years. The territory of our country in relation to radon is poorly studied. The information obtained in previous decades allows us to assert that radon is also widespread in the Russian Federation both in the surface layer of the atmosphere, subsoil air, and in groundwater, including sources of drinking water supply.

According to the St. Petersburg Research Institute of Radiation Hygiene, the highest concentration of radon and its daughter decay products in the air of residential premises, recorded in our country, corresponds to a human lung dose of 3-4 thousand rem per year, which exceeds the MPC by 2 - 3 orders. It is assumed that due to the poor knowledge of the radon problem in Russia, it is possible to detect high concentrations of radon in residential and industrial premises in a number of regions.

These primarily include the radon "spot" that captures Lake Onega, Ladoga and the Gulf of Finland, a wide zone traced from the Middle Urals in a westerly direction, the southern part of the Western Urals, the Polar Urals, the Yenisei Ridge, the Western Baikal Region, the Amur Region, the northern part of the Khabarovsk region, Chukotka Peninsula.

The radon problem is especially relevant for megacities and large cities, where there are data on the entry of radon into groundwater and the geological environment along active deep faults (St. Petersburg, Moscow).

Every inhabitant of the Earth in the last 50 years has been exposed to radiation from radioactive fallout caused by nuclear explosions in the atmosphere in connection with nuclear weapons testing. The maximum number of these tests took place in 1954 - 1958. and in 1961 - 1962.

At the same time, a significant part of the radionuclides was released into the atmosphere, quickly carried in it over long distances, and slowly descended to the Earth's surface over many months.

During the processes of fission of atomic nuclei, more than 20 radionuclides are formed with half-lives from fractions of a second to several billion years.

The second anthropogenic source of ionizing radiation of the population is the products of the operation of nuclear power facilities.

Although the release of radionuclides into the environment during normal operation of nuclear power plants is insignificant, the Chernobyl accident in 1986 showed the extremely high potential danger of nuclear energy.

global effect The radioactive contamination of Chernobyl is due to the fact that during the accident, radionuclides were released into the stratosphere and for several days were recorded in Western Europe, then in Japan, the USA and other countries.

During the first uncontrolled explosion at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, highly radioactive "hot particles" that are very dangerous when they enter the human body, which are finely dispersed fragments of graphite rods and other structures of a nuclear reactor, entered the environment.

The resulting radioactive cloud covered a vast territory. The total area of contamination as a result of the Chernobyl accident with caesium-137 with a density of 1 -5 Ci/km2 in Russia alone in 1995 amounted to about 50,000 km2.

Of the products of NPP activity, tritium is of particular danger, accumulating in the station's circulating water and then entering the cooling pond and hydrographic network, drainless reservoirs, groundwater, and the surface atmosphere.

At present, the radiation situation in Russia is determined by the global radioactive background, the presence of contaminated territories due to the Chernobyl (1986) and Kyshtym (1957) accidents, the exploitation of uranium deposits, the nuclear fuel cycle, ship nuclear power plants, regional storage facilities radioactive waste, as well as anomalous zones ionizing radiation associated with terrestrial (natural) sources of radionuclides.

SOLID AND HAZARDOUS WASTE

Waste is divided into household, industrial, waste associated with mining, and radioactive. According to the phase state, they can be solid, liquid or a mixture of solid, liquid and gas phases.

During storage, all waste undergoes changes due to both internal physicochemical processes and the influence of external conditions.

As a result, new environmentally hazardous substances may be formed at landfills for waste storage and disposal, which, if they enter the biosphere, will pose a serious threat to the human environment.

Therefore, storage and disposal hazardous waste should be considered as "storage of physico-chemical processes".

Municipal solid waste (MSW) is extremely heterogeneous in composition: food residues, paper, scrap metal, rubber, glass, wood, fabric, synthetic and other substances. Food residues attract birds, rodents, large animals, whose corpses are a source of bacteria and viruses. Atmospheric precipitation, solar radiation and heat release due to surface, underground fires, ignitions, contribute to the occurrence of unpredictable physical, chemical and biochemical processes at landfills, the products of which are numerous toxic chemical compounds in liquid, solid and gaseous states. The biogenic impact of MSW is expressed in the fact that the waste is favorable for the reproduction of insects, birds, rodents, other mammals, and microorganisms. At the same time, birds and insects are carriers of pathogenic bacteria and viruses over long distances.

No less dangerous wastewater and fecal effluents from residential areas. Despite the construction treatment facilities and other measures, reducing the negative impact of such wastewater on the environment is an important problem for all urbanized areas. A particular danger in this case is associated with bacterial contamination of the habitat and the possibility of outbreaks of various epidemic diseases.

Hazardous waste from agricultural production - manure storages, residues of pesticides, chemical fertilizers, pesticides left on the fields, as well as undeveloped cemeteries of animals that died during epidemics. Although these wastes are "point" in nature, their large amount and high concentration of toxic substances in them can have a noticeable negative impact on the environment.

The results of studies carried out on the territory of Russia indicate that one of the most significant natural factors that adversely affect the safety of the conditions for storage and disposal of solid and hazardous wastes are the junctions of active deep faults. In these knots, not only creep and impulsive tectonic dislocations are observed, but also intensive vertical water and gas exchange, intensive dispersion of pollutants in the lateral direction, introduced chemically aggressive compounds (sulphates, chlorides, fluorides, hydrogen sulfide) into the underground hydrosphere, aeration zone, surface runoff and surface atmosphere. and other gases). The most effective, fast and economical method for detecting active deep faults is the helium-water survey developed in Russia (SIMS) and based on the study of the distribution of helium in groundwater as the most reliable and sensitive indicator of the Earth's current fluid activity. This is especially true for closed and industrially urbanized areas with a thick cover of flooded sedimentary deposits.

Due to the fact that the scale and intensity of the impact of solid and hazardous waste on the environment turned out to be more significant than previously thought, and its nature and influencing natural factors are poorly understood, the regulatory requirements of SNiP and a number of departmental instructions regarding the choice

plots, designing landfills and designating sanitary protection zones, should be recognized as insufficiently substantiated. Nor can it be considered satisfactory that the sanitary protection zone of the landfill and the equipment used are chosen essentially arbitrarily, without taking into account the actual pollution processes and the responses of the biosphere to the operation of solid and hazardous waste dumps. A comprehensive, possibly exhaustive, assessment of all parameters of the impact of waste on all life-supporting natural environments is needed, which makes it possible to find out the ways and mechanisms of the penetration of pollutants into the food chain and the human body.

SOUND, ULTRASOUND, MW AND ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION.

When vibrations are excited in air or some other gas, one speaks of air sound(air acoustics), in water - underwater sound (hydroacoustics), and with vibrations in solids - sound vibration. In a narrow sense, an acoustic signal is understood as sound, i.e. elastic vibrations and waves in gases, liquids, and solids audible to the human ear. Therefore, the acoustic field and acoustic signals are primarily considered as a means of communicative communication.

However, acoustic signals can also cause an additional reaction. It can be both positive and negative, leading in some cases to irreversible negative consequences in the human body and psyche. For example, with monotonous work, with the help of a person, it is possible to achieve an increase in labor productivity.

At present, it is believed that the levels of harmful sound on the body in the frequency range of 60 - 20,000 Hz are relatively well established. A standard has been introduced for sanitary norms for permissible noise in rooms and residential areas in this range (GOST 12.1.003-83, GOST 12.1.036-81, GOST 2228-76, GOST 12.1.001-83, GOST 19358-74).

infrasound can provide very significant influence on a person, in particular, on his psyche. The literature has repeatedly noted, for example, cases of suicide under the influence of a powerful source of infrasound. Natural sources of infrasound are earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, thunder, storms, winds. Atmospheric turbulence plays a significant role in their occurrence.

Until now, the problem of measurements and regulation of levels by the State Standard has not been resolved. There is a significant variation in the assessment of acceptable norms for infrasound levels. There are a number of sanitary standards, for example, sanitary standards for permissible levels of infrasound and low-frequency noise in residential areas (SanPiN 42-128-4948-89), workplaces (3223-85), GOST 23337-78 (noise measurement methods ...) , etc. GOST 12.1.003-76, prohibits even a short stay in areas with a sound pressure level of more than 135 dB in any octave band.

Ultrasound

The active effect of ultrasound (US) on a substance, leading to irreversible changes in it, is due in most cases to non-linear effects. In liquids, the main role in the action of ultrasound on substances and processes is played by cavitation (the formation in the liquid of pulsating bubbles, caverns, cavities filled with steam or gas, which abruptly collapse after passing into an area of increased pressure, causing destruction of the surfaces of solids adjacent to the cavitating liquid) .

The impact of ultrasound on biological objects is different depending on the intensity of ultrasound and the duration of exposure.

Methods and means of protection against exposure to acoustic noise and vibration. The following methods of protection against acoustic impact should be considered:

Identification of noise sources of anthropogenic origin and reduction of noise emission from industrial facilities, vehicles and various types of devices.

Proper planning of the development of territories intended for the placement of enterprises and residential buildings. Widespread use of protective green plantings (trees, grass, etc.).

The use of special sound absorbers and sound-absorbing structures in the design of buildings and individual rooms in them.

Damping of sound vibrations.

Use of personal hearing protection equipment when working in noisy environments (plugs, earplugs, I, helmets, etc.).

electromagnetic fields(EMF) are one of the elements of the human environment and all living beings. The intensification of production activity has led to a sharp increase in the intensity of EMF and to a wide variety (in form, frequency, duration of exposure, etc.) of their types.

There has been an increase in the number of people who, in the course of their work activities, are (or may be) exposed to intense electromagnetic fields. In this regard, many researchers consider the factor of EMF impact on a person as significant as, for example, air pollution. /

It should be said, for example, that the fields created high voltage lines power transmission, spread their influence on large territories. Suffice it to say that the area of a strip 50 m wide under lines with a voltage of 300 kV and higher for Russia and the United States combined is about 8,000 square kilometers, which is almost eight times the size of the city of Moscow.

World Environmental Issue #3: Global Warming

Like the glass walls of a greenhouse, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and water vapor allow the sun to heat our planet and at the same time prevent infrared radiation reflected from the earth's surface from escaping into space. All these gases are responsible for maintaining the temperature acceptable for life on earth. However, the increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen oxide and water vapor in the atmosphere is another global environmental problem, called global warming (or the greenhouse effect).

Causes of global warming

During the 20th century, the average temperature on earth increased by 0.5 - 1?C. The main cause of global warming is considered to be an increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere due to an increase in the volume of fossil fuels burned by people (coal, oil and their derivatives). However, according to the statement Alexey Kokorin, head of climate programs WWF(WWF) Russia, "the largest amount of greenhouse gases is generated by the operation of power plants and methane emissions during the extraction and delivery of energy resources, while road transport or the burning of associated petroleum gas in flaring causes relatively little environmental damage".

Other prerequisites for global warming are overpopulation of the planet, deforestation, ozone depletion and littering. However, not all ecologists place the responsibility for the increase in average annual temperatures entirely on anthropogenic activities. Some believe that the natural increase in the abundance of oceanic plankton also contributes to global warming, leading to an increase in the concentration of the same carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

Consequences of the greenhouse effect

If the temperature during the 21st century increases by another 1 ? C - 3.5 ? C, as scientists predict, the consequences will be very sad:

the level of the world ocean will rise (due to the melting of polar ice), the number of droughts will increase and the process of land desertification will intensify,

many species of plants and animals adapted to existence in a narrow range of temperatures and humidity will disappear,

hurricanes will increase.

Solving an environmental problem

To slow down the process of global warming, according to environmentalists, the following measures will help:

rising prices for fossil fuels,

replacement of fossil fuels with environmentally friendly ones (solar energy, wind energy and sea currents),

development of energy-saving and waste-free technologies,

taxation of emissions into the environment,

minimization of methane losses during its production, transportation through pipelines, distribution in cities and villages and use at heat supply stations and power plants,

introduction of carbon dioxide absorption and binding technologies,

tree planting,

reduction in family size

environmental education,

application of phytomelioration in agriculture.

Global Environmental Issue #4: Acid Rain

Acid rain, containing fuel combustion products, also poses a threat to the environment, human health, and even to the integrity of architectural monuments.

The effects of acid rain

Solutions of sulfuric and nitric acids, aluminum and cobalt compounds contained in polluted precipitation and fog pollute the soil and water bodies, adversely affect vegetation, causing dry tops of deciduous trees and oppressing conifers. Due to acid rain, crop yields are falling, people are drinking water enriched with toxic metals (mercury, cadmium, lead), marble architectural monuments are turning into gypsum and eroding.

Solving an environmental problem

In order to save nature and architecture from acid rain, it is necessary to minimize the emissions of sulfur and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere.

Global Environmental Issue #5: Soil Pollution

Every year people pollute the environment with 85 billion tons of waste. Among them are solid and liquid waste from industrial enterprises and transport, agricultural waste (including pesticides), household waste and atmospheric fallout. harmful substances.

The main role in soil pollution is played by such components of industrial waste as heavy metals (lead, mercury, cadmium, arsenic, thallium, bismuth, tin, vanadium, antimony), pesticides and petroleum products. From the soil, they penetrate into plants and water, even spring water. In a chain, toxic metals enter the human body and are not always quickly and completely removed from it. Some of them tend to accumulate over many years, provoking the development of serious diseases.

Global Environmental Issue #6: Water Pollution

Pollution of the oceans, underground and surface waters of land is a global environmental problem, the responsibility for which lies entirely with man.

Causes of the environmental problem

The main pollutants of the hydrosphere today are oil and oil products. These substances penetrate into the waters of the oceans as a result of the collapse of tankers and regular discharges of wastewater from industrial enterprises.

In addition to anthropogenic oil products, industrial and domestic facilities pollute the hydrosphere with heavy metals and complex organic compounds. Agriculture and the food industry are recognized as the leaders in poisoning the waters of the oceans with minerals and biogenic elements.

The hydrosphere does not bypass such a global environmental problem as radioactive contamination. The prerequisite for its formation was the disposal of radioactive waste in the waters of the oceans. From the 1949s to the 1970s, many powers with a developed nuclear industry and atomic fleet purposefully stockpiled harmful radioactive substances into the seas and oceans. In the places of burial of radioactive containers, the level of cesium often goes off scale even today. But "underwater polygons" are not the only radioactive source of pollution of the hydrosphere. The waters of the seas and oceans are enriched with radiation as a result of underwater and surface nuclear explosions.

Consequences of radioactive contamination of water

Oil pollution of the hydrosphere leads to the destruction of the natural habitat of hundreds of representatives of oceanic flora and fauna, the death of plankton, seabirds and mammals. For human health, the poisoning of the waters of the oceans also poses a serious danger: fish and other seafood “infected” with radiation can easily get on the table.

An environmental problem is a certain change in the state of the natural environment as a result of anthropogenic impact, leading to a failure in the structure and functioning of the natural system (landscape) and leading to negative economic, social or other consequences. This concept is anthropocentric, since negative transformations in nature are evaluated in relation to the conditions of people's existence.

Classification

Lands associated with violations of landscape components are conditionally divided into six categories:

Atmospheric (thermal, radiological, mechanical or chemical pollution of the atmosphere);

Water (contamination of oceans and seas, depletion of both underground and surface waters);

Geological and geomorphological (activation of negative geological and geomorphological processes, deformation of the relief and geological structure);

Soil (soil contamination, secondary salinization, erosion, deflation, waterlogging, etc.);

Biotic (degradation of vegetation and forests, species, digression of pastures, etc.);

Landscape (complex) - degradation of biodiversity, desertification, failure of the established regime of nature protection zones, etc.

According to the main environmental changes in nature, the following problems and situations are distinguished:

- Landscape-genetic. They arise as a result of the loss of the gene pool and unique natural objects, violation of the integrity of the landscape system.

- Anthropoecological. Considered regarding changes in living conditions and health of people.

- Natural resource. Associated with the loss or depletion of natural resources, worsen the process of doing business in the affected area.

Additional division

Environmental problems of nature, in addition to the options presented above, can be classified as follows:

For the main reason of occurrence - ecological and transport, industrial, hydrotechnical.

By spiciness - mild, moderately spicy, spicy, extremely spicy.

In terms of complexity - simple, complex, most difficult.

By solvability - solvable, difficult to solve, almost insoluble.

In terms of coverage of affected areas - local, regional, planetary.

By time - short-term, long-term, practically non-disappearing.

By coverage of the region - the problems of the north of Russia, the Ural Mountains, the tundra, etc.

Consequence of active urbanization

It is customary to call a city a socio-demographic and economic system that has a territorial complex of means of production, a permanent population, an artificially created habitat and an established form of organization of society.

The current stage of human development is characterized by a rapid growth in the number and size of settlements. Large cities with more than one hundred thousand people are growing especially intensively. They occupy about one percent of the entire land area of the planet, but their impact on the world economy and natural conditions is truly great. It is in their activities that the main causes of environmental problems lie. More than 45% of the world's population lives in these limited areas, producing about 80% of all emissions that pollute the hydrosphere and atmospheric air.

Environmental especially large, much more difficult to deal with. The larger the settlement, the more significantly the natural conditions are transformed. If we compare with rural areas, then in most megacities the environmental conditions of people's lives are noticeably worse.

According to the ecologist Reimer, an environmental problem is any phenomenon associated with the impact of people on nature and with the reversible impact of nature on people and their vital processes.

Natural landscape problems of the city

These negative changes are mostly associated with the degradation of the landscape of megacities. Under major settlements all components change - underground and surface waters, relief and geological structure, flora and fauna, soil cover, climatic features. The ecological problems of cities also lie in the fact that all living components of the system begin to adapt to rapidly changing conditions, which leads to a reduction in species diversity and a decrease in the area of terrestrial plantings.

Resource and economic problems

They are associated with the huge scale of the use of natural resources, with their processing and the formation of toxic waste. The causes of environmental problems are human intervention in the natural landscape in the process of urban development and thoughtless waste disposal.

Anthropological problems

The ecological problem is not only negative changes in natural systems. It may also consist in the deterioration of the health of the urban population. The decline in the quality of the urban environment entails the emergence of a variety of diseases. The nature and biological properties of people, which have been formed over more than one millennium, cannot change as quickly as the world around. Inconsistencies between these processes often lead to conflict between the environment and human nature.

Considering the causes of environmental problems, we note that the most important of them is the impossibility of rapid adaptation of organisms to environmental conditions, and adaptation is one of the main qualities of all living things. Attempts to influence the speed of this process do not lead to anything good.

Climate

An environmental problem is the result of the interaction between nature and society, which can lead to a global catastrophe. Currently, the following extremely negative changes are observed on our planet:

A huge amount of waste - 81% - enters the atmosphere.

More than ten million square kilometers of land are eroded and deserted.

The composition of the atmosphere is changing.

The density of the ozone layer is disturbed (for example, a hole has appeared over Antarctica).

Over the past ten years, 180 million hectares of forest have disappeared from the face of the earth.

As a result, the height of its waters increases by two millimeters annually.

There is a constant increase in the consumption of natural resources.

According to scientists, the biosphere has the ability to fully compensate for anthropogenic disturbances of natural processes if the consumption of primary biological products does not exceed one percent of the total, but at present this figure is close to ten percent. The compensatory possibilities of the biosphere are hopelessly undermined, as a result, the ecology of the planet is constantly deteriorating.

The environmentally acceptable threshold for energy consumption is 1 TW/year. However, it is significantly exceeded, therefore, the favorable properties of the environment are destroyed. In fact, we can talk about the beginning of the third world war, which humanity is waging against nature. Everyone understands that there can be no winners in this confrontation.

Disappointing prospects

The development of the global is associated with the rapid growth of the population To meet the ever-increasing needs, it is necessary to reduce the consumption of natural resources in countries with a high level of development by three times and contribute to improving the welfare of individual states. The upper limit is twelve billion people. If there are more people on the planet, then from three to five billion will simply be doomed to death from thirst and hunger every year.

Examples of environmental problems on a planetary scale

The development of the "greenhouse effect" has recently become an increasingly threatening process for the Earth. As a result, the heat balance of the planet changes and average annual temperatures increase. The culprits of the problem are "greenhouse" gases, in particular, The consequence of global warming is the gradual melting of snow and glaciers, which, in turn, leads to an increase in the level of the oceans.

acid precipitation

Sulfur dioxide is recognized as the main culprit of this negative phenomenon. The area of negative impact of acid precipitation is quite wide. Many ecosystems have already been seriously affected by them, but most of all the damage is done to plants. As a result, humanity may face the mass destruction of phytocenoses.

Insufficient amount of fresh water

The lack of fresh water in some regions is observed due to the active development of agriculture and utilities, as well as industry. A significant role here is played, rather, not by the quantity, but by the quality of the natural resource.

The deterioration of the "lungs" of the planet

Thoughtless destruction, deforestation and irrational use of forest resources led to the emergence of another serious environmental problem. Forests are known to absorb carbon dioxide, which is a "greenhouse", and produce oxygen. For example, thanks to one ton of vegetation, from 1.1 to 1.3 tons of oxygen is released into the atmosphere.

The ozone layer is under attack

The destruction of the ozone layer of our planet is primarily associated with the use of freons. These gases are used in the assembly of refrigeration units and a variety of cartridges. Scientists have found that in the upper atmosphere, the thickness of the ozone layer is decreasing. A striking example of the problem is over Antarctica, the area of which is constantly increasing and has already gone beyond the boundaries of the mainland.

Solving global environmental problems

Is it possible for humanity to avoid scale? Yes. But this requires concrete steps to be taken.

At the legislative level, establish clear norms for nature management.

Actively apply centralized environmental protection measures. These can be, for example, uniform international rules and norms for the protection of climate, forests, the World Ocean, the atmosphere, etc.

Centrally plan comprehensive restoration work in order to solve the environmental problems of the region, city, town and other specific objects.

Raise environmental awareness and stimulate moral development personality.

Conclusion

Technological progress is gaining more and more speed, there is a constant improvement production processes, modernization of devices, introduction of innovative technologies in the most different areas. However, only a tiny part of the innovations concerns the protection of the environment.

It is very important to understand that only the complex interaction of representatives of all social groups and the state will help improve the ecological situation on the planet. Now is the time to look back to see what the future holds for us.

INTRODUCTION

Relevance of the research topic. An environmental problem is a change in the natural environment as a result of anthropogenic impacts or natural disasters, leading to a disruption in the structure and functioning of nature. Environmental problems arose as a result of the irrational attitude of man to nature, the rapid growth of industrial technologies, industrialization and population growth. The development of natural resources is so great that the question arose about their use in the future. Pollution of the natural environment has led to the progressive death of representatives of the flora and fauna, pollution of soils, underground sources, depletion and degradation soil cover etc. The progress and fate of civilization depends on the solution of environmental problems, so the solution of environmental problems of the modern world is an important and urgent problem.

Goals and objectives of the study. The purpose of the course work is to analyze the environmental problems of our time. To achieve this goal, the following tasks were solved:

1) Studying the causes of environmental problems in the world;

2) Studying the typology and classification of environmental problems;

3) Analysis of the main environmental problems;

4) Consideration of the environmental situation in different regions peace;

5) Consideration and designation of the main ways of solving environmental problems.

Object and subject of research. The object of study of the course work is the modern world. The subject of the study is the main environmental problems of the modern world, due to the impact of man and his activities on nature.

Applied research methods. In the course of the course work, various methods were used: the analytical method of research, carried out on the basis of educational and fund publications, the method of comparative analysis.

Information base of the study. The information base for the study of course work is the work of Klimko G.N., Melnikov A.A., Romanova E.P. and other scientists.

Work structure. The course work is presented on 50 pages of text, including an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion and a list of references, consisting of twenty-five publications and three Internet sources.

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS OF PRESENT

demographic problem

The impact of society on the environment is directly proportional to the number of mankind, its standard of living, and weakens with an increase in the level of environmental consciousness of the population. All three factors are equal. Discussions about how many people may or may not be able to survive on Earth are meaningless if you do not take into account the lifestyle and level of human consciousness. Population problems are studied by demography - the science of the patterns of population reproduction in the socio-historical conditionality of this process. Demography is the science of population that studies population change, birth and death rates, migration, sex and age structure, national composition, geographical distribution and their dependence on historical, socio-economic and other factors.

When considering the natural-scientific aspects of the problem of population, it is especially important to imagine the breadth of demographic problems. Demography is engaged in the study of the features of the interaction of biological and social in the reproduction of the population, the cultural and ethical determination of demographic processes, the dependence of demographic characteristics on the level of economic development. Special place takes the identification of the impact on the demographic processes of health development, urbanization and migration.

These general biological laws can be applied when considering the history of mankind only for the period up to the 19th century. From the earliest historical eras Until the beginning of the last century, the world population fluctuated around several hundred million people, slowly increasing and then decreasing. By the beginning of the Neolithic (New Stone Age), the population of the Earth reached 10 million people, by the end of the Neolithic (3,000 years BC) - 50 million, and by the beginning of our era - 230 million people. In 1600, there were about 480 million in the world, of which 96 million were in Europe, that is, 1/5 of the entire population of the Earth. AT mid-nineteenth in. - 1 billion, in 1930 - 3 billion people.

Today, about 7 billion people live on the globe, and by 2060 there will be 10 billion people. Such population growth will naturally lead to an even stronger impact of mankind on the environment and, apparently, will further exacerbate the problems that exist today. However, according to the resource model of the world system, the population of the Earth should not exceed 7-7.5 billion people.

The population explosion was caused by a decrease in the mortality of children who have not reached puberty. This was a consequence of the development of the effectiveness of prevention and treatment measures after the discovery of the microbiological nature of infectious diseases. It matters whether a person died before having children (reproductive death) or after (post-reproductive death). Post-reproductive mortality cannot be a factor limiting population growth, although it certainly has social and economic consequences. Similarly, accidents and natural disasters, contrary to what is sometimes suggested, do not control population. These factors do not have a directed impact on over-reproductive mortality and, despite the socio-economic significance of the losses associated with them, have a relatively weak effect on the growth of the population as a whole. For example, in the US, annual losses from car accidents (approximately 50,000) are reimbursed within 10 days. Even wars since the Second World War have a short impact on the population. In Vietnam War approximately 45,000 Americans died. The natural increase in the US population of 150,000 people a month compensates for these losses in three weeks, if you count only men. Even the regular death of 3 million people a year worldwide from starvation and malnutrition is demographically insignificant when compared with the global population growth of approximately 90 million during this period.

Around 1930, 100 years after reaching the billion level, the population exceeded 2 billion, 30 years later (1960) reached 3 billion, and just 15 years later (1975) - 4 billion, then another 12 years later (1987) the population of the Earth exceeded 5 billion, and this growth continues, amounting to approximately 90 million - births minus deaths - people per year.

A feature of the formulation of environmental and demographic problems in modern science is its awareness in terms of uniqueness and individuality, the irreproducibility of both national, historical cultures, and the biosphere, many resources. Even in the past, there was no such global awareness, although the account of losses was opened much earlier. Some ecosystems have disappeared forever, and future generations will not see many earthly landscapes and landscapes. There is a catastrophic narrowing of diversity, a colossal standardization of production as a moment of indirect relationship between man and the environment, a flourishing mass culture in which man is lost. In a society where the right of the individual to individuality has not been recognized, it is hardly worth counting on a broad movement to preserve the unique image of nature. In general, uniqueness as a problem is realized only in the face of death. And the acuteness of the demographic and environmental problem forces us to take a fresh look at the relationship "nature - society".

energy problem

Energy consumption is a prerequisite for the existence of mankind. The availability of energy available for consumption has always been necessary to meet human needs. The history of civilization is the history of the invention of more and more new methods of energy conversion, the development of its new sources and, ultimately, an increase in energy consumption.

The first jump in the growth of energy consumption occurred when people learned how to make fire and use it to cook and heat their homes. During this period, firewood and the muscular strength of a person served as sources of energy. Next milestone associated with the invention of the wheel, the creation of various tools, the development of blacksmithing. By the 15th century, medieval man, using draft animals, water and wind power, firewood and a small amount of coal, was already consuming about 10 times more than primitive man. A particularly noticeable increase in world energy consumption has occurred over the past two hundred years since the beginning of industrial age, - it increased 30 times and reached in 1998 13.7 gigatonnes of standard fuel per year. Human industrial society consumes 100 times more energy than primitive man.

In the modern world, energy is the basis for the development of basic industries that determine the progress of social production. In all industrialized countries, the pace of development of the energy industry outpaced the pace of development of other industries.

At the same time, energy is a source of adverse effects on the environment and humans. It affects:

Atmosphere (oxygen consumption, emissions of gases, moisture and particulate matter);

Hydrosphere (water consumption, creation of artificial reservoirs, discharges of polluted and heated waters, liquid wastes);

On the lithosphere (consumption of fossil fuels, landscape change, emissions of toxic substances).

Despite the noted factors of the negative impact of energy on the environment, the growth in energy consumption did not cause much concern among the general public. This continued until the mid-1970s, when numerous data appeared in the hands of specialists, indicating a strong anthropogenic pressure on the climate system, which poses a threat of a global catastrophe with an uncontrolled increase in energy consumption. Since then, no other scientific problem has attracted such close attention as the problem of present, and especially future, climate change. It is believed that energy is one of the main reasons for this change. Energy is understood as any area of human activity related to the production and consumption of energy. A significant part of the energy sector is provided by the consumption of energy released by the combustion of organic fossil fuels (oil, coal and gas), which, in turn, leads to the release of a huge amount of pollutants into the atmosphere.

The environmental problem of energy as a source of many adverse impacts on the planet needs to be addressed as soon as possible.

The problem of urbanization

One of the most acute problems of our time is the process of urbanization. There are good enough reasons for this.

Urbanization (from lat. urbanus - urban) is a historical process of increasing the role of cities in the development of society, which covers changes in the distribution of productive forces, and above all in the distribution of the population, its demographic and socio-professional structure, lifestyle and culture.

Cities existed in ancient times: Thebes, on the territory of modern Egypt, was the largest city in the world as early as 1300 BC. e., Babylon - in 200 BC. e.; Rome - in 100 BC. e. However, the process of urbanization as a planetary phenomenon dates back twenty centuries later: it was the product of industrialization and capitalism. Back in 1800, only about 3% of the world's population lived in cities, while today it is already about half.

The main thing is that urbanization creates a complex knot of contradictions, the totality of which serves as a weighty argument for considering it from the point of view of global studies. It is possible to single out economic, environmental, social and territorial aspects (the latter is highlighted rather conditionally, since it combines all the previous ones).

Modern urbanization is accompanied by the deterioration of the urban environment, especially in developing countries. In them, it has become threatening to the health of the population, has become a brake on overcoming economic backwardness. In the cities of developing countries, the manifestations and consequences of a series of crises are intertwined, with detrimental effects on all aspects of their lives. These crises include the ongoing population explosion in developing countries, hunger and malnutrition of a large part of their population, causing a deterioration in the quality of human potential. The state of the environment is especially unfavorable in cities in the largest centers with a population of over 250 thousand inhabitants. It is these cities that are growing especially fast, increasing their population by about 10% per year. There is a destructive violation of the ecological balance in the largest and largest centers of all regions and third world countries.

The relationship between urbanization and the state of the natural environment is due to a number of factors in a complex system socio-economic development and interaction of society and nature. Understanding the general and specific features of the state of the natural environment in the cities of developing countries is important for developing a long-term strategy for international cooperation in the field of global problems of the population and the environment. Large and largest centers have become the focus of most of the global problems of mankind. It is they who have the greatest impact on the state of the environment over vast areas.

Among the factors that determine the state and quality of the natural environment in the cities of developing countries, the most important are:

Disordered and uncontrolled urbanization in conditions of economic underdevelopment;

Urban explosion, expressed primarily in the outstripping growth rates of the largest and largest centers;

Lack of necessary financial and technical means;

Insufficient level of general education of the bulk of the population;

Lack of development of urban development policy;

Limited environmental legislation.

Circumstances such as chaotic urban development, huge population density both in the central and peripheral parts of cities, limited integrated urban planning and legislative regulation (which is inherent in most developing countries) also have an unfavorable effect. There are very frequent cases of close proximity of built-up and densely populated residential areas and industrial enterprises with outdated technology and without treatment facilities. This further worsens the state of the environment in cities. The state of the natural environment in the cities of developing countries presents a challenge to their sustainable development.

The spatial aspect of urbanization is connected with all the previous ones. The “spread” of agglomerations means the spread of the urban way of life to ever larger territories, and this, in turn, leads to an aggravation of environmental problems, to growing traffic flows (“agglomeration and encirclement”), to the pushing of agricultural and reactionary zones to the far periphery.

Greenhouse effect

The term "greenhouse effect" entered scientific use at the end of the 19th century, and today it has become widely known as dangerous phenomenon that threatens the entire planet. School fact: due to the absorption by greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, ozone and others) of the heat coming from the heated surface of the Earth, the temperature of the air above the Earth rises. The more of these gases in the atmosphere, the higher the greenhouse effect.

This could lead to this. According to some forecasts, by 2100 the climate will become warmer by 2.5-5 C, which will cause an increase in the level of the World Ocean due to the melting of the Earth's polar caps, including the glaciers of Greenland. This is a clear threat to densely populated areas of continental coasts. There may be other consequences that are detrimental to nature: the expansion of the area of deserts, the disappearance permafrost, increased soil erosion, etc. .

The increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is almost always cited as the reason for the increase in the greenhouse effect. This concentration is growing due to the burning of huge amounts of fossil fuels (oil, natural gas, coal, firewood, peat, etc.) by industry, transport, agriculture and households. But this is not the only reason for the increased greenhouse effect.

The fact is that the system of living organisms (biota) successfully copes with the task of regulating the concentration of greenhouse gases. For example, if for some reason the content of carbon dioxide CO2 in the atmosphere increases, then the gas exchange in plants is activated: they absorb more CO2, release more oxygen, and this contributes to the return of the CO2 concentration to the equilibrium value; on the contrary, with a decrease in the concentration of this gas, it is absorbed by plants with less intensity, which ensures an increase in its concentration.

In other words, biota maintains the concentration of greenhouse gases at a certain level, more precisely, within very narrow limits, just corresponding to such a value of the greenhouse effect, which provides an optimal climate for biota on Earth. (This applies only to gases of natural origin and does not apply, for example, to chlorofluorocarbons, which did not occur in nature until the middle of the 20th century, when they were discovered and began to be produced, and the biota cannot cope with them.)

Man not only significantly increased the flow of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, but also systematically destroyed those natural ecosystems, which regulate the concentration of these gases, above all - deforested. How much natural forests have been reduced over the past millennium is not exactly known, but it seems that at least 35-40% of what was. In addition, almost all the steppes have been plowed up, and natural meadows have been almost destroyed.

Global warming due to anthropogenic causes is no longer a scientific hypothesis, not a forecast, but a reliably established fact. The “ground” for further warming has also been prepared: the concentration of greenhouse gases not only exceeds the value that has been the norm for many millions of years, but continues to increase, since the restructuring of the economy of modern civilization, moreover, the entire life of mankind, is far from a quick thing.

Destruction of the ozone layer

The earth's atmosphere consists mainly of nitrogen (about 78%) and oxygen (about 21%). Together with water and sunlight, oxygen is one of the most important life factors. A small amount of oxygen is found in the atmosphere in the form of ozone, oxygen molecules made up of three oxygen atoms.

Ozone is concentrated mainly in the atmosphere at an altitude of 15-20 kilometers above the earth's surface. This ozone-enriched layer of the stratosphere is sometimes referred to as the ozonosphere. Despite the small amount, the role of ozone in the Earth's biosphere is extremely large and responsible. The ozonosphere absorbs a significant part of the hard ultraviolet radiation of the Sun, which is detrimental to living organisms. She is a shield of life, but a shield regulated by nature. The ozonosphere transmits the longer-wavelength part of ultraviolet radiation. This penetrating part of ultraviolet radiation is necessary for life: it destroys pathogenic bacteria, promotes the production of vitamin D in the human body. The state of the ozone layer is extremely important, because even a slight change in the intensity of ultraviolet radiation near the earth's surface can affect living organisms.

The main causes of the thinning of the ozone layer are:

1) During the launch of space rockets, holes are literally “burned out” in the ozone layer. And contrary to the old belief that they close immediately, these holes have been around for quite some time.

2) Aircraft flying at altitudes of 12-16 km. also harm the ozone layer, while flying below 12 km. on the contrary, they contribute to the formation of ozone.

3) Emission of freons into the atmosphere.

Chlorine and its hydrogen compounds are the main cause of the destruction of the ozone layer. Great amount chlorine enters the atmosphere, primarily from the decomposition of freons. Freons are gases that do not enter into any chemical reactions near the surface of the planet. Freons boil and quickly increase their volume at room temperature, and therefore are good atomizers. Because of this feature, freons have long been used in the manufacture of aerosols. And since, expanding, freons are cooled, they are still very widely used in the refrigeration industry. When freons rise into the upper atmosphere, under the action of ultraviolet radiation, a chlorine atom is split off from them, which begins to convert ozone molecules into oxygen one after another. Chlorine can stay in the atmosphere for up to 120 years, during which time it can destroy up to 100,000 ozone molecules.

In the 80s, the world community began to take measures to reduce the production of freons. In September 1987, 23 leading countries of the world signed a convention, according to which, by 1999, the countries had to reduce freon consumption by half. A virtually equal substitute for freons in aerosols has already been found - propane - butane mixture. It is almost as good as freons in terms of parameters, its only drawback is that it is flammable. Such aerosols are already widely used. For refrigeration plants, things are somewhat worse. The best substitute for freons now is ammonia, but it is very toxic and still much worse than them in terms of parameters. Good results have now been achieved in the search for new substitutes, but so far the problem has not been finally resolved.

Thanks to the joint efforts of the world community, for recent decades the production of freons has more than halved, but their use is still ongoing and, according to scientists, at least another 50 years must pass before the stabilization of the ozone layer.

acid rain

The term "acid rain" was first introduced in 1882 by the English scientist Robert Smith in his book Air and Rain: The Beginning of Chemical Climatology. His attention was drawn to the Victorian smog in Manchester. And although scientists of that time rejected the theory of the existence of acid rain, today no one doubts that acid rain is one of the reasons for the death of forests, crops and vegetation. In addition, acid rain destroys buildings and cultural monuments, pipelines, renders vehicles unusable, reduces soil fertility, and can seep toxic metals into aquifers.

During the operation of automobile engines, thermal power plants, and other plants and factories, nitrogen and sulfur oxides are emitted into the air in large quantities. These gases enter into various chemical reactions and eventually droplets of acids are formed, which fall out as acid rain or are carried in the form of fog.

Acid precipitation can fall not only in the form of rain, but also in the form of hail or snow. Such precipitation causes 5 - 6 times more damage, since they contain a higher concentration of acids.

Acid precipitation at the present stage of the biosphere is a rather urgent problem and has a rather negative impact on the biosphere. Moreover, the negative impact of acid rain is observed in the ecosystems of many countries. Scandinavia has been particularly affected by acid rain.

In the 70s, fish began to disappear in the rivers and lakes of the Scandinavian countries, the snow in the mountains turned into grey colour, the foliage from the trees covered the ground ahead of time. Very soon the same phenomena were noticed in the USA, Canada, Western Europe. In Germany, 30%, and in some places 50% of the forests were affected. And all this happens far from cities and industrial centers. It turned out that the cause of all these troubles is acid rain.

The pH index varies in different water bodies, but in an undisturbed natural environment, the range of these changes is strictly limited. Natural waters and soils have buffer capabilities, they are able to neutralize a certain part of the acid and preserve the environment. However, it is obvious that the buffering capacity of nature is not unlimited.

Land and plants, of course, also suffer from acid rain: soil productivity is reduced, the supply of nutrients changing the composition of soil microorganisms.

Acid rain causes great damage to forests. Forests dry up, dry top develops on large areas. The acid increases the mobility in soils of aluminum, which is toxic to small roots, and this leads to inhibition of foliage and needles, fragility of branches. Particularly affected coniferous trees, because the needles are replaced less often than the leaves, and therefore accumulates more harmful substances in the same period.

Acid rain not only kills wildlife but also destroy architectural monuments. Durable, hard marble, a mixture of calcium oxides (CaO and CO2), reacts with a solution of sulfuric acid and turns into gypsum (CaSO4). Changes in temperature, torrents of rain and wind destroy this soft material. The historical monuments of Greece and Rome, having stood for millennia, are being destroyed right before our eyes in recent years. The same fate threatens the Taj Mahal - a masterpiece of Indian architecture of the Mughal period, in London - the Tower and Westminster Abbey. At St. Paul's Cathedral in Rome, a layer of Portland limestone has been eroded by 2.5 cm. In Holland, the statues at St. John's Cathedral are melting like candy. Black deposits have eaten away at the Royal Palace on Dam Square in Amsterdam. More than 100,000 of the most valuable stained-glass windows decorating the cathedrals in Tent, Conterbury, Cologne, Erfurt, Prague, Bern, and other European cities may be completely lost in the next 15-20 years.

Suffer from acid rain and people who are forced to consume drinking water contaminated with toxic metals - mercury, lead, cadmium.

It is necessary to save nature from acidification. To do this, it will be necessary to drastically reduce emissions of sulfur and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere, but primarily sulfur dioxide, since it is sulfuric acid and its salts that determine the acidity of rains that fall at great distances from the place of industrial release by 70–80%.

deforestation

Deforestation is the process of converting lands occupied by forests into land without tree cover, such as pastures, cities, wastelands, and others. The most common cause of deforestation is deforestation without sufficient planting of new trees. In addition, forests can be destroyed due to natural causes such as fire, hurricane or flooding, as well as anthropogenic factors such as acid rain.

The process of deforestation is a pressing problem in many parts of the world, as it affects their ecological, climatic and socio-economic characteristics and reduces the quality of life. Deforestation leads to a decrease in biodiversity, wood reserves, including for industrial use, as well as to an increase in the greenhouse effect due to a decrease in photosynthesis.

Man began to cut down the forest with the advent of agriculture - in the late Stone Age. For several millennia, clearings were local in nature. But in late middle ages Following the growth of the population and the enthusiasm for shipbuilding, almost all the forests of Western Europe disappeared. The same fate befell the lands of China and India. In the late 19th century and into the 20th century, the rate of deforestation increased dramatically. This is especially true of tropical forests, which until recently remained untouched. Since 1947, more than half of the 16 million square meters have been destroyed. km of tropical forests. Destroyed up to 90% of the coastal forests of West Africa, 90-95% of the Atlantic forests of Brazil, Madagascar lost 90% of the forests. This list includes almost all tropical countries. Almost all that remains of the modern rainforest is 4 million square meters. km of the Amazon. And they die quickly. An analysis of recent satellite imagery shows that the Amazon forests are disappearing twice as fast as previously thought.

Forests make up about 85% of the world's biomass. They play a crucial role in the formation of the global water cycle, as well as the biogeochemical cycles of carbon and oxygen. The world's forests regulate climate processes and the world's water regime. Equatorial forests are the most important reservoir of biological diversity, preserving 50% of the world's animal and plant species on 6% of the land area.

The contribution of forests to world resources is not only quantitatively significant, but also unique, since forests are a source of wood, paper, medicines, paints, rubber, fruits, etc. Forests with closed tree crowns occupy 28 million square meters in the world. km with approximately the same area in temperate and tropical zone. The total area of continuous and sparse forests, according to the International Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), in 1995. covered 26.6% of ice-free land, or approximately 35 million square meters. km.

As a result of his activities, man destroyed at least 10 million square meters. km of forests containing 36% of the land phytomass. The main reason for the destruction of forests is the increase in the area of arable land and pastures due to population growth.

Deforestation results in a direct decrease in organic matter, the loss of carbon dioxide uptake channels by vegetation, and the manifestation of a wide range of changes in energy, water and nutrient cycling. The destruction of forest vegetation affects the global biogeochemical cycles of the main biogenic elements and, consequently, affects the chemical composition of the atmosphere.

About 25% of the carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere is due to deforestation. Deforestation brings about noticeable changes climatic conditions at local, regional and global levels. These climatic changes occur as a result of the impact on the components of the radiation and water balances.

The impact of deforestation on the parameters of the sedimentation cycle (increase in surface runoff, erosion, transportation, accumulation of sedimentary material) is especially great when an exposed, unprotected surface is formed; in such a situation, soil washout on the most severely eroded lands, which make up 1% of the total area of plowed agricultural land, reaches from 100 to 200 thousand hectares per year. Although, if the reduction of the forest is accompanied by its immediate replacement with other vegetation, the magnitude of soil erosion is significantly reduced.

The impact of deforestation on nutrient cycling depends on soil type, deforestation method, use of fire and type of subsequent land use. There is growing concern about the impact of deforestation on the loss of the Earth's biodiversity.

Several countries have government programs economic development forest areas. But forest management often fails to take into account that the benefits of using forests in their sustainable state can generate more income than the benefits associated with clearing forests and using timber. In addition, it should be remembered that the ecosystem function of forests is indispensable, and they play a crucial role in stabilizing the state of the geographic environment. The forest management strategy should be based on the recognition of the forest as the common heritage of mankind. It is necessary to develop and adopt an international convention on forests, which would define the basic principles and mechanisms for international cooperation in this area in order to maintain a sustainable state of forests and improve it.

Land degradation and desertification

Desertification is land degradation in arid, semi-arid (semiarid) and arid (sub-humid) areas of the globe, caused both by human activity (anthropogenic causes) and natural factors and processes. The term "climatic desertification" was proposed in the 1940s by the French researcher Auberville. The concept of "land" in this case means a bioproductive system consisting of soil, water, vegetation, other biomass, as well as ecological and hydrological processes within the system.

Land degradation is the reduction or loss of the biological and economic productivity of arable land or pastures as a result of land use. It is characterized by the drying up of the earth, the withering of vegetation, the decrease in soil cohesion, as a result of which rapid wind erosion and the formation of dust storms become possible. Desertification is one of the hard-to-compensate consequences climate change, since it takes an average of 70 to 150 years to restore one conventional centimeter of fertile soil cover in the arid zone.

Land degradation is caused by many factors, including extreme weather events, especially droughts, and human activities that lead to pollution or degradation of soil quality and land suitability, which negatively affects production. food products, livelihoods, production and provision of other ecosystem products and services.

Land degradation in the 20th century has accelerated due to increasing general pressures from crop and livestock production (overcultivation, overgrazing, forest conversion), urbanization, deforestation, and extreme weather events such as droughts and salinization of coastal lands, flooded with waves. Desertification is a form of land degradation in which fertile land turns into desert.

These social and ecological processes deplete cultivated land and pastures needed to produce food, water and quality air. Land degradation and desertification affect human health. As land degradation and deserts expand in some areas, food production is reduced, water sources dry up and people are forced to move to more favorable areas. This is one of the most significant global problems of mankind.

Soil erosion is one of the main reasons for the destruction of the fertile layer. It occurs mainly due to the so-called "agro-industrial" agriculture: soils are plowed up over large areas, and then the fertile layer is blown away by the wind or washed away by water. As a result, to date, there has been a partial loss of soil fertility on an area of 152 million hectares, or 2/3 of the total area of arable land. It has been established that a 20-cm layer of soil on gentle slopes is destroyed by erosion under a cotton crop in 21 years, under a corn crop in 50 years, under meadow grasses in 25 thousand years, under a forest canopy in 170 thousand years .

Soil erosion today has become universal. In the US, for example, about 44% of cultivated land is subject to erosion. In Russia, unique rich black soils with a humus content of 14-16%, which were called the "citadel of Russian agriculture", disappeared, and the areas of the most fertile lands with a humus content of 10-13% decreased by almost 5 times.

Dry regions cover 41 percent of the earth's land mass. More than 2 billion people live on this territory (information from 2000). 90 per cent of the population are residents of developing countries with low development rates. Dryland countries have higher infant mortality and lower gross national product (GNP) per capita than the rest of the world. Due to difficult access to water, the market for agricultural products, a small number of natural resources, poverty is widespread in arid regions.

Soil erosion is especially great in the largest and most populous countries. The Yellow River in China annually carries about 2 billion tons of soil into the World Ocean. Soil erosion not only reduces fertility and reduces crop yields. As a result of erosion, artificially constructed water reservoirs are silting up much faster than usually envisaged in projects, the possibility of irrigation and obtaining electricity from hydroelectric power plants is reduced.

The environmental and economic consequences of desertification are very significant and almost always negative. Agricultural productivity is declining, species diversity and the number of animals are declining, which, especially in poor countries, leads to even greater dependence on natural resources.

Desertification limits the availability of basic ecosystem services and threatens human security. It is an important impediment to development, which is why the United Nations in 1995 established the World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought, then proclaimed 2006 international year desertification and desertification, and subsequently designated the period from January 2010 to December 2020 as the UN Decade dedicated to deserts and the fight against desertification.

Pollution of the world's oceans and scarcity of fresh water

Water pollution - the ingress of various pollutants into the waters of rivers, lakes, groundwater, seas, oceans. Occurs when contaminants are introduced directly or indirectly into water without adequate treatment and removal of harmful substances.

In most cases, water pollution remains invisible because the pollutants are dissolved in the water. But there are exceptions: foaming detergents, as well as oil products floating on the surface and untreated effluents. There are several natural pollutants. Aluminum compounds found in the ground enter the fresh water system as a result of chemical reactions. Floods wash out magnesium compounds from the soil of meadows, which cause great damage to fish stocks.

However, the amount of natural pollutants is negligible compared to those produced by man. Thousands of chemicals with unpredictable effects enter watersheds every year, many of which are new chemical compounds. can be found in water elevated concentrations toxic heavy metals (like cadmium, mercury, lead, chromium), pesticides, nitrates and phosphates, petroleum products, surfactants, drugs. As is known, up to 12 million tons of oil enters the seas and oceans every year.

Acid rain also makes a certain contribution to the increase in the concentration of heavy metals in water. They are able to dissolve minerals in the soil, which leads to an increase in the content of heavy metal ions in the water. Nuclear power plants release radioactive waste into the water cycle.

Discharge of untreated wastewater into water sources leads to microbiological contamination of water. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that 80% of the world's diseases are caused by poor quality and unsanitary water. In rural areas, the problem of water quality is particularly acute - about 90% of all rural residents in the world constantly use polluted water for drinking and bathing.

Land and ocean are connected by rivers that flow into the seas and carry various pollutants. Does not disintegrate on contact with soil chemical substances such as petroleum products, oil, fertilizers (especially nitrates and phosphates), insecticides and herbicides are leached into rivers and then into the ocean. As a result, the ocean turns into a dumping ground for this "cocktail" of nutrients and poisons.

Oil and oil products are the main pollutants of the oceans, but the damage they cause is greatly exacerbated by sewage, household garbage and air pollution. Plastics and oil washed up on beaches remain along the high-tide mark, indicating that the seas are polluted and that many wastes are not biodegradable.

Fresh water supplies are under threat due to increasing demand for it. The population is growing and needs it more and more, and due to climate change, it is likely to be less and less.

At present, every sixth person on the planet, i.e. more than a billion people lack drinking fresh water. According to UN studies, by 2025, more than half of the world's states will either experience a serious shortage of water (when more water is needed than is available), or will feel its deficit. And by the middle of the century, three-quarters of the world's population will not have enough fresh water. Scientists expect that its deficiency will become widespread mainly due to an increase in the world's population. The situation is exacerbated by the fact that people are getting richer (which increases the demand for water) and global climate change, which leads to desertification and reduced water availability.

The natural geosystems of the ocean experience ever-increasing anthropogenic pressure. For their optimal functioning, dynamics and progressive development, special measures are needed to protect the marine environment. They should include the limitation and complete prohibition of pollution of the oceans; regulation of the use of its natural resources, creation of protected water areas, geoecological monitoring, etc. It is also necessary to formulate and implement specific plans on the implementation of political, economic and technological measures to provide the population with water in the present and future

Scarcity of natural resources

environmental problem ocean desertification

The shortage of natural resources, a problem that worried people in ancient times, sharply worsened in the 20th century, due to the powerful growth in the consumption of almost all natural resources - minerals, land for agriculture, forests, water, air.

First of all, it was this problem that made us raise the issue of sustainable development - managing the economy without destroying the basis of life support for the next generations.

At the moment, humanity is not able to do this, if only because the world economy is built mainly on the use of non-renewable resources - minerals.

Suffice it to say that with the given volumes of consumption (despite the fact that they are growing), the explored reserves of hydrocarbon fuel will be enough for mankind for several decades, i.e. for another 1-2 generations of earthlings. At the same time, renewable resources are also under the threat of depletion. natural resources. First of all, these are bioresources. The most obvious examples are deforestation and desertification.

Global energy demand is growing rapidly (about 3% per year). While maintaining this pace by the middle of the XXI century. the global energy balance may increase by 2.5 times, by the end of the century - by 4 times. The increase in energy demand is due to the growth of the world population and the improvement in the quality of life, the development of world industry, and the industrialization of developing countries. A multiple increase in the volume of the world energy balance inevitably leads to a significant depletion of natural resources. To mitigate these negative impacts, energy conservation is essential, allowing products and useful work to be produced with far less energy consumption than in the last century. In the XX century. about 20% of primary energy was effectively used, while the latest technologies allow increasing the efficiency of power plants by 1.5-2 times. By expert opinion, the implementation of energy saving programs will reduce energy consumption by 30-40%, which will contribute to the safe and sustainable development of the global energy sector.

45% of world reserves are concentrated in Russia natural gas, 13% - oil, 23% - coal, 14% - uranium. However, their actual use is due to significant difficulties and dangers, does not meet the energy needs of many regions, is associated with irretrievable losses of fuel and energy resources (up to 50%), and threatens an environmental catastrophe in the places of extraction and production of fuel and energy resources.

We are now consuming oil, gas and coal at a rate about a million times faster than they naturally form in the earth's crust. Obviously, sooner or later they will be exhausted and humanity will face the question: how to replace them? If we compare the fossil energy resources remaining at the disposal of mankind and possible scenarios for the development of the world economy, demography and technology, then this time, depending on the accepted scenario, ranges from several tens to a couple of hundred years. This is the essence of the energy problem facing mankind. In addition, the ever more active extraction and use of exhaustible raw materials is harmful to the environment, in particular, leads to a change in the earth's climate. Excessive emissions greenhouse gases change the Earth's climate, lead to natural disasters.

An analysis of the potential of the Earth's natural resources indicates that humanity is provided with energy for the long term. Oil and gas have a fairly powerful resource, but this “golden fund” of the planet must not only be rationally used in the 21st century, but also preserved for future generations.

radioactive waste

Radioactive waste is liquid, solid and gaseous waste containing radioactive isotopes (RI) in concentrations exceeding the norms approved for a given country.

Any sector that uses radioactive isotopes or processes naturally occurring radioactive materials (EBRMs) can produce radioactive materials that are no longer useful and therefore must be treated as radioactive waste. The nuclear industry, the medical sector, a number of other industrial sectors, and various research sectors all generate radioactive waste as a result of their activities.

Some chemical elements are radioactive: the process of their spontaneous decay into elements with others serial numbers accompanied by radiation. As a radioactive substance decays, its mass decreases over time. Theoretically, the entire mass of a radioactive element disappears in an infinitely long time. The half-life is the time after which the mass is halved. Varying over a wide range, the half-life is, for different radioactive substances, from several hours to billions of years.

Fighting radioactive contamination environment can only be of a preventive nature, since there are no methods of biological decomposition and other mechanisms that can neutralize this type of contamination of the natural environment. The greatest danger is posed by radioactive substances with a half-life of several weeks to several years: this time is sufficient for the penetration of such substances into the body of plants and animals. Spreading along the food chain (from plants to animals), radioactive substances enter the body along with food and can accumulate in quantities that can harm human health. The radiation of radioactive substances has a detrimental effect on the body due to a weakening of the immune system, a decrease in resistance to infections. The result is a decrease in life expectancy, a reduction in performance natural increase population due to temporary or complete sterilization. The damage of genes is noted, while the consequences appear only in subsequent - second or third - generations.

The greatest pollution due to radioactive decay was caused by explosions of atomic and hydrogen bombs, the testing of which was especially widely carried out in 1954-1962.

The second source of radioactive impurities is the nuclear industry. Impurities enter the environment during the extraction and enrichment of fossil raw materials, their use in reactors, and the processing of nuclear fuel in installations.

The most serious pollution of the environment is associated with the operation of plants for the enrichment and processing of nuclear raw materials. For the decontamination of radioactive waste to its complete safety, a time equal to about 20 half-lives is required (this is about 640 years for 137Cs and 490 thousand years for 239Ru). It is hardly possible to vouch for the tightness of containers in which waste is stored for such a long time.

Thus, the storage of nuclear waste is the most acute problem of protecting the environment from radioactive contamination. Theoretically, however, it is possible to create nuclear power plants with practically zero emissions of radioactive impurities. But in this case, the production of energy at a nuclear power plant turns out to be significantly more expensive than at a thermal power plant.

Decreased biodiversity

Biodiversity (BD) is the totality of all forms of life inhabiting our planet. This is what makes the Earth different from other planets in the solar system. BR is the richness and diversity of life and its processes, including the diversity of living organisms and their genetic differences, as well as the diversity of their places of existence.

The BR is divided into three hierarchical categories: diversity among members of the same species (genetic diversity), between different species, and between ecosystems. Research into the global problems of BD at the level of genes is a matter of the future.

The most authoritative assessment of species diversity was made by UNEP in 1995. According to this assessment, the most probable number of species is 13-14 million, of which only 1.75 million, or less than 13%, have been described. The highest hierarchical level of biological diversity is ecosystem, or landscape. At this level, patterns of biological diversity are determined primarily by zonal landscape conditions, then by local features of natural conditions (relief, soil, climate), as well as the history of development of these territories. The greatest species diversity is (in descending order): humid equatorial forests, coral reefs, dry tropical forests, temperate rainforests, oceanic islands, landscapes of the Mediterranean climate, treeless (savannah, steppe) landscapes.

In the last two decades, biological diversity has begun to attract the attention of not only biologists, but also economists, politicians, and the public in connection with the obvious threat of anthropogenic degradation of biodiversity, which is much higher than normal, natural degradation.

According to the UNEP Global Biodiversity Assessment (1995), more than 30,000 animal and plant species are threatened with extinction. Over the past 400 years, 484 animal species and 654 plant species have disappeared.

The reasons for the modern accelerated decline in biological diversity - 1) the rapid growth of population and economic development, making huge changes in the living conditions of all organisms and ecological systems of the Earth; 2) increase in human migration, growth in international trade and tourism; 3) increasing pollution of natural waters, soil and air; 4) insufficient attention to the long-term consequences of actions that destroy the conditions for the existence of living organisms, exploit natural resources and introduce non-native species; 5) the impossibility in a market economy to assess the true value of biological diversity and its losses.

Over the past 400 years, the main direct causes of the extinction of animal species were: 1) the introduction of new species, accompanied by the displacement or extermination of local species (39% of all lost animal species); 2) destruction of living conditions, direct removal of territories inhabited by animals, and their degradation, fragmentation, increased edge effect (36% of all lost species); 3) uncontrolled hunting (23%); 4) Other reasons (2%).

Diversity is the basis for the evolution of life forms. The decline in species and genetic diversity undermines the further improvement of life forms on Earth. The economic feasibility of biodiversity conservation is due to the use of wild biota to meet the various needs of society in the field of industry, agriculture, recreation, science and education: for breeding domestic plants and animals, a genetic reservoir necessary for updating and maintaining the resistance of varieties, manufacturing medicines, as well as for providing the population with food, fuel, energy, wood, etc.

Mankind is trying to stop or slow down the growth of the decline in the biodiversity of the Earth in various ways. But, unfortunately, so far it can be stated that, despite numerous measures, the accelerated erosion of the biological diversity of the world continues. However, without these protective measures, the extent of biodiversity loss would be even greater.

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