ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION- a system of state measures aimed at rational use of natural resources, conservation and improvement environment for the benefit of present and future generations of people. O. o. with. thus includes a set of measures, some of which are aimed at optimizing the processes of nature management, and some - at preventing and eliminating undesirable effects from the environment on humans, i.e. measures of a sanitary-hygienic, sanitary-technical nature, backed by state law.

Under nature management in broad sense understand the direct (or indirect) human impact on the environment. Wherein we are talking on the use of not only material natural resources(energy, mineral, water, land, forestry, etc.), but also natural resources necessary to ensure rational (namely rational, and not any needs generated by the development of the so-called consumer society) needs of people, including their healthy physical and spiritual life.

The goals and objectives of nature management are formulated in Article 18 of the Constitution of the USSR (1977) as follows: “In the interests of present and future generations, the USSR adopts necessary measures for the protection and scientifically based, rational use of land and its subsoil, water resources, flora and fauna, to maintain clean air and water, ensure the reproduction of natural resources and improve the human environment.

Actions of sanitary and sanitary and technical character include a dignity. protection of the air basin (especially populated areas) in connection with the intensive development of industry and transport; protection from the action of pesticides and other chemicals. funds in connection with their widespread use in agriculture; struggle with influence radioactive substances, increasingly used in the national economy-industry, medicine, biology; development of maximum permissible concentrations of toxic substances and protection from the effects of these substances on the human body, etc.

Scientific and technological progress penetrating the industrial and agricultural sectors National economy, is impossible without impact on nature, without spending its resources. Increasing the capacity of industrial production is always associated with great use raw materials, a significant consumption of water for industrial needs and an increase in emissions of pollutants into the atmosphere. Therefore, one should not underestimate the danger of the negative consequences of increased human impact on nature. Having in mind the chaotic use of natural resources, which takes place in the capitalist world, F. Engels wrote: “Let's not, however, be too deceived by our victories over nature. For each such victory, she takes revenge on us. Each of these victories, however, first of all has the consequences that we expected, but secondly and thirdly, completely different, unforeseen consequences, which very often destroy the significance of the first ”(Marx K., Engels F. Soch., vol. 20, pp. 495-496). Under the conditions of a socialist society, the state regulates by law the use of natural resources and establishes rules for the protection of nature. Therefore, the problem of reasonable, rational use of nature and its conservation in the interests of present and future generations is quite feasible. Under the conditions of a socialist society, the rational use, conservation and reproduction of natural resources and careful attitude to nature are an integral part of building a communist society, in which optimal quality environment is an element material well-being of people. This equally applies to both the external natural environment and the environment that surrounds a person in terms of production, his life and recreation.

The problem of environmental pollution caused by the direct impact of human activity arose especially acutely in the second half of the 20th century. Environmental pollution in the USA, England, Japan, France and other cap. countries with a high concentration of industry has reached a critical size, dangerous to the life and health of the population. Unregulated and uncontrolled use of natural resources leads to the disappearance of green areas, intense air pollution, water sources, accumulation in the soil and vegetation, as well as animal organisms that consume this vegetation, substances, the entry of which into the human body through food has become dangerous for his life.

Of particular danger are the products of combustion of coal and oil products, suspended particles of dust and metals, vehicle exhaust gases, etc. The total amount of various kinds harmful substances released into the environment per year around the world exceeded 30 billion tons. Hundreds of millions of tons of carbon monoxide are emitted into the Earth's atmosphere, approx. 150 million tons of sulfur oxides, more than 50 million tons of nitrogen oxides. Hundreds of millions of tons of ash are released into the environment every year; millions of cubic meters of untreated Wastewater containing a large number of various toxic substances. Potent pesticides, metal salts, numerous, stable substances that did not previously exist in nature accumulate in the water of these reservoirs. Pollution of water bodies leads to a reduction in natural fresh water reserves, disrupts the vital activity of aquatic plants, planktonic organisms, fish, etc.

Soil pollution by industrial, domestic and agricultural waste is taking place at an alarming rate. Around many industrial productions artificial biogeochemical provinces (see) with the increased maintenance in the soil of salts of lead, cadmium, mercury and other chemical elements were formed. Numerous observations have shown that these highly toxic substances, dangerous to human life, can accumulate in plants, insects, birds, fish, and various livestock products. When assessing the degree of danger of environmental pollutants according to the system of the so-called. stress indices (i.e. indicators of the most dangerous pollutants) pesticides took the first place in the 70s (see). The widespread use of these substances in the national economy has led to the fact that they have become a permanent component of the natural environment - they accumulate in ecological systems, migrate to global scale. These substances cause profound changes in ecological systems, contribute to the emergence of pesticide-resistant forms of pests, and the death of beneficial organisms.

Sovr, industry creates fundamentally new materials that did not exist in nature and are largely alien in their physical. and chem. properties of living organisms. The human body is not evolutionarily ready for the action of many of them. Their impact on humans has led to the emergence of previously unknown diseases - genetic, toxicological, allergic, endocrine, etc.; at the same time, one should take into account the possibility of the appearance of certain forms of pathology through the ranks of generations. Honey. studies have shown that polluted air has become one of the leading factors in the etiology and pathogenesis of respiratory diseases, bronchitis, bronchial asthma, pulmonary emphysema, malignant neoplasms of organs respiratory system. So, for example, according to Japanese researchers for 1975-1976, the increased content of nitrogen oxides, ozone, sulfur dioxide, hydrocarbons and suspended particles in the air of Tokyo led to massive diseases of the respiratory system of urban residents.

One of the consequences scientific and technological progress- the appearance in the environment in threatening quantities of mutagenic factors of physical. and chem. nature. From the physical factors in the first place should be noted different types of ionizing radiation of high penetrating power. It has been established that the mutagenic effect of ionizing radiation is universal and has no threshold, i.e., any doses of it can cause genetic damage. Genetic studies conducted in the 1960s and 1970s showed that even small doses of radiation can lead to an increase in the number of patients. hereditary diseases 2 times.

Many chem. connections, and whole line of these, the intensity of the mutagenic action exceeds ionizing radiation. In the 60s. even the term "supermutagens" appeared, to-the Crimea began to denote substances, the mutagenicity of which is tens and hundreds of times higher than the mutagenicity of ionizing radiation (see Mutagens).

Many pesticides have cytogenetic activity, mutagenic and carcinogenic activity of many nitrogen oxides, nitrosamines and other nitro compounds have been revealed. The mutagenic effect of alkylating compounds formed from industrial wastes and during open technological processes etc. Getting into the environment, mutagenic substances interact with each other, as a result of which high concentrations of unexplored dangerous carcinogenic complexes are created in the atmospheric air and water sources.

Development of canning technology and wide application canned food put consumers in direct contact with chemical. mutagens - formalin, propylene glycol, various nitro compounds, etc. Together, the modern canning industry in many countries has become due to insufficient state dignity. supervision of the source of entry into the human body of chemical. mutagens.

An increasingly serious problem has become the "contamination" of the environment with such physical agents harmful to human health. factors such as vibration (see), noise (see), electromagnetic fields of various ranges (see. Electromagnetic field), etc., which is associated with the wide distribution of various Vehicle, electrical household products, an increase in the number and capacity of radio and television stations, radar installations, etc. It was established that by the end of the 70s. the noise level in all large cities increased by 12-45 dB, and the subjective loudness - by 2 times. Noise interferes with rest, leads to insomnia. It causes diseases nervous system, hypertension, etc. Noise contributes to the weakening of attention, memory, speed of reactions, reduces labor productivity, is one of the immediate causes injury. It has been calculated, for example, that in France noise is the cause of 11% of accidents at work, 15% of lost working time. After soundproofing the workrooms of the offices of an American insurance company, the errors of calculators were reduced by 52%, and typists - by 29%.

Till the end of 60th years of researches of ecologists and hygienists concerned hl. arr. dignity problems. protection of objects surrounding nature on a national scale, studying the phenomena and consequences of local environmental pollution. In the 70s. the attention of scientists and the public was switched to the study of the already global consequences of environmental pollution. The fight against the onset of the ecological crisis has become a necessity for all countries and peoples, has become one of the factors international politics and international cooperation.

Some bourgeois scientists, when discussing the current situation, come to the conclusion that the modern society has crossed the threshold of nature's natural self-defense and that it is no longer possible to save it by human efforts. The scientific and technological revolution is increasingly presented by bourgeois theoreticians as a force hostile to human society. Representatives of this trend predict the inevitability of the death of all human civilization, all life on earth. Others believe that the scientific and technological revolution will itself solve ecological crisis regardless of the nature of the social order. Still others, identifying real crisis situations in the modern capitalist world, limit themselves to abstract calls to overcome such situations through a "revolution in the human mind." Science, technology and man are considered by bourgeois theoreticians in isolation from the social organization of people's life, in isolation from society. They tear off science and the scientific and technological revolution, their functions and orientation from social conditions, which are different depending on the existing social system.

The modern ecological crisis is determined social conditions capitalist system. The practice of socialist society shows that the destructive impact of the scientific and technological revolution on nature is not a fatal inevitability.

Environmental protection in the USSR.

The environment is inextricably linked with man, who is an active object of nature. In this regard, I. M. Sechenov wrote: “An organism without external environment supporting its existence is impossible, therefore, in scientific definition The organism also includes the environment that influences it.

In the field of environmental protection, the CPSU and the Soviet government proceed from the recognition of the vital importance of this problem for all mankind. Party and personally V. I. Lenin in exclusively difficult conditions the formation of the economy gave great importance issues of environmental protection and related issues of preserving and strengthening the health of workers. In the first years of Soviet power alone, V. I. Lenin signed more than 100 documents aimed at O. o. with. and rational use of natural resources. In 1918 V.N. Lenin stressed that the cause of nature conservation must be put in line with the tasks of socialist construction.

The first legislative act of the Soviet government, signed by V. I. Lenin, was the decree on land, according to which all land and its subsoil were declared state property. This act in legislative order land use was stopped. On May 27, 1918, V. I. Lenin and Ya. M. Sverdlov signed the law “On Forests”, which obligated local authorities authorities to take care of the renewal and systematic use of forests. In February 1919, the Supreme Council of National Economy adopted a special resolution "On the Central Committee for Water Protection - Tsentrvodoohrany", in which a broad program of measures was outlined to protect water bodies from pollution by sewage from industrial and municipal enterprises. In the same year, signed by V.I. Arctic Ocean and the White Sea. Careful attitude to natural resources, reflected in decrees and resolutions, has become the principle of socialist nature management and environmental protection.

In recent years alone, a number of resolutions of the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR have been adopted: “On strengthening the protection of nature and improving the use of natural resources” (1972), “On measures to prevent pollution of the Volga and Ural river basins by untreated sewage” (1972), “ On measures to prevent pollution of the Black and Seas of Azov"(1976), "On measures to further ensure the protection and rational use of the natural resources of the Baikal basin" (1977), "On additional measures to strengthen nature protection and improve the use of natural resources" (1978).

The Supreme Soviet of the USSR adopted the Fundamentals of Legislation USSR and the Union Republics on Health”, which also reflects environmental issues, “Fundamentals of the Water Legislation of the USSR and the Union Republics”, “Fundamentals of the Legislation of the USSR and the Union Republics on Subsoil”, “Fundamentals of the Forest Legislation of the USSR and the Union Republics ", as well as the Law of the USSR "On the Protection of Atmospheric Air". In addition, in relation to individual regions of the country, in recent years the Council of Ministers of the USSR adopted a number of resolutions aimed at strengthening measures for the protection of nature and the rational use of the country's natural resources.

For the first time in the history of mankind questions O. about. with. were included in the fundamental law of the country - the Constitution of the USSR (1977). It regulates the principles of rational, scientifically based use of natural resources, defines the tasks of preserving and improving the environment, protecting public health. A necessary condition for protecting a person from adverse environmental factors was the development of criteria, the excess of which is associated with the risk of harm to human health.

Soviet state became the first state in the world to establish scientifically based maximum permissible concentrations (MACs) of various harmful substances in the atmospheric air of industrial premises, in the water of reservoirs, in food, etc. The first MACs relating to sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and hydrogen chloride were approved by the People's Commissar of Labor of the RSFSR in 1922. By the fifties, our country had developed and approved in detail the maximum concentration limits in the air for sulfur dioxide, chlorine, hydrogen sulfide, carbon disulfide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, lead and its compounds, metallic mercury, dust (non-toxic ) and soot.

The maximum allowable concentrations developed by scientific research institutes and approved by M3 of the USSR were included in a special section in building codes SN 245-71 "Sanitary standards for the design of industrial enterprises", and the MPC of harmful substances in the air of the working area were the basis of GOST 12.1.005.76 "Air of the working area" of the system of labor safety standards. In the USSR gigabytes are approved. standards for chem. substances that can pollute water bodies (about 800), atmospheric air (over 400), industrial premises air (over 1000), soil (over 20), food products(c. 200).

The enormous tasks of the development of the national economy make it necessary to strengthen measures for protecting the environment, primarily to protect water bodies from pollution, as well as to reduce harmful influence pollution on human health. This will be solved by further expansion of the construction of treatment facilities, development and implementation of technological schemes waste-free production and wide use recycling water supply. Only in 1975, in order to protect fresh water from pollution, 1580 complexes of treatment facilities were put into operation; Much work is being done in this direction in big cities the Volga basin. A significant place in the protection and improvement of the environment (protection of the water and air basins, noise reduction and improvement of the microclimate) is given to urban planning activities (see Urban planning). First of all, this is the removal outside the city limits or the re-profiling of enterprises, emissions from which cannot be significantly reduced, the creation of scientifically based sanitary protection zones (see) around industrial enterprises.

In order to protect the population from noise, large highways are being built to bypass residential areas, narrow streets are being replaced by highways isolated from residential buildings by green spaces; the flow of trucks is regulated, the time of transportation of goods to the trade network of densely populated areas is regulated. Legislative acts The Soviet government's environmental protection and rational use of natural resources are reflected in state capital investments for these purposes.

So, for the implementation of a set of environmental measures for the period 1981 -1985. it is planned to allocate more than 10 billion rubles of state capital investments throughout the country.

Of great importance for solving problems in O. o. with. in the USSR is the development of general schemes for the location of branches of the national economy, projects for regional planning and large industrial complexes both for the coming years and for a long period of development. These plans provide for the rational use of the territory and natural resources, as well as the improvement of working, living and recreational conditions for people. They contain science-based measures for the placement of settlements, industrial and agricultural enterprises, engineering structures, public recreation areas and protected areas.

In accordance with the resolutions of the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR "On strengthening the protection of nature and improving the use of natural resources" (1972) and "On additional measures to strengthen the protection of nature and improve the use of natural resources" (1978) in the practice of state planning of economic activities for . about. with. new provisions have been introduced. Regularly in current and prospective government plans For the development of the national economy of the USSR, various types of work and ever-increasing appropriations for O. o. with. Measures for the protection of nature and the rational use of natural resources in the state plans for the development of the national economy are singled out as an independent section. State reporting on the implementation of mines and departments of relevant measures has been established. All projects for the construction of new and reconstruction of existing enterprises must undergo state expertise, taking into account the impact on the environment.

The USSR State Committee for Science and Technology, together with the USSR Academy of Sciences and other departments, is developing a scientific and technical forecast of possible changes in the biosphere as a result of the development of branches of the national economy in the future for 20-30 years.

Our country has an extensive system government agencies and public organizations for the protection of nature (see Sanitary and epidemiological service, Sanitary supervision). State authorities approve plans for the development of the national economy, specially hear and resolve issues related to the improvement of the use of natural resources, analysis of the state and further improvement of environmental protection. The Supreme Soviet of the USSR has permanent commissions for the protection of nature attached to the Soviet of the Union and the Soviet of Nationalities. The reports and proposals of these commissions, when appropriate, are discussed at sessions of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, by the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR or, on its instructions, by the Council of Ministers of the USSR, ministries and departments of the USSR. Commissions for the protection of nature under the Soviets of People's Deputies also exist at the level of union and autonomous republics, territories and regions, districts, settlements.

The Council of Ministers of the USSR directs, leads, coordinates, and controls the activities of the ministries and departments of the USSR and directs the activities of the councils of ministers of the union republics in the Oblast. with., develops comprehensive measures to improve environmental protection both in the country as a whole and in individual large districts, and adopts appropriate decisions. The Councils of Ministers of the Union and Autonomous Republics carry out their activities in the same direction.

A number of ministries and departments are entrusted with the functions of state environmental control over the activities of all enterprises and organizations, regardless of their departmental subordination. So, M3 of the USSR carries out a state dignity. supervision over the implementation of established rules and regulations in the field of communal improvement, water supply, food, life and recreation of the population, placement of industrial facilities, provision of water protection measures, etc.; Min. Agriculture The USSR exercises state control over the observance of land legislation and the procedure for the use of land, over the correct management hunting economy, preservation and enrichment of useful flora and fauna, as well as on the reserve business; The Ministry of Land Reclamation and Water Resources of the USSR exercises state control over the rational use of water, the implementation of measures to protect water bodies, the operation of treatment facilities and the discharge of sewage into water bodies.

The State Committee of the USSR on hydrometeorology and control of the natural environment together with establishments of the state dignity. supervision of the Ministry of Melioration and Water Resources of the USSR provide control over the level of environmental pollution. For this purpose, the National Service for Observation and Control of the Level of Environmental Pollution was organized. A number of other ministries and departments are vested with the functions of state control over the use and protection of natural resources in accordance with their specialization. Each such ministry has corresponding state inspections. Laws on nature protection have been adopted in all Union republics. Separate union republics created state republican committees for nature protection under the councils of ministers. Such committees have been set up in the Ukrainian, Byelorussian, Georgian, Azerbaijan, Lithuanian and Moldavian SSRs.

For the scientific substantiation of the responsible decisions made and the development of a technical policy in the field of nature protection, the Interdepartmental Scientific and Technical Council on Complex Problems of Environmental Protection and the Rational Use of Natural Resources was organized under the USSR State Committee for Science and Technology. It is entrusted with the coordination and preparation of proposals for solving major state tasks in this area, as well as performing a number of important advisory functions.

Works at the Academy of Sciences of the USSR Science Council on the problems of the biosphere, designed to unite efforts and guide the work of many scientific institutions who develop the scientific foundations for the rational use and protection of natural resources and methods for the economic and environmental assessment of their use. In recent years, the development of principles for the ecological and economic assessment of the most important types of natural resources has been strengthened. A large complex of works is being carried out to study the World Ocean and atmosphere. In the long term, research into the World Ocean should lead to a better use of its vast biological, mineral, energy and other resources and help improve the means of protecting the ocean from pollution.

Much attention in our country is paid to the organization of state reserves, to-rye are, in essence, zones of conservation and study of the genetic fund of the biosphere. The activities of state reserves are carried out in accordance with the principles of preserving representative standards of nature and the gene pool. State reserves and sanctuaries, along with forestry, fishing, and hunting enterprises, carry out great job to restore stocks of valuable plants and animals, including those that are on the verge of extinction.

The problem of nature conservation already today raises many complex questions that require workers in the field of environmental protection. with. special knowledge. Therefore, in addition to creating technical base expanding prof. training of specialists on various issues of O. o. with. Taking this into account, the USSR Ministry of Higher and Secondary Specialized Education developed measures to improve educational and research work in the field of O. o. with. In the curricula of a number of higher educational institutions of the USSR, since 1973, the section "Nature Protection" has been introduced in order to give future specialists basic information about the problem of nature protection and ways to solve it in practice. Many technical universities have begun training engineers, technologists, architects, and other specialists in O. o. with. Importance It is the propaganda of knowledge about nature, the education of a sense of caring attitude towards it among the population with the help of the press, radio, and television.

Doing a lot of work public organizations- Voluntary societies for nature protection, Moscow and other societies for nature testers, geographical societies, society "Knowledge", etc. Folk high fur boots and f-you for nature protection are organized. An important role in education careful attitude to nature and its riches is given to the school, youth circles.

A powerful impetus to the solution of O.'s questions about. with. were the historic decisions of the XXVI Congress of the CPSU. The “Guidelines for the economic and social development of the USSR for 1981-1985 and for the period up to 1990” adopted at the congress provide for a broad and comprehensive program of measures to manage environmental quality (Section IX “Nature Protection”). The tasks of strengthening the protection of nature, land and its subsoil, atmospheric air, water bodies, animals and flora are listed among the priorities, and when considering urgent issues of the development of science, the relevance of increasing the effectiveness of measures in the field of O. o. with.

When staging main task eleventh five-year plan - ensuring further increase welfare of the people Special attention is given to the improvement of public health, as well as the protection and improvement of the environment in the interests of maintaining and strengthening the health of the population. An extremely important role is played preventive work aimed at preventing diseases. With this in mind, a comprehensive program of theoretical and practical research on the problem of "Scientific foundations of environmental health", started in the tenth five-year plan. This program plans to accelerate, expand and deepen the study of the general patterns of adaptation processes, the mechanisms of interaction of the human body with a complex of favorable and harmful environmental factors of anthropogenic and natural origin, as well as socio-economic factors in order to substantiate a system of nationwide measures aimed at optimizing living conditions , labor and recreation of the Soviet people.

International cooperation in the field of environmental protection. Taking effective measures to protect and improve the environment in the country, the Communist Party and the Soviet government have attached and continue to attach great importance to expanding all-round international cooperation in this field. Soviet

The Union proceeds from the fact that the most rational approach to successful solution environmental problems that have a global and complex nature, can only be the unification of the efforts of all states. From the first days of its existence, the Soviet state has been active in this direction. Back in 1922, a bilateral agreement was concluded between the RSFSR and Finland on the use of water and the regulation of fishing in the border water systems. A similar convention was signed in 1927 with Turkey. In the same year, the USSR signed an agreement with Iran on the joint exploitation of fisheries. south coast Caspian Sea. Agreements on water protection and fisheries were signed by the Soviet Union with neighboring countries, and with some countries, in addition, agreements were concluded on the joint fight against forest fires and carrying out quarantine measures.

Development of the international cooperation in the field of O. about. with. and rational use of natural resources is an integral part of the Peace Program adopted at the 24th Congress of the CPSU. Speaking at the congress with a report, General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU comrade. J.I. I. Brezhnev spoke on this issue: “Our country is ready to participate, together with other interested states, in solving such problems as the preservation of the natural environment, the development of energy and other natural resources, the development of transport and communications, the prevention and elimination of the most dangerous and widespread diseases, research and the exploration of space and the oceans.

In implementing the Peace Program, the Soviet Union entered into agreements on cooperation in the field of O. o. with. with the USA, France, Sweden, Canada, Germany, England, Italy, Iran and other countries.

Even earlier, in August 1963, in Moscow, representatives of the governments of the USSR, the USA and England signed the "Test Ban Treaty nuclear weapons in the atmosphere, outer space and under water. This treaty was joined by St. 100 states.

In 1966, an agreement on scientific, technical and economic cooperation was concluded between the USSR and France. The subject of long-term (10-year) cooperation included the development of methods for calculating and forecasting pollution levels and the search for means of protecting atmospheric air, methods for studying surface and groundwater resources, methods and equipment for wastewater treatment, and other problems.

In 1972, in Moscow, an agreement was signed between the USSR and the USA on cooperation in the field of O. o. with. Within the framework of this agreement, it was envisaged to study the impact of pollution on the human environment, develop the foundations for regulating the impact human activity on nature and measures to prevent air, soil and water pollution.

The USSR and other socialist states acted as initiators of broad collective measures in solving the problem of the environment. The draft General Declaration on the Foundations of European Security and the Principles of Relations between States in Europe, proposed by the Soviet Union at the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe, specifically spoke of the need for all states of the continent to develop bilateral and multilateral ties in the field of environmental protection. A section devoted to the development of such ties was included in the project proposed by the participants of the meeting by the delegations of the GDR and Hungary. The proposals of the USSR, the GDR and Hungary were unanimously supported by the participants of the All-European Conference and were fully reflected in the Final Act of this historic forum, signed in Helsinki on August 1, 1975 by the leaders of 33 European states, as well as the USA and Canada. This document proclaims: “... the protection and improvement of the environment, as well as the protection of nature and the rational use of its resources for the benefit of present and future generations, is one of the tasks of great importance for the well-being of peoples and the economic development of all countries, and that many environmental problems, in particular in Europe, can only be effectively addressed through close international cooperation.”

The member states of the All-European Conference clearly defined the specific goals of cooperation on this problem, outlined the most important areas, possible progressive forms and methods of this cooperation. They agreed, in particular, to cooperate in such areas as the fight against air pollution; protection of waters from pollution and use of fresh waters; marine environment protection; soil protection and land use; protection of nature and reserves; improving the state of the environment in populated areas; fundamental research, observations, forecast and assessment of changes in the environment; legal and administrative measures for O. o. with.

The successful completion of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe gave a powerful impetus to the development of international cooperation on the problems of protecting and improving the environment. These problems are planned to be solved both on a bilateral and multilateral basis, including on a regional and subregional basis. At the same time it is supposed to use completely the available and potential possibilities of the existing international organizations which are engaged in questions O. about. s., in particular, the UN Economic Commission for Europe, and the UN Environment Program, in which the Soviet Union actively participates and makes a constructive contribution to the development and implementation of their programs.

In accordance with the recommendation of the UN Conference on Environmental Problems, which went down in history under the name of the Stockholm Conference (1972), and by decision of the XXVII session of the UN General Assembly in 1972, the international "UN Environment Program" (UNEP) was created. This program included 7 priority areas activities: 1. The problem of developing human settlements, maintaining human health and well-being (environmental problems caused by the intensification of the urbanization process, issues of combating air pollution, as well as the problem of solid and liquid waste disposal); 2. Problems of soil and water protection, as well as combating the spread of deserts (studying the issues of rational use of water resources and prevention of their pollution, improving wastewater treatment technology, introducing advanced water use technologies); 3. Problems of education, vocational training, information transfer (holding international symposiums and seminars on the training of specialists in the field of O. O. S., the creation of an international help desk on the issue of the environment); 4. Trade, economic and technological aspects environmental problems (study and search for the most effective ways combating environmental pollution, as well as the development of methods for the most rational exploitation of natural resources); 5. Protection of the World Ocean from pollution (the main direction at first is the fight against pollution of the World Ocean with oil and oil products); 6. Protection of flora and fauna, conservation and maintenance of the genetic resources of the globe (issues of protection of endangered plants and animals, as well as issues of changes in natural ecological systems as a result of human impact on them); 7. The problem of energy and energy resources(initially, only an assessment of the available information on this issue with an emphasis on the economic side).

The USSR is actively cooperating in the field of environmental protection with socialist as well as with capitalist countries and a number of international organizations - the UN, UNEP, WHO, UNESCO, etc. Scientific and technical cooperation between the USSR and the CMEA member countries on the complex problem "Development of measures for the protection of nature". The main areas of cooperation are: harmonization of methodological approaches to solving such issues as the protection of public health, the protection of ecological systems and the landscape, the protection of atmospheric air, the improvement of methods for the disposal and neutralization of waste, the socio-economic, organizational, legal, and pedagogical aspects of education. with. for the purpose of planned distribution of tasks between individual partner countries. More than 30 institutions of the socialist countries take part in this cooperation on problems of environmental health alone.

Active international cooperation on medical aspects of O.'s problems of the lake. with. carried out by the WHO. In accordance with the resolutions of the World Health Assembly, since 1973 an extensive program has been carried out to assess the impact of environmental factors on human health called the WHO Environmental Health Criteria Program. Groups of experts from various countries, including the USSR, work within the framework of the Program, to-rye analyze the data available in the world on the toxicity and danger of various environmental pollutants and develop recommendations regarding the permissible levels of their impact on human health.

In May 1978, the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR ratified the convention on the prohibition of the military or any other hostile use of means of influencing the natural environment. This convention was signed in 1977 in Geneva by representatives of 33 UN member states. The most important feature of the new convention is that it affects such activities and such processes (meteorological and geographical), to-rye have never previously been the scope or subject of international agreements. The Convention expressed the most important task of our time - to preserve in all its beauty and diversity our earth - the planet of people, so that it would serve people in the future.

When the convention was ratified, the General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU, Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR Comrade. J.I. I. Brezhnev said: “The Soviet Union is doing everything possible to protect nature, its flora and fauna, mineral resources... But we are not alone on the planet, and the conservation of nature requires the efforts of all people inhabiting Earth” (“Pravda”, 1978, May 17).

Bibliography: Ananichev K. V. Problems of the environment, energy and natural resources, M., 1975; Anuchin V. A. Fundamentals of nature management, Theoretical aspect, M., 1978; Bochkov N. P. Genetic monitoring of human populations in connection with environmental pollution, Tsitol Genet., vol. I, N 3, p. 195, 1977, bibliography; Influence of the environment on human health, M., WHO, 1974; Genetic Consequences of Environmental Pollution, ed. N. P. Dubinina and others, c. 2, p. 14, M., 1977; Environmental Hygiene in the USSR, ed. G. I. Sidorenko, M., 1981; Hygienic aspects of environmental protection, ed. E. I. Korenevskaya, v. 6-7, M., 1978-1979; Dubinin N. P. and Pashin Yu. V. Mutagenesis and environment, M., 1978, bibliogr.; Carcinogenic substances in the human environment, ed. J.I. M. Shabad and A. P. Ilnitsky, Budapest, 1979; Criteria for necessary and sufficient test systems for the identification of mutagenic and carcinogenic factors in the environment, ed. N. P. Dubinina and others, p. 4, M., 1978; Criteria for the sanitary and hygienic state of the environment, I. Mercury, per. from English, Geneva, WHO, 1979; M e l e sh to and N M. T., Zaitsev A. P. and Marinov X. Economy and environment, M., 1979; Nikitin D. P. and Novikov Yu. V. Environment and man, M., 1980; Pokrovsky V. A. Hygiene, M., 1979; Guidelines for air quality control in cities, ed. M. J. Sewess and S. R. Craxford, trans. from English, M., 1980; Collection of normative acts on nature protection, ed. Edited by V. M. Blinova. Moscow, 1978. T and-b about r B. Environmental protection, per. from venger., M., 1980; Shabad JI. M. About circulation of carcinogens in the environment, M., 1973; Ekholm E. Environment and human health, trans. c" English, M., 1980; Environmental health criteria, 4, Oxides of nitrogen, Geneva, WHO, 1977; environmental pollution and carcinogenic risks, ed. by C. Rosenfeld a. W. Davis, P., 1976; Handbook of muta-genecity test procedures, ed. by B. J. Kil-bey, Amsterdam, 1977.

P. H. Burgasov.

Modern ideas about the protection of nature and the human environment are based on the ideas of V. I. Vernadsky about the protection of the biosphere. In the modern interpretation, we are talking, first of all, about preventing changes in the amounts of radiant energy reaching the Earth, about maintaining sufficient stability of chemical cycles occurring in the biosphere.

The protection of nature and human habitat in our time has acquired public interest. It can be said that the relationship of society with the environment is one of the most global problems of mankind.

The concepts of "nature protection" and "human habitat protection" are complex and extensive. Nature protection is a complex of state, public and scientific events aimed at rational nature management, restoration and multiplication of the natural resources of the Earth. The protection of the human environment is the protection of everything that directly surrounds a person, which makes up the ecological systems of which he is a member, as well as the prevention of factors in the environment that are detrimental to his health. These concepts are largely similar to each other, because their strategic meaning is to find ways to regulate relationships human society and nature (living and non-living). However, these concepts also have significant differences.

Protecting nature does not mean keeping it intact, because man will continue to exploit natural resources, and as

population growth even more.

We are talking about protection, which should ensure the establishment of a balance between use and restoration, as well as the continuous maintenance of the power of the biosphere. Therefore, the main tasks of all nature conservation measures are not to disturb the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of the circulation of substances and the transformation of energy, that is, not to change the historically established bioproductivity of the biosphere.

On the contrary, systematic development of measures aimed at the intensification of biological cycles in natural and artificial ecosystems, i.e., at a sharp increase in the productivity of the Earth, should be carried out. In particular, it is necessary to create a genuine scientific foundations increase in the density of the green cover of the Earth with big share species, which are characterized by a high coefficient useful action photosynthesis. On the other hand, it is important to conserve rare and endangered animal species.

Finally, it is impossible to fill the environment with radiation and chemical pollutants that are harmful to animals and plants. So, the general line in the protection of nature is the protection and reproduction of the living world.

Speaking about the protection of the human environment, it is important to remember that, being an integral component of the biosphere, a person in the course of historical development adapted to his environment, not biologically, but socially through technical and cultural means. Therefore, as a living being, a person is open to the effects of environmental pollutants on him. Maintaining environmental hygiene means maintaining an ecological balance between a person and his environment in order to ensure the well-being of a person, his health. Therefore, in our time, questions have arisen not only of determining the damage already caused to the human gene pool, but also of determining ways to protect the hereditary material of a person from factors generated by his activity in the biosphere.

The solution of these issues in different countries goes in several areas, the main of which is to create sensitive test systems for assessing the mutagenic activity of environmental pollutants and in search of approaches to effectively monitor the genetic processes occurring in human populations (development of the foundations of genetic monitoring of populations). The meaning and necessity of these works lies in the integral analysis of the dynamics genetic cargo, i.e., in the study and assessment of the frequency of mutations of genes and chromosomes induced by pollutants in relation to mutations historically accumulated in the process of evolution, evolutionarily established systems of balanced genetic polymorphism.

Currently, several approaches are used to register changes in the genetic structure of human populations.

One of these approaches is related to taking into account population characteristics. As an indicator for assessing the genetic load, medical and statistical indicators are used (frequency of spontaneous abortions, stillbirths, birth weight, survival probability, sex ratio, incidence of congenital and acquired diseases, indicators of growth and development of children).

Another approach is related to taking into account "watchdog" phenotypes, i.e., with the definition of phenotypes that arise due to certain mutations inherited dominantly. An example of such a phenotype is a dislocation of the hip joint. In the selected population, the dynamics of the frequency of interest phenotypes among newborns is monitored, for example, the dynamics of the frequency of hip dislocation.

Another approach is associated with the use of electrophoresis of blood serum proteins and erythrocytes to detect mutant proteins based on their mobility in an electric field, since the change in the charge of a protein molecule can be caused by the replacement or insertion of one or more nitrogenous bases in a gene. Finally, the approach associated with the cytogenetic study of spontaneously aborted embryos, stillborns, live births and children with congenital defects is used.

There is no doubt that some of the damage already done to the biosphere cannot be repaired. Therefore, humanity is faced with the task of creating conditions for balanced development. The most important task is to create technologies that would completely eliminate or limit the release of pollutants into the environment.

We are talking about such technologies both in industry and agriculture.

Many countries have national programs protection of nature and the environment. These programs are based on specific local conditions. However, no matter what measures are taken in individual countries, they cannot provide a solution to the whole range of issues related to pollution of the atmosphere, open seas, and the World Ocean.

Since the biosphere is politically indivisible, and the pollution of the human environment entails global consequences, international cooperation in the field of nature protection and the human environment is of great importance.

In addition to addressing issues at government levels, the activities of International Union conservation, the World Wide Fund for Nature, as well as specialized agencies of the United Nations.

June 5 is World Environment Day. In 1986, WHO adopted the Global Strategy for Health for All by the Year 2000. In accordance with this strategy, a sine qua non for achieving the goals

is the preservation and strengthening of peace on Earth. Nowadays we are talking

about the preservation of life on earth.

The principles of environmental protection include:

1) observance of the human right to a favorable environment;

2) provision favorable conditions human life;

3) a scientifically based combination of environmental, economic and social interests individual, society and the state in order to ensure sustainable development and a favorable environment;

4) protection, reproduction and rational use of natural resources as necessary conditions for ensuring a favorable environment and environmental safety;

5) responsibility of state authorities of the Russian Federation, state authorities of subjects of the Federation, bodies local government for ensuring a favorable environment and ecological safety in the respective territories;

6) payment for nature use and compensation for damage to the environment;

7) independence of control in the field of environmental protection;

8) presumption of environmental danger of the planned economic and other activities;

9) the obligation to assess the impact on the environment when making decisions on the implementation of economic and other activities;

10) the obligation to conduct a state environmental review of projects and other documentation justifying economic and other activities that may have a negative impact on the environment, create a threat to the life, health and property of citizens;

11) taking into account the natural and socio-economic characteristics of the territories in the planning and implementation of economic and other activities;

12) priority of preservation of natural ecological systems, natural landscapes and natural complexes;

13) the admissibility of the impact of economic and other activities on the natural environment based on the requirements in the field of environmental protection;

14) ensuring the reduction of the negative impact of economic and other activities on the environment in accordance with the standards in the field of environmental protection, which can be achieved through the use of the best existing technologies, taking into account economic and social factors;

15) obligatory participation in environmental protection activities of state authorities of the Russian Federation, state authorities of subjects of the Federation, local governments, public and other non-profit associations, legal entities and individuals;

16) conservation of biological diversity;

17) ensuring an integrated and individual approach to the establishment of requirements in the field of environmental protection for business entities and other activities that carry out such activities or plan to carry out such activities;

18) prohibition of economic and other activities, the consequences of which are unpredictable for the environment, as well as the implementation of projects that can lead to the degradation of natural ecological systems, change and (or) destruction of the genetic fund of plants, animals and other organisms, depletion of natural resources and other negative changes in the environment;

19) observance of the right of everyone to receive reliable information about the state of the environment, as well as the participation of citizens in decision-making regarding their rights to a favorable environment, in accordance with the law;

20) liability for violation of legislation in the field of environmental protection;

21) organization and development of the system of environmental education and upbringing, formation of environmental culture;

22) participation of citizens, public and other non-profit associations in solving problems of environmental protection;

23) international cooperation Russian Federation in the field of environmental protection.

Let us consider the objects of the environment that are subject to protection with the help of law.

The objects of legal protection of the environment are understood as its constituent parts that are in ecological interconnection, relations for the use and protection of which are regulated by law, since they are of economic, environmental, aesthetic interest.

Objects of legal protection of the environment can be classified into three groups.

The first group of objects of legal protection consists of the main individual natural objects, of which there are six: land; its subsoil, water, forests, wildlife, atmospheric air.

The second group includes natural ecological systems, natural landscapes and natural complexes that are subject to protection as a matter of priority. anthropogenic impact, which have a global value.

The third group consists of objects of special protection. All attainable natural objects - components of the environment are subject to protection, but the territories and parts of nature specially allocated in the legislation deserve special protection:

Sites included in the World Heritage List cultural heritage and the Natural World Heritage List;

Reserves, national, natural and dendrological parks, sanctuaries, botanical gardens, monuments of nature, plants and animals, other organisms, their habitats, especially those listed in the Red Book;

continental shelf and exceptional economic zone RF.

Chapter XI. NATURE AND ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION

Nature is a single and very complex set of interrelated phenomena. Human society as a part of nature can only exist in constant interaction with it. In the growing process of his production activity, natural process removal of essential substances from nature: raw materials for industry, water, foodstuffs, forests and other natural resources. At the same time, the release of industrial and domestic waste, used items, etc. into nature is growing. In addition, human society is rebuilding nature for its own needs, primarily for agricultural production, significantly changing it.

At the dawn of mankind, the impact of society on nature was little noticeable, but with the development of cattle breeding and especially agriculture, it increased dramatically. Intensive grazing, plowing of the steppes, deforestation and burning of forests led to a radical change in the appearance of nature over large areas. It became noticeable not only a decrease in the number of animals, but also the impoverishment of rivers, the growing desertification of large areas.

In the future, the impact of man on nature became even more noticeable: some species of animals disappeared, entire landscapes were threatened with existence. It was at this time, at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, that the concept of nature protection arose, but it was understood only as the protection of certain species of animals, plants and other unique natural objects or individual sections wildlife.

In the 30s of the 20th century, the danger of depleting most of the natural resources necessary for industrial activity became obvious; the concept of conservation of natural resources.

In the 50-60s, when, as a result of the rapid development of technology, it turned out that the entire biosphere of the Earth (shell) is under the influence radioactive fallout, pesticides, industrial waste and other factors that threaten human health, the economy and the normal functioning of the biosphere - the concept of environmental protection has arisen.

In the USSR, it is customary to understand nature protection as a planned system of state, international and social events aimed at the rational use, protection and restoration of natural resources, at protecting the environment from pollution and destruction in order to create optimal conditions the existence of human society, the satisfaction of the material and cultural needs of the present and future generations of mankind.

Environmental protection includes the protection of land, water, atmospheric air, subsoil, vegetation, animals and landscapes.

Atmospheric air protection. For human life, air is the most important product of consumption. A person can go without food for five weeks, without water for five days, without air for five minutes. But the normal life of people requires not only the presence of air, but also its sufficient purity. Air pollution adversely affects human health.

One of the main sources of air pollution are industrial enterprises, including heating boilers.

In the USSR, maximum allowable concentrations (MACs) of elements in the atmosphere have been developed. This is necessary to establish the harmlessness of certain concentrations of the element for humans, animals and plants.

MPC is divided into maximum-one-time for a 30-minute period of level increase atmospheric pollution and average daily.

In table. 23 shows the MPC values ​​for harmful substances that can be emitted into the atmosphere with the combustion products of heating boilers.

At present, the USSR is preparing a scientific substantiation of the norms for maximum permissible emissions (MAE) of the main air pollutants in populated areas. The speedy development and implementation of these standards is especially necessary for the largest industrial centers, where, on the one hand, the concentration of most pollutants in the atmospheric air exceeds the MPC, on the other hand, it is difficult to identify a specific pollution culprit for sanctions.

The main source of CO emissions is automobile transport, whose emissions make up 75-90% of the total. A significant place is occupied by heating boilers, which emit 20 times more CO into the atmosphere than industrial ones, and 50 times more than CHPs per unit of heat generated (860 g/GJ compared to 43 and 2 g/GJ, respectively). Heat losses in the amount of 0.1% due to chemical incompleteness of fuel combustion are considered quite acceptable during the commissioning and operation of boilers, however, in this case, the concentration of carbon monoxide in the flue gases reaches 0.02%, and the daily CO emission during such operation of all boiler houses at gas will be 30-40 tons (with a daily gas fuel consumption of 10-106 m3).

Despite the fact that the processes of fuel combustion can be attributed to a low-carcinogenic technology, under certain conditions, even when burning natural gas the concentration of benz (a) pyrenes [B (a) P] in flue gases can reach 50 μg per 100 m3 of combustion products. When bituminous coal is burned in a mechanical furnace in boilers with an average heat output of -100 µg/m3.

The source of nitrogen oxide emissions is primarily boiler plants for various purposes, which account for more than half of all man-made emissions, and transport. Up to 80% of sulfur oxide emissions and about 50% of particulate matter also come from boiler plants. Moreover, the share I of emissions of solid particles by small boilers is significant (Table 24). The data in the table are consistent with the results obtained during a survey in 1977 of heating boiler houses in the Leningrad Region (Table 25). Attention is drawn to the increased emission of carbon monoxide.

Recently, close attention has been paid to the issues of reducing pollutant emissions from the combustion of fossil fuels.

The conditional indicator of toxicity of combustion products of cast-iron heating boilers is given below, kg CO per 1 m3:

• Coal - 0.051
• Liquid fuel-0.026
• Natural gas-0.014

In addition to the absolute reduction of pollutant emissions, their dispersion in the ambient air has become widespread in order to reduce specific concentrations that do not reach MPC values. This is the use of tall pipes.

To date, there are four areas of combating surface air pollutants:

• optimization of the fuel combustion process;
• purification of fuel from elements that form pollutants during combustion;
• purification of flue gases from pollutants;
• dispersion of pollutants in the atmospheric air.

Ensuring the combustion process with an optimal amount of air has a great influence on the reduction of harmful emissions into the atmosphere. The air penetrating through the non-density of the lining, in the event of a malfunction of the boiler headset, does not participate in the oxidation process and enters the gas ducts in transit. When fuel is thrown onto the grate incorrectly or when ordinary low-grade fuel is burned, i.e., air passes not through the fuel layer, but through these craters, according to the least resistance. As a result, the chemical incompleteness of fuel combustion increases.

When burning liquid fuels, it is important to supply a sufficient amount of air to the flame root to intensify the fuel gasification processes. Good atomization of the fuel, which ensures high-quality mixing with air, makes it possible to achieve the absence of chemical incomplete combustion at cst = 1.10-1.15.

When burning gaseous fuel and stepwise air supply, the absence of chemical incompleteness of combustion can be achieved by an excess of primary air a " = 0.28-0.35 or by ensuring good mixing of the mixture. In full pre-mixing burners (IGK, BIG), the absence of soot and CO is achieved already at at = 1.03-1.05.At the same time, when hearth diffusion burners operate at at = 1.3, the concentration of CO reaches 2000 mg/m3, and soot 100 mg/m3.

Experience shows that the transfer of boilers from hearth diffusion burners to low-pressure injection burners "0.3" makes it possible to reduce emissions of CO and soot by 3-5 times, B(a)P by 10-15 times, in addition, the output is reduced by 25%. nitrogen oxides. The latter is achieved due to the stepped air supply and the dispersal of the flame front (when using multi-torch burners).

The dependence of nitrogen oxides on a during the combustion of natural gas is largely determined by the type of burner and the unit heat output of the boiler.

The main factor in optimizing the air supply in all cases is its quantitative mixing with fuel. For solid fuels, this is the combustion of fine-grained fuels with a size of pieces of no more than 35-50 mm, but not dust, the transition to mechanized furnaces with fuel crushing before burning, proper operation and serviceable equipment. In this case, it is possible to achieve chemical incompleteness of combustion in the form of CO, soot and B(a)P at excess air coefficients in the furnace less than 2.2-2.5, which will lead to a decrease in the concentrations of these harmful emissions by 7-10%. The concentration of SO* and NO* will remain unchanged.

When burning liquid fuels, it is necessary to achieve, above all, the absence of chemical incompleteness of combustion and to maintain a minimum excess of air.

When burning natural gas, it is advisable to use a stepped air supply, which can be carried out using injection burners with a "^ 0.4. First of all, these are multi-torch burners or group burners of Lengiproinzhproekt, blast burners with a premixing channel (for example, a reconstructed GNP or a burner of block L1 -m). This is the reason for the higher concentrations of NO* in hearth horizontally slotted burners compared to multi-torch injection burners. ceramic tunnel.

Experiments have shown that the ceramic tunnel, on the one hand, sharply intensifies the combustion of fuels, reducing emissions of CO, soot and P(a)P, on the other hand, increases NO* emissions. Emissions can be reduced by operating boilers with 50-60% load. In this case, chemical incompleteness of combustion is almost completely absent, and emissions of nitrogen oxides are reduced by 40-45%.

An important place in the choice of optimal operating modes of the boiler is occupied by operational and adjustment tests, in] the scope of which it is mandatory to include not only) work to improve the efficiency, but also studies on the release of pollutants with combustion products. As experience has shown, the timely and high-quality conduct of such tests makes it possible to achieve a significant reduction in emissions of harmful substances and, first of all, CO, soot and B (a) P. In this way, it is possible to achieve a reduction in NO* by 10-15%, chemical combustion incompleteness by 20 -25% or more. It is recommended that adjustment work be carried out at least once every 3 years.

A survey of heating boiler houses equipped with low-power boilers in Leningrad and the region showed that in a number of cases, burner devices (BU) do not correspond to either the type of boiler or its heat output. which leads to a malfunction of the boiler as a whole. More powerful than necessary, GU work with reduced loads. As a result, the amount of mixing of air with fuel decreases, and if a is not increased, then chemical incompleteness of combustion will appear, and the flame length will increase. In this case, less NO* is not compensated by reduced economy and increased emissions of CO, soot and B(a)P.

So far, in small boiler houses, the installation of hearth diffusion burners has taken place. The use of the latter has an extremely negative effect on the efficiency of using natural gas in small boilers. In addition, these burners give an increased emission of harmful substances.

The radical method this case is the replacement of obsolete burner designs with more advanced ones. In the presence of medium pressure gas, injection burners of full pre-triple mixing can be recommended. These are IGK burners, which are widely used in central regions our country, BIG burners (Table 26).

As can be seen from the table, block injection burners (BIG) have a number of advantages compared to IGK burners. Providing, like the IGK burners, an excess air ratio equal to 1.03–1.05, the BIG burners have a mass and length smaller by 36 and 29%, respectively. In addition, BIG burners create less noise that does not exceed established standards. When operating at nominal gas pressure, the sound pressure at a distance of 1 m from the burner does not exceed 82 dB. Sound pressure levels measured at standard frequencies were even lower, ranging from 68 dB at 31.5 Hz to 78 dB at 16,000 Hz.

In the presence of only low pressure gas in the boiler room, incomplete premix injection burners can be recommended. These are multi-torch burners and group burners designed by Lengiproinzhproekt.

The use of automated burner units provides greater efficiency in reducing emissions. Positive results were obtained in the study of block L1-n, which was intended for installation on a specialized Fakel type boiler, and later used on the Bratsk-1 G boiler. In addition, burners with forced air supply, for example, designs of Mosgazproekt, modernized burners of the GNP type, give good results.

When burning liquid fuels, the best performance in terms of pollutant emissions was obtained with rotary nozzles.

Comparison of the test results of the FAZh type pneumatic injector and the R-1-150 rotary injector showed that, with other equal conditions in the design mode, CO emissions with a rotary nozzle turned out to be 2.5 times lower, soot emissions 2 times lower, and NO* emissions higher by 30–35%.

When operating a solid fuel boiler, it is advisable to switch to mechanized furnace devices with a continuous combustion process. At present, improved designs of furnaces with a "screwing bar" of the Research Institute of Plumbing have been developed, which are equipped with boilers "Bratsk-I", "Universal-6", etc. In this case, an increase in boiler efficiency up to 85-90% and a decrease in harmful emissions are achieved.

The exclusion of cyclicity in the operation of a mechanized furnace eliminates the peak of emissions of harmful substances, which was observed during the period of "burning up" of the fuel. The height of this peak reached 13-103 mg/m3 for CO - 10* J O3, 100-180 mg/m3 for soot, and 100-110 mg/m3 for NO*. In addition, a continuous combustion process will reduce B(a)P emissions by 70-100 times.

The above methods of suppressing pollutant emissions have the most radical effect on the chemical incompleteness of combustion, but insignificantly on nitrogen oxide emissions and are ineffective in combating SOx. Effective way combat SO* is the combustion of fuels in the "fluidized bed" (CF).

For small boilers, fluidized bed furnaces are under development. The data below refers to larger boilers, such as DKV, etc.

It is possible to burn all main types of fuels and their wastes in the CS. For the binding of sulfur in the COP, Ca limestone or dolomite is added with the addition of fireclay crumbs. At $" - 1% optimal ratio Ca/5=3, the content of SOi in the combustion products is reduced by 90%. at Ca/S<2- на 80—85%.

The temperature of the "fluidized bed" usually varies between 750 and 900°C. Fractions of inert filler KS - fireclay chips or dolomite -0.6 -1.0 mm. limestone (ground chalk) - up to 2-2.5 mm. The sizes of coal fractions can be up to 10 mm, but not more than 30 mm. Fuels with a moisture content of up to 50% and an ash content of up to 60% are burned in the combustion chamber with a fairly high efficiency. Reduction of nitrogen oxides in comparison with traditional methods of coal combustion by more than 2 times.

The disadvantages of furnaces with a "fluidized bed" include, firstly, increased inertia, which increases losses during start-up and shutdown, and secondly, increased removal of solid particles, i.e., removal of small particles.

Atmospheric air pollution during the operation of boiler houses is affected by the quality of solid fuel.

A large share in the fuel supply of heating boiler houses is occupied by ordinary coals, the use of which on manual grates is extremely inefficient. As a result, both chemical and mechanical incompleteness of combustion increases. With an increase in the proportion of fines in excess of the allowable, it leads to a sharp increase in entrainment. In general, emissions of particulate matter (ash, coke, soot), carbon monoxide and carcinogens are increasing.

An increase in the ash content of fuel (there is a trend towards constant growth from year to year) has the same negative consequences. As shown by numerous studies, a significant increase in ash content is observed with improperly organized fuel storage.

in consumable warehouses at boiler houses. In many cases, these are completely unprepared sites, often cluttered. As a result of such storage, the amount of non-combustible impurities in the fuel increases by 8-13%. W increases the moisture content of the fuel.

In order to identify the influence on the quality of the fuel of the method of its storage B, under identical conditions, comparative combustion in the boilers "Energy-3" of differently stored fuel was carried out. In one of the boiler houses, fuel was stored on a specially prepared site, in the other directly on the ground with various materials, waste, etc. The efficiency in the first case turned out to be 1.8-2.4% higher, mainly only due to a decrease in Cl and q *. Accordingly, pollutant emissions were lower: particulate matter by 50-60%, CO2 by 20-30%.

Of great importance in improving the atmosphere of cities and towns is the transfer of small heating boilers from solid to liquid, and at best to gas fuel. Thus, the conditional indicator of the toxicity of combustion products will decrease, respectively, from solid to liquid and from solid to gas fuel by 2 and 3.5 times. This does not include B(a)P and other carcinogenic substances in the combustion products.

In the light of improving the environment, issues of improving the thermal and technical characteristics of combusted fuels, such as fuel enrichment, are extremely important. Fuel enrichment primarily involves increasing the calorific value by reducing the ash content and moisture content of the fuel.

The reduction of harmful emissions is influenced by various additives to fuel oil, which are widely used in the energy sector, but are practically not used in industrial and heating boilers, due to the lack of a sufficient amount of additives and the equipment necessary for their introduction.

The main effect of additives "po-" "y"

Quality of combustion, reduction of pollution, and corrosion of heating surfaces. A study on the TGMG1-N4 boiler of the effect of the additive "Kremalnt-1" (at a dose of 0.3 - 0.4 kg / t of fuel oil on combustion products showed that the amount of soot, B (a) P, SO * and NO * in them decreased 1.5-2 times.

Magnesium oxide additives to fuel oil reduce the formation of products of chemical incompleteness of combustion and soot, high-temperature corrosion and pipe contamination, nozzle coking is less. Magnesium additives (magnesite, dolomite) help prevent the formation of vanadium deposits on the heating surface.

In recent years, domestic stove fuel (TE1B, TU38 101-656-76) has been used for heating boilers. Studies have shown that such fuel without preheating can be burned in small-sized boiler furnaces with high efficiency and a low content of harmful components and combustion products. Since this fuel is not supplied enough, studies were carried out on the operation of boilers on heating oil with the addition of a certain amount of domestic furnace fuel to it. These studies have shown that such an additive leads not only to a sharp decrease in the viscosity of the liquid mixture, but also to the intensification of mixture formation due to earlier boiling and evaporation of light fractions. In addition, the speed and completeness of the mixture burning out within the stomp at the nominal and exceeding its boiler power increased. Experimental studies were carried out in heating boiler rooms on boilers of the "Tula-b" type. "Energia-3", "Universal-6" and MG-2T, equipped with R-1-150 type nozzles. AR-90, FAZh and pneumatic nozzles with fungal nozzles designed by "Lenoblenergo"

The reliability of the operation of boiler sections is closely related to the intensification of the process of burning liquid fuel into a torch. due to the length of the latter, preventing1 touching the flame of the cast-iron sections, the local thermal stresses of the walls of the sections are reduced. Their pollution with soot particles is sharply reduced. As a result, the heating surfaces operate under more favorable temperature conditions, which prevent the section wall temperature from rising beyond the allowable values.

Another direction that increases the efficiency of fuel oil combustion in cast iron heating boilers. is the use of specially prepared oil-water emulsions as fuel.

With an increase in the water content in the water-oil emulsion from 2 to 10 -12%, a sharp decrease occurs

the formation of soot particles, CO and nitrogen oxides. With a further increase in water in the emulsion, the content of products of incomplete combustion stabilizes and then increases. The content of nitrogen oxides continues to decrease evenly with the increase in water in the emulsion. The stabilization and subsequent growth of products of incomplete combustion is explained by the fact that a decrease in the flame temperature due to an increase in the amount of water begins to have a more significant effect on the combustion rate than the effect of microcrushing of emulsified droplets. At N" = 10% in the emulsion, the content of NO decreased by 34%. The decrease in emissions of products of incomplete combustion is explained by the intensification of the process of their burning out due to the microcrushing of emulsified fuel droplets, as well as the intensification of carbon oxidation with an increase in the partial pressure of water vapor. Reducing emissions in atmosphere of CO and soot reaches 50% at WME humidity of the order of 10-11%.

Comparing the data on the volume of emissions of harmful substances and the efficiency of work, we can conclude that the optimal water content in the water-oil emulsion is 9-12%. However, this value will be optimal only for these methods of preparing WME and only for cast-iron boilers of the types indicated above. For other cases, this optimum value must be found experimentally.

All solid fuel boilers must be equipped with a gas cleaning system. In fact, in most cases, these ash collectors are not available in boiler houses, or, where these devices are installed, their efficiency is lower than passport data due to poor maintenance.

Ash collectors of the NIIGAZ type and battery cyclones in the design modes have a fractional coefficient of catching particles with a size of 3 microns less than 50%. At the same time, smaller particles pose the greatest health hazard. With the help of these devices, it is possible to capture these 9-12%. However, this value will be optimal only for these methods of preparing WME and only for cast-iron boilers of the types indicated above. For other cases, this optimum value must be found experimentally.

Another important aspect of research on the combustion of water-fuel emulsions and suspensions is the possibility of using as an additive not pure water, but various bottom waters containing impurities of oil, oils, circulating waters of technological production, etc. Thermal neutralization of such waste waters during their combustion in the form water-fuel emulsions are beneficial both from an economic and environmental point of view due to a reduction in the cost of wastewater treatment and a decrease in pollution of the water basin as a whole.

As ash collectors are used:

blocks of cyclones TsKTI or NIIOGAZ with a volume of flue gases from 6000 to 20 000 m3/h (boiler rooms equipped with 2-6 cast-iron boilers). The cleaning ratio is not lower than 85 ^ 90%;

battery cyclones with a volume of gases from 15,000 to 150,000 m3 / h (heating boiler houses with more than 5 boilers). The cleaning ratio is not lower than 85-92%.

All solid fuel boilers must be equipped with a gas cleaning system. In fact, in most cases, these ash collectors are not available in boiler houses, or, where these devices are installed, their efficiency is lower than passport data due to poor maintenance.

Ash collectors of the NIIGAZ type and battery cyclones in the design modes have a fractional coefficient of catching particles with a size of 3 microns less than 50%. At the same time, smaller particles pose the greatest health hazard. With the help of these devices, it is possible to capture about

10% of sooty particles adsorbed on the surface of large ash and coke fractions.

Currently, only large CHPPs and TPPs use more modern systems with fabric filters made of temperature-resistant materials, scrubbers capable of capturing particles with a size of 0.5 microns with an efficiency of 70-90%, high-temperature electrostatic precipitators that capture particles larger than 1 micron with an efficiency of 97, 6-99.9%.

The use of the latter is economically unprofitable and difficult to implement in heating boiler houses, two other methods are available.

Chimneys are used to disperse harmful emissions into the atmospheric air. Pipes ensure the spread of pollutants in the ambient air, thereby reducing their hazardous impact on human health and the environment in the surface zone. Chimneys do not reduce absolute emissions, but allow them to be scattered over a large area.

It should be emphasized that this expensive measure should be used after all possible ways to reduce pollutant emissions have been exhausted.

Pest control and cleaning methods should not be opposed. fuels and gases dispersing them in the atmosphere.

Chimneys that have a significant height (up to 300 m or more) and powerful exhaust gases work most efficiently. Small heating boilers cannot provide such gas removal. In addition, the construction of high pipes in residential areas for heating boilers is technically difficult and expensive.

High wind speeds increase and accelerate the dilution of pollutants in the atmosphere, resulting in lower ground concentrations downwind of the stack.

Under certain conditions, the speed

wind can reach "dangerous" values ​​when it is close to or higher than the speed of the exit of gases from the mouth of the pipe. In this case, under a certain state of the atmosphere, maximum concentrations of harmful impurities are observed at the level of people's breathing. To prevent this phenomenon, it is necessary that the flue exit rate.

The environment is not just what is around a person, it is on it that people's health depends, as well as the ability to live on this planet for future generations. If it is irresponsible to approach its preservation, then it is quite likely that the destruction of the entire human race will occur. Therefore, everyone should be aware of the state of nature, as well as what contribution he can make to its protection or restoration.

What depends on the environment?

All life on Earth depends on how good the environment is. At the same time, it is impossible to take into account any particular area, since all systems have a certain relationship with each other:

• atmosphere;
• oceans;
• sushi;
• ice sheets;
• biosphere;
• water streams.

And every system is threatened in one way or another. But after a certain area is exposed to too much negative impact, various natural disasters can occur. Those, in turn, without fail threaten the lives of people. Therefore, everything depends on the environment, from a favorable human life to the preservation of natural resources for future generations.

Supervision of all systems is carried out by responsible persons. However, as has been pointed out, every person will suffer if any area reaches a critical point leading to a natural disaster. For this reason, everyone must ensure that nature remains in its original state, or, if it has already been violated, every effort is required to restore it.

Nature and environment

Virtually every person has an impact on the environment, regardless of their occupation. Some of them do really useful things, with the help of which vast wealth can be conveyed to future generations - clean air and water, untouched nature, and so on. However, most people have a negative impact, which gradually destroys everything that the planet gives humanity.

Fortunately, many countries in our time are well aware of the importance of the environment, their responsibility for its safety. And it is precisely for this reason that it is possible to save individual natural wealth, resources, without which the environment will perish, and soon after it, all of humanity.

Both countries in general and individual organizations in particular need to pay their attention not only to virgin areas of nature, but also to those that really need human help. These are marine ecosystems, the atmosphere, because people's health directly depends on them. Therefore, the conservation of nature and the environment surrounding mankind is based not only on responsibility for a specific area, but also for their totality, interconnection. If we take chemical waste as an example, then they should be considered not only as elements that spoil human health, but also as those that harm nature.

Human-environment interaction

It is known that not only environmental resources and their safety, but also human health depend on the release of chemical waste into the atmosphere or marine ecosystems. In this regard, by 2020 it is planned to completely eliminate such pollution, not even reduce it to a minimum. For this reason, nowadays all those enterprises that deal with chemicals must submit detailed reports on how the waste is disposed of.

If there is an increased concentration of substances that are harmful to humans in the atmosphere, it is necessary to quickly reduce their level. But this requires the participation of all people, and not just those organizations that have a certain responsibility for protecting the environment. There is a generally accepted and undeniable opinion that it is extremely important for a person to spend time outdoors. This benefits him, helps to correct or maintain health at a good level. However, if he inhales chemical waste, then this will not only not contribute to the task, but also harm. Therefore, the more responsible each individual behaves in relation to the environment, the more likely it is to preserve and maintain it for many years.

marine ecosystems

Many countries and states are surrounded by large bodies of water. In addition, the water cycle cannot be ignored. Therefore, any city, even if it is located in the center of the mainland, is directly related to marine ecosystems. Consequently, the life of all people on the planet is connected with the oceans, therefore the preservation and protection of the water space is far from the last task.

The Department of the Environment simply cannot do without the work of protecting marine ecosystems. Its mission is to minimize pollution of the oceans. Unfortunately, modern human activity cannot eliminate this factor, but it is necessary to strive to reduce it.

The sources that pollute the hydrosphere are as follows:

1. Communal economy.
2. Transport.
3. Industry.
4. Non-manufacturing area.

The maximum negative effect is exerted by industrial emissions into rivers or seas of various wastes.

Air pollution

The atmosphere is a system that has several ways of self-defense. However, the negative impact on the environment in our time is so great that it does not have enough strength for defense activities, as a result of which it gradually wears out.

There are several main sources that pollute the atmosphere:

1. Chemical industry.
2. Transport.
3. Power industry.
4. Metallurgy.

Among them, aerosol pollution is especially frightening, which means that particles are emitted into the atmosphere in a liquid or solid state, but they are not part of its permanent composition.

However, oxides of carbon or sulfur are more dangerous. It is they who lead to the greenhouse effect, which results in an increase in temperature on the continents and so on. Therefore, it is necessary to carefully monitor the composition of the air, since additional impurities will sooner or later affect humanity.

Ways to protect the environment

The higher the negative impact on nature, the more organizations should be created that will not only be responsible for its protection, but also disseminate information that helps all the inhabitants of the planet understand how dangerous pollution is. Consequently, with the growth of harm, protective measures are also intensified.

International includes several methods of conservation of nature and its resources:

1. Creation of purification facilities. They can exert their influence only on marine resources or the atmosphere, or they can serve in a complex.
2. Development of new cleaning technologies. This is usually done by companies that work with chemicals to facilitate disposal or increase the positive impact in a particular system.
3. Proper placement of dirty industries. Security companies and organizations still cannot answer the question of where exactly the respective enterprises should be located, but it is being actively resolved.

In a word, if a solution to the problem of the ecological state of the planet is sought, then it is necessary for all representatives of the world community to do this. Nothing can be done alone.

Payment for pollution

Since today there are no countries where human activity is not associated with some enterprises, environmental fees are charged. This process takes place in accordance with the law adopted in 2002.

A common mistake companies engaged in dirty production is that after paying for the conservation of nature, they continue the process of negative impact on it. In fact, this can lead to criminal liability. The payment of the fee does not at all exempt from liability, and each enterprise is obliged to strive to reduce the harm, or even eliminate it altogether.

Conclusion

In conclusion, we can say that the environment is the totality of all those elements that are around people. It was she who provided the opportunity for evolution, for the emergence of the human race. Therefore, the main goal of our time is its protection, purification and preservation. If this does not happen, then in just a few centuries the planet will turn into a place unsuitable for human life and activity.

Protection of Nature- a set of state and general educational activities aimed at preserving the atmosphere, flora and fauna, soils, waters and earth's interior.

In the 50s. 20th century there is another form of protection - the protection of the human environment. This concept, similar in meaning to the protection of nature, puts a person in the center of attention, the preservation and formation of such natural conditions that are most favorable for his life, health and well-being.

Environmental protection- represents a system of state and public measures (technological, economic, administrative and legal, educational, international) aimed at the harmonious interaction of society and nature, the preservation and reproduction of existing ecological communities and natural resources for the sake of living and future generations. The new environmental Federal Law (2002) uses the term "environmental protection", while "natural environment" is understood as the most important component of the environment. In recent years, the term "protection of the natural environment" is also often used, which is close to another concept - "protection of the biosphere" i.e. a system of measures aimed at eliminating the negative anthropogenic or natural influence on the interconnected blocks of the biosphere, at maintaining its evolutionary organization and ensuring normal functioning.

The protection of the natural environment is closely related to nature management - social and production activities aimed at meeting the material and cultural needs of society through the use of various types of natural resources and natural conditions. According to N. F. Reimers (1992), it includes:

a) protection, renewal and reproduction of natural resources, their extraction and processing;

b) the use and protection of the natural conditions of the human environment;

c) preservation, restoration and rational change of the ecological balance of natural systems;

d) regulation of human reproduction and the number of people.

nature management may be rational or irrational. Rational nature management means a comprehensive, scientifically sound, environmentally safe and non-exhaustive use of natural resources, with the maximum possible preservation of the natural resource potential and the ability of ecosystems to self-regulate. Irrational nature management does not ensure the conservation of natural resource potential, leads to a deterioration in the quality of the natural environment, is accompanied by a violation of the ecological balance and destruction of ecosystems.

At the present stage of development of the problem of environmental protection, a new concept of "environmental safety" is being born, which means the state of protection of the natural environment and the vital environmental interests of a person from the possible negative impact of economic and other activities, emergency situations, their consequences.

The scientific basis for all measures to ensure the environmental safety of the population and rational nature management is theoretical ecology, the most important principles of which are focused on maintaining the homeostasis of ecosystems and preserving the animal potential.

Ecosystems have the following limiting boundaries of such existence (existence, functioning), which must be taken into account in the event of anthropogenic impact (Saiko, 1985):
pre-anthropotolerance - resistance to negative anthropogenic impacts, for example, the harmful effects of pesticides;
limit stohetolerance - resistance against natural disasters, for example, the effect of hurricane winds on forest ecosystems;
limit of homeostasis - the ability to self-regulate;
potential regenerative limit, i.e. ability to self-heal.
Environmentally sound rational nature management should consist in the maximum possible increase in these limits in order to achieve environmentally balanced nature management. Irrational nature management and ultimately leads to an ecological crisis.
The ecological crisis is a real threat to humanity

Environmental activities in Russia

Certain efforts have been made to protect nature in our country in different periods. Laws on environmental protection in the USSR were adopted in the 70-80s of the XX century.

In 1991, the Law of the RSFSR "On the Protection of the Environment" was adopted. First of all, it defines the principles of protection
environment: the priority of protecting human life and health,
combination of economic and environmental interests,
rational use of natural resources, publicity and
openness of environmental information, etc.

The law establishes the rights citizens in the field of environmental protection, the main legal institutions for nature protection, specially protected natural areas, zones of environmental emergency, as well as requirements for various types of activities, the basics of environmental control and education, types of environmental offenses and responsibility for them. The law contains a set of rules for its protection in conditions of economic development and is thus the Environmental Code of Russia. The objectives of this law can be divided into three parts:

Protection of the natural environment (and through it, human health)

Prevention of the harmful effects of economic and their activities;

Improvement of the environment and improvement of its qualities

The leading principle aimed at solving these problems, the law calls the combination of environmental and economic interests, scientifically substantiated from the point of view of preserving, and, if necessary, restoring the natural environment and human health. This scientifically substantiated combination should establish standards for the quality of the natural environment - maximum permissible standards for exposure (chemical, physical, biological, etc.), maximum permissible concentrations of harmful substances, maximum permissible emissions, discharges of harmful substances, norms for radiation and electromagnetic effects, noise , vibrations, norms of harmful residual substances in foodstuffs, etc. In order to ensure the implementation of environmental quality standards, the law forms environmental requirements for all economic structures and citizens who are responsible for their failure to comply. It is prohibited to finance and implement projects and programs that have not received a positive conclusion from the state environmental review. The commission for the acceptance of completed construction includes representatives of environmental protection and sanitary and epidemiological control authorities. Without their signature, the object is not accepted. The law establishes the imposition of a large fine on members of the acceptance commissions for accepting objects for operation in violation of environmental requirements. The Criminal Code of the Russian Federation allows bringing such persons to criminal responsibility for negligence or abuse of official position.

For the first time in our legislation, the law includes a section that reflects the right of citizens to a healthy and favorable natural environment. The real guarantees of this right are the standards of maximum permissible harmful effects, the system of environmental control over their implementation and responsibility for non-compliance. The right of citizens and public environmental movements to provide environmental information, participate in environmental expertise, demand its appointment, hold rallies, demonstrations, apply to administrative and judicial authorities with applications for the suspension or termination of the activities of environmentally harmful facilities, with claims for compensation for harm caused to health and property. The amount of harm caused is recovered from the causer, and if it is impossible to establish it, then at the expense of the appropriate state environmental fund, i.e. in this case, the state is responsible to the citizen. The law includes two categories of factors in the economic mechanism of environmental protection: positive and negative. Their goal is to ensure the economic interest of the nature user in limiting the harmful impact on nature. Positive factors create direct economic incentives for nature conservation and provide funding, credit, benefits, and reduced taxation.