Topic. Stylistic functions obsolete forms the words
Target lesson:
Reveal the reasons active processes that occurred in vocabulary, morphology, orthoepy, to consolidate skills lexical analysis;
Create conditions for the formation of the ability to determine the role of words with limited scope use in fiction, lexicology, lexicography;
- to form an interest in philological analysis as special kind creative activity.
During the classes
Organizing time.
Checking homework
Updating of basic knowledge
I. Teacher's word. (Students take notes.)
Words, like people, are born, live, grow old, retire, and do not go out of active use and even "die" ...
Today, for example, when measuring length, no one uses the words"arshin", "sazhen". But our great-grandmothers could say: “I bought three arshins of cloth” or “Six miles to the city”. Indeed, they have changedtimes, and only on the pages works of art, proverbs and sayings you can find these words.
(serious changes in the Russian language have also occurred at the phonetic level, they are called phonetic archaisms in linguistics.
Put stress on the words:
enlightened, red-hot, ghost, epigraph, doomed Outdated rules:enlightened [e], red-hot [e], ghost, epigraph, doomed [e]
Similar changes have taken place in the sound of some words,For example, unvoiced combinations of sounds.
Compare: gold - gold, breg - coast, hail - city, vran - raven, young - young, country - side etc. These include those found in the works of writers and poetsXIX century words klob - club(modern), number - number (modern), support curtain(owl), hospital - hospital(modern) and others.
Thus, phonetic archaisms were used by many writers and poets as a means of stylization.
Such changes occur not only in orthoepy, but also at other levels of the language. So, in works of art there are words with obsolete suffixes, prefixes!museum - (modern museum), give thanks - (modern thank you, fisherman - (modern. fisherman). Such archaisms are called derivational.
More often among archaisms there are words that are no less obsolete in some part, but completely as a lexical unit
Determine the meaning of the words:eye - eye, mouth - lips, cheeks - cheeks, right hand - right hand, Shuytsa - left hand, right hand W on the right, left hand - on the left.
These examples show that obsolete words differ from each other in terms of their degree of archaism: some are still found in speech, others are known only from the works of writers of the last century, and there are those that are no longer used at all.
The fate of words is determined not by “age”, but by their use in speech. There are changes in social phenomena, in the system of relationships between people in society, many of the concepts that were designated by these words also disappear. Words that served as the names of disappeared objects, concepts, phenomena are called historicisms.
Now we do not bow to the volost foremen and clerks. We can meet these words in historical literature, in works of art that tell about the past of ouron the kind. They help to recreate the color of the era, give a description of the past, features of historical authenticity.
2. Work on an excerpt from the novel by A. N. Tolstoy “Peter the First (The text for analysis is written from dictation).
Previously, at every boyar court, at the gates, arrogant serfs in hats knocked over their ears sneered, played svayk, threw money, or simply - did not allow passage for either horse or foot - laughter, pampering, grabbing with their hands. Today the gates are closed tightly, it is quiet in the wide yard, the little people are taken to] the war, boyar sons and sons-in-law in the regiments as non-commissioned officers, or sent overseas, underage sent to schools - to learn navigation! mathematics and fortification, the boyar himself sits idle at the open window - he is glad that even for a short time, Tsar Peter, after] leaving, does not force him to smoke tobacco, scrape his beard or in knee-length white stockings, in a wig of woman's hair - until navel - believing aunts and twitching legs.
Questions for analysis
Explain the punctuation in the first sentence.
Read the passage carefully. Do you understand all the words in the text?
grin - to make fun of someone, and also to laugh in general, to joke.
Pile: 1) an old Russian game in which a large nail is thrown so that its sharp end hits the middle of a ring lying on the ground; 2) nail for this game.
Undergrowth: 1) in Russia XVIIcentury, a young nobleman who has not reached the age of majority and has not entered the public service; 2) (transl.) A stupid young man is a dropout.
Serf: 1) in Ancient Russia dependent person, serf, servant; 2) (trans.) a person ready for anything out of servility, sycophancy.
Fortification: 1) military engineering science of strengthening the terrain for combat; 2) military engineering structures.
Write down histories. Let's define their role in the text.(Boyarsky yard, yard serfs, a wide yard, boyar sons, learn navigation, fortification, boyar, tsar, non-commissioned officers, undergrowth.)
Find obsolete words in the text.(Svayka, throwing money.)
- Why did A. Tolstoy use historicisms and archaisms in the work?(The era of Peter the Great is being recreated, an opportunity is given to paint a picture of the past.)
III . Independent work students
The texts are written on the board.
1) Fear, O army of foreigners! Russia's sons moved; Risen and old and young;
They fly on the daring ones, Their hearts are kindled with vengeance.
(A. S. Pushkin "Memories of Tsarskoye Selo")
- Find archaisms in the text, determine their type.(Phonetic archaisms: both old and young, foreign, daring, revenge.) What other archaisms did you come across in this passage?(Derivational.)
For what purpose did the poet use archaisms?(The old versions in this passage give the text a sublime sound.)
2) In the crowd mighty sons,
With friends, in a tall gridiron, Vladimir the Sun feasted; He gave out the younger daughter to the brave prince Ruslan. And honey from a heavy glass I drank for their health
■ (A. S. Pushkin poem "Ruslan and Lyudmila")
- Highlight historicisms and archaisms in this passage, indicateRaya their personal types. (Historicisms: gridnitsa, prince. Phonetic archaism: lesser, derivational archaism: heavy semantic archaism: honey [e].)
What function do archaisms andista risms? (These words create the flavor of antiquity when depicting antiquity, recreate a picture of life in the era of Kievan Rusil
Do you think there are cases of return to the modern language! obsolete words and historicism?(So, the words of a soldier, officer ensign, minister, adviser to modern language will receive new life, since in the first years of the revolution they became apt chaisms, but then again acquired a new meaning, the following words are also born: State Duma> lyceum, gymnasium, labor exchange and others.)
1. Prepare a coherent story about archaisms and historicisms.
archaisms completely disappear from the language. This was the case, for example, with old Russian words komon - “horse”, usnie - “skin” (hence the barb), worm - “kind of shoes”. Separate obsolete words are sometimes returned to the vocabulary of the active vocabulary. For example, words not used for some time soldier, officer, warrant officer, gymnasium, lyceum, promissory note, stock exchange, department now again actively used in speech.
The special emotional and expressive coloring of obsolete words leaves an imprint on their semantics. “To say that, for example, the verbs to go and walk (...) have such and such meanings without defining them stylistic role, - wrote D.N. Shmelev, - this means, in essence, to abandon precisely their semantic definition, replacing it approximate formula subject-conceptual comparisons. This places obsolete words in a special stylistic framework and requires great attention to them.
As part of the archaic vocabulary, historicisms and archaisms are distinguished. Historicisms include words that are the names of disappeared objects, phenomena, concepts ( chain mail, hussar, tax in kind, NEP, October(child of younger school age, preparing to join the pioneers), NKVDist (NKVD employee - People's Commissariat internal affairs), commissar, etc.). Historicism can be associated both with very distant epochs, and with events of relatively recent times, which, however, have already become facts of history ( Soviet authority, party activist, general secretary, politburo). Historicisms do not have synonyms among the words of the active vocabulary, being the only names of the corresponding concepts.
They are the names of existing things and phenomena, for some reason displaced by other words belonging to active vocabulary(cf.: everyday - always, comedian - actor, gold - gold, to know - to know).
Obsolete words are heterogeneous in origin: among them there are primordially Russian (full, shelom), Old Slavonic ( smooth, kiss, shrine), borrowed from other languages (abshid - "resignation", voyage - "journey").
Of particular interest in stylistic terms are words of Old Slavonic origin, or Slavicisms. A significant part of Slavicisms assimilated on Russian soil and stylistically merged with neutral Russian vocabulary ( sweet, captivity, hello), but there are also Old Slavonic words, which in modern language are perceived as an echo high style and retain its characteristic solemn, rhetorical coloring.
The history of poetic vocabulary associated with ancient symbolism and imagery (the so-called poetisms) is similar to the fate of Slavicisms in Russian literature. Names of gods and heroes of Greek and Roman mythology, special poetic symbols ( lyre, ellisium, Parnassus, laurels, myrtle), artistic images ancient literature in the first third of the 19th century. formed an integral part of the poetic vocabulary. Poetic vocabulary, like Slavs, strengthened the opposition between sublime, romantically colored speech and everyday, prosaic speech. However, these traditional means of poetic vocabulary were not used for long in fiction. Already the successors of A.S. Pushkin's poeticisms are archaic.
Writers often refer to obsolete words as means of expression artistic speech. The history of the use of Old Slavonic vocabulary in Russian fiction, especially in poetry, is interesting. Stylistic Slavisms made up a significant part of the poetic vocabulary in the works of writers of the first third of the 19th century. Poets found in this vocabulary a source of sublimely romantic and "sweet" sounding of speech. Slavicisms that have consonant variants in Russian, primarily non-vowel ones, were shorter than Russian words by one syllable and were used in the 18th-19th centuries. on the rights of "poetic liberties": poets could choose from two words one that corresponded to the rhythmic structure of speech ( I will sigh, and my languid voice, like a harp's voice, will die quietly in the air.- Bat.). Over time, the tradition of "poetic liberties" is overcome, but obsolete vocabulary attracted poets and writers as strong remedy expression.
Obsolete words perform various stylistic functions in artistic speech. Archaisms and historicisms are used to recreate the color of distant times. In this function, they were used, for example, by A.N. Tolstoy:
« Earth ottich and dedich- these are the shores deep rivers and forest clearings where our ancestor came to live forever. (...) he fenced his dwelling with a fence and looked along the path of the sun into the distance of centuries.
And he imagined a lot - heavy and hard times: Igor's red shields Polovtsian steppes, and the groans of the Russians on the Kalka, and the peasant spears installed under the banners of Dmitry on the Kulikovo field, and the ice covered with blood Lake Peipsi, and the Terrible Tsar, who parted united, now indestructible, the limits of the earth from Siberia to the Varangian Sea ... ".
The use of obsolete words without considering them expressive coloring causes rough stylistic mistakes. For example: Sponsors in the boarding school were welcomed with joy; The laboratory assistant went to the chief and told him about what had happened. . The young entrepreneur quickly saw the efficiency of his manager- in these sentences, Slavicisms are archaic. The word welcome is not even included in the "Dictionary of the Russian Language" by S.I. Ozhegov, in the Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language, ed. D.N. Ushakov, it is given with a litter (obsolete, poet.); Ozhegov marked the word to tell (outdated), and Ushakov - (outdated, rhetor.); see has a litter (old). A context in which there is no setting for a humorous coloring of speech does not allow the use of obsolete words; should be replaced with synonyms greeted, told, saw[noted]).
Sometimes authors, using an obsolete word, distort its meaning. For example: As a result of a stormy meeting of the household, the repair of the house was started- the word household, which has a litter (outdated) in the Ozhegov dictionary, is explained as “people who live in a family as its members”, and in the text it is used in the meaning of “residents”. Another example from a newspaper article: At the meeting, even the most unpleasant shortcomings in the work were revealed.. The word impartial means "impartial", besides, it has limited opportunities lexical compatibility(only criticism can be impartial). Misuse archaisms are very often complicated by a violation of lexical compatibility: Andreev was certified as a person who worked on this path for a very long time(the path is chosen, the path is followed, but they do not work on it).
Sometimes the meaning of an obsolete grammatical form of a word is distorted. For example: He refuses to testify, but that's not the point. Essence - third person form plural verb to be, and the subject is in singular, the bundle must be consistent with it.
Outdated words can give the text a clerical coloring. ( Similar buildings, not required at one building site, are required at another; Practice must be done in the right space.). AT business papers, where many archaisms have taken root as terms, the use of such special vocabulary should be appropriate. It is impossible, for example, to consider stylistically justified the appeal to obsolete turns of speech at your discretion, I enclose herewith, the above-named offender, upon receipt of such etc.
The stylists point out that recent times obsolete words are spreading outside literary language; and often they are assigned a new value. For example, the word vtune is incorrectly used, which has a mark (obsolete) in Ozhegov's dictionary and is explained by synonyms fruitless, in vain [Intentions to find a reasonable compromise remained in vain; The issues of creating crop rotations and the use of a complex of fertilizers remain in vain(better: A reasonable compromise could not be found; ... Crop rotation has not been introduced and a complex of fertilizers has not been applied)]:
With frequent repetition, obsolete words sometimes lose the shade of archaism that distinguished them earlier. This can be seen in the example of the word now. In Ozhegov, this adverb is given with stylistic marks (obsolete) and (high) [cf .: ... now, along the renewed shores, slender masses are crowding palaces and towers ...(P.)]. Contemporary authors often used as a stylistically neutral word. For example: Many MIMO graduates are now diplomats; There are not so many students at the faculty today who would be content with a scholarship- in the first sentence, the word now should have been omitted, and in the second, replaced with a synonym now. So neglect stylistic coloring obsolete words inevitably leads to speech errors.
I.I. Sreznevsky wrote: “Each word is a representative of a concept that was among the people: what was expressed in a word was in life; what was not in life, for that there was no word. Every word for the historian is a witness, a monument, a fact of the life of the people, all the more important than more important concept, which is expressed by it. Complementing one another, they together represent a system of concepts of the people, the more important, the more important the concept they express. Complementing one another, they together represent the system of concepts of the people, convey the true story of the life of the people” [Sreznevsky 1887: 35].
The stylistic and stylistic functions of archaisms and historicisms in the modern language are defined as:
A) reflection language style eras;
B) the creation of solemnity and poetry of speech;
C) stylization - recreation of the language of the era;
D) lowering the stylistic assessment (ironic, jocular, mocking, contempt, disapproval, etc.).
From listed functions the most important is the first (recreation of color historical era), since a historical description is impossible without the use of obsolete vocabulary. unlike some other vocabulary groups limited use(for example, from special vocabulary), the meanings of obsolete words are rarely subjected to figurative rethinking in the text of historical prose. Historicisms and archaisms are usually used in their direct meaning. Therefore, it is of particular importance that stylistic device as an introduction of obsolete vocabulary into an artistic context. A writer using this technique is faced with the fact that many historicisms or archaisms are incomprehensible to readers. This requires further explanation in the text. If the author uses obscure words without explanation, then they sound “waste” [Larin 1974: 237] and do not perform an aesthetic and informational function.
Historicisms and archaisms fall into two groups from the point of view of understanding their meanings by native speakers of the modern Russian language: obsolete words that are used quite often, preserved in famous works Russian classics, used in contemporary literature and therefore understandable a wide range readers (eyes, military, prince, thief, rope, hand, etc.), and obscure historicisms and archaisms that require mandatory explanation when they are used for stylization purposes.
The interpretation in footnotes and dictionaries is quite common, although this method of introducing obscure words into the context is far from the most successful, since this violates the perception of integrity. artistic text. As B.A. Larin wrote about dialectisms (to which he attributed different groups words of limited use): “... this is an unfavorable, awkward way of enriching the literary language, it is borrowed from scientific practice, but is rarely appropriate in fiction" [Larin 1974: 234].
Another way of introducing obsolete vocabulary into the context seems to be more successful: correlating meanings with the meanings of commonly used words of the modern lexicon directly in the narrative text, using semantic parallels, synonyms - the entire "environment" that helps to clarify the meaning of an obsolete word:
And whoever does not buy is a pervetnik, an accomplice to enemies.
The friend took pity on the boy.
Lyubava in leather performances on bare feet ...
In the texts of fiction, there are words / meanings of words that are archaic with modern point vision. But here it is necessary to distinguish:
archaization of our linguistic time - the end of the 20th - the beginning of the 21st century;
archaization of the linguistic time of text creation.
Therefore, there are two aspects of the analysis of lexical archaization: the archaization of the time when the work was written and the archaization of the modern reading of the work.
When stylized, the language of a bygone era is not at all reproduced exactly. Sometimes, to achieve the desired effect, the author only needs a few words that fall on the canvas of the narrative, reflecting the old word order. Interestingly, very often such words are pronouns and official words: this, this, so that, because, etc.
Speaking about the role of obsolete words in works that tell about the events of the past, it should be emphasized that, unlike archaisms that carry a purely stylistic load, historicisms, in addition, perform a nominative function, being the only possible designations for those things that the author writes about.
On the use of obsolete vocabulary in historical novels G. O. Vinokur wrote [Vinokur 1991]. Aesthetically justified, in view of the impossibility of a continuous stylization of the language of the depicted time, G.O. Vinokur recognized the principle of greater or lesser approximation to the language of the era, which should be based on the understanding that “there is no strict parallelism between the history of language and the history of life” [Vinokur 1991 : 411]. In this regard, he put forward a very important thesis about the creative expediency of relying in linguistic stylization not on the “fluid”, changeable, but on the “eternal” and general - i.e. to something that can make the language of a historical work understandable and aesthetically satisfying for the reader, while at the same time responding to his desire to feel the color of the era. Attention should be paid to the following statement on the following statement by Vinokur: “... I have the right to say that, without any doubt, you can write a novel for any historical theme without a single linguistic archaism, exclusively by means of a neutral linguistic reserve…” [Vinokur 1991: 414-415].
It is also important here that the concept of neutrality is understood as absolute. The author saw no obstacles to expanding the boundaries of this concept, believing that everything is dictated by the needs of aesthetic conformity. And in this sense, G. O. Vinokur distinguishes between language anachronisms and material anachronisms. If writers are looking for a style that is not content with a neutral layer of language, but requires material evidence taken from the language of the era depicted, then the language itself is included in the circle of those objects that are depicted in these works. And then a proper poetic task arises: the correspondence of the language to the depicted ceases to be an external, technical problem. She, according to the author, "becomes urgent artistic problem image" [Vinokur 1991: 415], when the aesthetic criterion is equal to the criterion of credibility and persuasiveness.
G. O. Vinokur notes: “For a whole century, we have been competing in realistic fiction with two main styles: 1. Imitating and 2. Non-imitating. This is the new contradiction that realism brought with it” [Vinokur 1991: 417.]. differential sign The "non-imitating" style is a sharp distinction between the speech of the author and the character, which can be replaced by the fact that the character speaks in the author's way, and not vice versa. The differential feature of the "imitating" style is the inevitable merging of the author and the character in character speech, "certainly associated with the "stucco", "ornamental" sense of the language, and not with its strict geometric pattern".
A historical novel must necessarily be written in the language of the author and his milieu, and at the same time, it must be the language not of the author and his milieu, but of the epoch he depicts. Consequently, we can only talk about a greater or lesser approximation to the language of the depicted environment and era, i.e. about a certain selection of imitated or cited facts of language. This can only be achieved by a certain selection of the means available to the author who studies the epoch which serves him as a theme.
State educational institution
higher professional education
Branch of RSSU in Sochi
abstract
Department: “Translation and Translation Studies”
By discipline: "Stylistics of the Russian language and culture of speech"
On the topic: "Stylistic functions of obsolete words in artistic speech"
Completed by: 1st year student
Babaeva Leyla Vagifovna
- Specialties: "Linguist translator"
Sochi 2010
Content:
Introduction…………………………………………………………………………… 1
1. Archaic vocabulary in the system of the Russian language……………………………2
1.1 The concept of archaisms. Processes of archaization and renewal of Russian vocabulary……………………………………………………………………………….2-7
1.2 Linguistic science of archaisms and their stylistic use…… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Conclusion………………………………………………………………………….13
List of used literature
Introduction
Each word in the Russian language has its own "life", some of the words forever disappear from everyday life due, for example, to the disappearance of the concept itself, which was denoted by one or another word. Obsolete words - words that are not used in modern Russian, are divided into two groups: archaisms and historicisms. A distinctive feature of these concepts is that historicisms are the names of objects that eventually disappeared from life forever, and archaisms are obsolete names of objects and concepts that are still present in modern life, but for one reason or another got a different name.
Understanding the concept of "obsolete words" is necessary in order not to make mistakes in the style of the text, while errors in the use of historicisms or archaisms are associated with ignorance of them lexical meaning. In other words, historicisms do not have synonyms, but archaisms do.
Historicisms - obsolete words that do not have synonyms include the following names and phrases: armyak, camisole, bursa, oprichnik, classy lady, arshin, attorney, general-in-chief, your excellency, mademoiselle, chinkhonets, seamstress, potbelly stove, partyhohaktiv, etc. .
With archaisms, the situation is somewhat more difficult. Obsolete words of this group have synonyms and are divided into three categories:
1. phonetic - obsolete words that differ from modern synonyms in terms of sound, for example: young - young; shore - shore; gold - gold; number - number; hospital - hospital; hall - hall, etc.
2. derivational - archaisms in which an outdated suffix is used that is not applicable to modern vocabulary, for example: museum - museum; assistance - assistance; to flirt - to flirt; here - in general, etc.
3. lexical - obsolete words that have completely gone out of use, which have been replaced by modern synonyms, for example: eye - eye; mouth - lips; lanitis - cheeks; right hand - right hand; stogna - area; rescript - decree; this - this one; to speak - to speak; face - face, etc.
Despite the fact that archaisms and historicisms are leaving our everyday life, they should not be completely forgotten, since they help to achieve the necessary color and historical coloring in the text.
1. Archaic vocabulary in the Russian language system
1.1 The concept of archaisms. Processes of archaization and updating of Russian vocabulary
Archaisms (from the Greek "ancient") - words, individual meanings of words, phrases, as well as some grammatical forms and syntactic constructions, obsolete and out of active use 1 .
Among the archaisms, a group of historicisms stands out, the disappearance of which from the active dictionary is associated with the disappearance of certain objects and phenomena from public life, for example, "podyachy", "petition", "chain mail", "horse", "nepman". Usually, archaisms give way to other words with the same meaning: “victoria” - “victory”, “stogna” - “square”, “rescript” - “decree”, “face”, “eye”, “vezhda”, “young ". "hail", giving the speech a color of solemnity. Some non-archaic words lose their former meaning. For example, “Everything that scrupulous London sells for a plentiful whim” (A.S. Pushkin, “Eugene Onegin”); here "scrupulous" has for the present time the archaic meaning of "haberdashery". Or in last time Gudal sits down on a white-maned horse, and the train starts” (M.Yu. Lermontov, “Demon”). "Train" is not "a set of railway cars", but "a row of horsemen riding one after another". In some cases, archaisms can come back to life (compare the history of the words “council”, “decree” or “general”, “officer” in the Russian language of the 20th century). Sometimes archaic words that have become incomprehensible continue to live in some stable combinations: “You can’t see a thing” - “you can’t see anything at all”, “The cheese forest caught fire” - “a commotion began”.
In fiction, archaisms are widely used as a stylistic means to give solemnity to speech, to create the color of an era, and also for satirical purposes. The masters of using archaisms were A.S. Pushkin ("Boris Godunov"), M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin (“History of one city”), V.V. Mayakovsky ("Cloud in Pants"), A.N. Tolstoy ("Peter the Great"), Yu.N. Tynyanov ("Kyukhlya") and others.
Language, as a system, is in constant motion, development, and the most mobile level of language is vocabulary: it primarily reacts to all changes in society, replenishing with new words. At the same time, the names of objects and phenomena that are no longer used in the life of peoples are falling out of use.
In each period of development, words belonging to the active vocabulary, constantly used in speech, and words that have gone out of everyday use and therefore have acquired an archaic coloring function in it. At the same time in lexical system new words stand out that are just entering it and therefore seem unusual, retain a shade of freshness, novelty. Obsolete and new words are two fundamentally different groups in the vocabulary of the passive vocabulary.
Words that have ceased to be actively used in the language do not immediately disappear from it. For a while they are still intelligible to speakers of given language, are known from fiction, although everyday speech practice no longer needs them. Such words make up the vocabulary of the passive stock and are given in explanatory dictionaries marked "obsolete".
According to researchers, the process of archaization of a part of the dictionary of a particular language, as a rule, takes place gradually, therefore, among obsolete words there are those that have a very significant "experience" (for example, child, vorog, speech, scarlet, therefore, this); others are isolated from the vocabulary of the modern Russian language, as they belong to the Old Russian period of its development. Other words become obsolete in the shortest possible time, appearing in the language and disappearing already in recent period. For comparison: Shkrab - in the 20s. replaced the word teacher, rabkrin - workers' and peasants' inspection; Enkavedist - an employee of the NKVD. Such nominations do not always have corresponding marks in explanatory dictionaries, since the process of archaization of a particular word may be perceived as not yet completed.
The reasons for the archaization of vocabulary are different: they can be extralinguistic (extralinguistic) in nature, if the refusal to use the word is associated with social transformations in the life of society, but they can also be due to linguistic laws. For example, the adverbs oshchy, odesnaya (left, right) disappeared from the active dictionary, because the generating nouns shuytsa - “left hand” and right hand - “right hand” became archaic. In such cases, systemic relations played a decisive role. lexical items. So, the word shuytsa fell out of use, and the semantic connection of the words united by this historical root also fell apart (for example, the word Shulga did not stay in the language in the meaning of "left-handed" and remained only as a surname ascending to a nickname). Antomic pairs were destroyed (shuytsa - right hand, left hand - right hand), synonymous connections (left hand, left hand) 2 .
By its origin, the outdated vocabulary is heterogeneous: it contains a lot of primordially Russian words (lzya, so that, this, semo), old Slavonicisms (smooth, kiss, loins), borrowings from other languages (abshid - “resignation”, voyage - “journey”, politeness - "politeness").
There are known cases of the revival of obsolete words, their return to the active vocabulary. So, in modern Russian, such nouns as soldier, officer, warrant officer, minister and a number of others are actively used, which after October became archaic, giving way to new ones: Red Army soldier, commander, people's commissar, etc. In the 20s. the word leader was extracted from the composition of the passive vocabulary, which even in the Pushkin era was perceived as obsolete and was cited in the dictionaries of that time with the appropriate stylistic mark. Now it is archaic again.
Analyzing the stylistic functions of obsolete words in artistic speech, one cannot ignore the fact that their use in some cases (as well as the use of other lexical means) may not be associated with a specific stylistic task, but is due to the peculiarities of the author's style, individual preferences of the writer. So, for M. Gorky, many obsolete words were stylistically neutral, and he used them without a special stylistic setting: “People passed us slowly, dragging long shadows behind them ...”.
In poetic speech Pushkin's time appeal to discordant words and other Old Slavonicisms that have consonant Russian equivalents, was often due to versification: in accordance with the requirement of rhythm and rhyme, the poet preferred one or another option (as “poetic liberties”): “I will sigh, and my voice is languid, like a harp’s voice, quietly will die in the air” (Bath); “Onegin, my good friend, was born on the banks of the Neva ... - Go to the Neva shores, newborn creation ...” (Pushkin). To late XIX centuries, poetic liberties were eliminated and the amount of obsolete vocabulary in the poetic language decreased sharply. However, even Blok, and Yesenin, and Mayakovsky, and Bryusov, and other poets of the early 20th century paid tribute to obsolete words traditionally assigned to poetic speech(True, Mayakovsky already turned to archaisms mainly as a means of irony, satire). Echoes of this tradition are found even today: “Winter is a solid regional city, and not a village at all” (Yevtushenko).
In addition, it is important to emphasize that when analyzing the stylistic functions of obsolete words in a particular work of art, one should take into account the time of its writing, know the general language norms that were in force in that era. After all, for a writer who lived a hundred or two hundred years ago, many words could be quite modern, commonly used units that have not yet passed into the passive vocabulary.
The need to refer to an outdated dictionary also arises among the authors of scientific and historical works. To describe the past of Russia, its realities that have gone into oblivion, historicisms are involved, which in such cases act in their own nominative function. So, academician D.S. Likhachev in his works “The Tale of Igor's Campaign”, “The Culture of Russia in the Time of Andrei Rublev and Epiphanius the Wise” uses many words unknown to a modern native speaker, mainly historicism, explaining their meaning.
Sometimes the opinion is expressed that obsolete words are also used in official business speech. Indeed, in legal documents sometimes there are words that, under other conditions, we can attribute to archaisms: deed, punishment, retribution, deed. In business papers they write: this is attached, this kind, the undersigned, the above named. Such words should be treated as special. They are anchored in formal business style and they do not carry any expressive-stylistic load in the context. However, the use of obsolete words that do not have a strict terminological meaning can cause unjustified archaism. business language. In highly stratified developed languages, such as English, archaisms can serve as professional jargon, which is especially true for jurisprudence. Archaism is a lexical unit that has fallen into disuse, although the corresponding object (phenomenon) remains in real life and receives other names (obsolete words, supplanted or replaced by modern synonyms). The reason for the appearance of archaisms is in the development of the language, in updating its vocabulary: one word is replaced by another.
Displaced words do not disappear without a trace, they are preserved in the literature of the past, they are necessary in historical novels and essays - to recreate the life and language coloring of the era. Examples: forehead - forehead, finger - finger, mouth - lips, etc.
Any language is constantly changing over time. New words appear, and some lexical units quietly disappear into the past, cease to be used in speech. Words that are out of use are called archaisms. Their use when writing poetic works is highly undesirable - for some readers, as a result of this, the meaning may be partially lost.
However, for certain categories texts, archaisms are quite acceptable and even desirable. Among them are works written on historical and religious themes. In this case, skillfully used archaism will allow the author to more accurately describe events, actions, objects, or his feelings. Archaisms include the names of currently existing objects and phenomena, for some reason displaced by other, more modern names. For example: every day - “always”, a comedian - “actor”, it is necessary - “it is necessary”, Persian - “chest”, verb - “to speak”, to know - “to know”. Some scholars do not recommend confusing archaisms with historicisms. If not only the word is outdated, but also the very phenomenon denoted by this word, then this is historicism, for example: veche, endova, onuchi, etc. Other scholars consider historicisms a subspecies of archaisms. If we adhere to this, simpler position, then a logical and easy-to-remember definition of archaisms sounds like this: archaisms are obsolete and obsolete names or names of obsolete objects and phenomena that have gone down in history.
Among the archaisms proper, which have synonyms in the modern language, a distinction must be made between words that are already completely obsolete and therefore sometimes incomprehensible to members of the community who speak the given language, and such archaisms that are in the process of becoming obsolete. Their meanings are clear, however, they are almost never used.
Thus, it seems appropriate to divide archaisms into words ancient or forgotten, which are terms of antiquity and are resurrected only for special stylistic purposes in the modern literary language, and obsolete words, i.e. that have not yet lost their significance in the system of vocabulary of the modern literary language.
etc.................
The role of archaizing vocabulary is diverse. Firstly, historicisms and archaisms perform a proper nominative function in scientific and historical works. When characterizing this or that epoch, it is necessary to name its basic concepts, objects, details of life with words corresponding to the given time.
In artistic and historical prose, outdated vocabulary performs nominative and stylistic functions. Contributing to the reconstruction of the color of the era, it at the same time serves stylistic device her artistic characteristics. For this purpose, use historicisms and archaisms. A.S. Pushkin in the drama "Boris Godunov", A.N. Tolstoy in the novel "Peter I" and others.
The actual lexical obsolete names of people according to their position, occupation and in the novel by A.N. Tolstoy: bedding- the boyar who looked after the royal bedroom; bell- bodyguard, squire and others.
The temporal characteristic is promoted lexico-semantic and lexical-derivational archaisms.
obsolete words(especially archaisms) also perform their own stylistic functions. So, they are often a means of creating a special solemnity, loftiness of the text - in A.S. Pushkin:
... Chain mail and swords sound!
Fear, O army of foreigners
Russia's sons moved;
Both old and young have risen: they fly on the daring.
They are also used as a figurative and expressive means, especially in combination with new words - in E. Yevtushenko: ... And the elevators are cold and empty. Raised above the earth, like God's fingers.
Archaizing vocabulary can serve as a means of creating humor, irony, satire. In this case, such words are used in a semantically alien environment.
Neologisms perform mainly a nominative function. However, in texts for which they are not objectively necessary, their use is already conditioned by stylistic goals.
Archaizing vocabulary often today has a special emotional and stylistic coloring ( sculptor- creator, question- ask, pride subjugular- bonded and others). Therefore, the use of such words in texts (in particular, when translating them) should be approached in much the same way as the vocabulary, stylistically colored or fixed in a stylistic sense. Translation of archaizing vocabulary and Russians proper neologisms(type collective farm) is often carried out by an exact literal translation of the composition of the Russian word, followed by a note ( kokoshnik - kokoshnik in English).
However, in any case, it is necessary first of all to understand the meaning of the words used (or translated) that denote objects that have long disappeared and are incomprehensible to modern speakers of the language.
