The development of culture in the second half of the XVIII century

The development of Russian culture in the second half of the 18th century was influenced by the reforms of Peter the Great at the beginning of the century. The following trends.

Gain Western influence. Imitation of Western culture.

Reducing the sphere of cultural influence of the church. Culture became increasingly secular. Her further secularization took place.

Deepening the rationalism of the worldview.

The beginning of the formation of the Russian intelligentsia, to which in the XVIII century. officers, government officials, professional educators, scientists, actors.

Preservation of the traditionalism of folk culture.

Ideological factors that influenced the development of the culture of this period.

The ideology of "enlightenment" with its preaching natural rights human, freedom and equality.

Freemasonry with its search for ways of moral perfection.

Freemasons (from French - freemasons) - an international religious and philosophical movement that set itself the goal of "morally ennobling people, uniting them on the basis of brotherly love, equality and mutual assistance." In the Masonic movement of the XVIII century. many prominent educators of the West took part.

The first information about Freemasonry in Russia refers to the years 1730-1740. Freemasons were well-known figures of their time, Count R.I. Vorontsov, princes Golitsyn, Trubetskoy, Meshchersky, prince M.M. Shcherbatov, poet A.P. Sumarokov, writer and historian I.P. Elagin, director and then curator of Moscow University M.M. Kheraskov, educator N.I. Novikov and others. In the XVIII century. Freemasonry represented an extremely narrow and limited number of participants social phenomenon and could not significantly affect the situation in the country.

The growing needs of the state for qualified specialists have led to transformations in education. In 1731 was established Cadet Corps for the nobility - a military educational institution of a closed type. He trained future officers of the Russian army and civil officials. In 1764, the "Educational Society for Noble Maidens" (Smolny Institute) was opened in St. Petersburg, which became the first secular institution for girls from noble families. For children of other classes, closed educational institutions were also created. For example, in 1779 in Moscow for the children of merchants and townspeople openly commercial school. The children of the clergy studied at theological seminaries and theological academies. Recruiting children - in soldiers' schools. The nobles were educated with the help of private teachers, and studying abroad became common. Education was class-based. For the majority of the population, it remained inaccessible.

In the second half of the XVIII century. system began to take shape general education school. In 1786, the Charter of public schools was approved, according to which the main four-year schools were created in the provincial cities, in county towns- small two-class. The schools taught reading, writing, sacred history, the basics of arithmetic and grammar. For the first time uniform educational plans, a class-lesson system, a teaching methodology was developed.

In the XVIII century. was the beginning of the formation university education in Russia. AT 1755 Empress Elizaveta Petrovna approved the submitted I.I. Shuvalov organization project Moscow University. the main role in the development of the plan for the creation of the university belonged M.V. Lomonosov. In accordance with the ideas of Lomonosov, education in it was classless. The university was under the patronage of the Empress,

subordinated only to the Senate, exempted from all kinds of taxes and other fees. In 1757, the Academy of Arts was opened at the university.

Middle, second half of the 18th century. were the time of geographical discoveries, successes in the development of scientific and technical thought.

In 1733-1741. The second Kamchatka expedition took place under the leadership of IN AND. Bering(1681-1741), during which the strait between Chukotka and Alaska (Bering Strait) was discovered. Explorer of Siberia and Kamchatka S.P. Krasheninnikov(1711-1755) compiled a "Description of the Land of Kamchatka". The names of brave Russian polar explorers are inscribed in the history of geographical discoveries S.I. Chelyuskin(c.1704-1764), after whom the most north point mainland Eurasia - Cape Chelyuskin, cousins D.Ya. and H.P. Laptev, after which one of the seas of the Northern Arctic Ocean- Laptev sea.

An invaluable contribution to the development of the world and domestic science made M.V. Lomonosov(1711-1765) - the first Russian academician, a person who possessed encyclopedic knowledge. His genius manifested itself in all branches of knowledge of that time: chemistry, physics, astronomy, mineralogy, geology and soil science, geography, cartography. As well as natural sciences he also dealt with the humanities: grammar, stylistics of the Russian language, history. By the middle of the XVIII century. historical knowledge turned into a science, which was largely facilitated by the works V.N. Tatishcheva(1686-1750). M.V. Lomonosov in his writings on history focused on the ancient period of Russian history and the time of Peter I. He was the first to speak out against the Norman theory of the origin of the Old Russian state.

Important technical inventions were made I.I. Polzunov(1728-1766) and I.P. Kulibin(1735-1818). I.I. Polzunov was the first in the world to develop a project for a universal steam engine. However, he created steam machine in the conditions of serfdom turned out to be unnecessary and forgotten. Self-taught mechanic inventor I.P. Kulibin invented many original devices and instruments, improved glass polishing for optical instruments, created a semaphore telegraph, a “lifting chair” - an elevator. The most fundamental work of Kulibin was the project of a single-arch 300-meter bridge across the Neva. But his inventions also did not find application. It is truly said that there are no prophets in one's own country.

Architecture has been further developed. Until the 1760s the prevailing style was baroque, whose greatest master was F.B. Rastrelli. Built in this style Winter Palace and Smolny Monastery, the Catherine Palace in Tsarskoye Selo and Grand Palace in Peterhof.

Baroque has been replaced classicism. Distinctive features classicism - clarity and simplicity of forms while maintaining monumentality. The style was based on an appeal to the laws of classical architecture of Greece and Rome. Classicism provided for the symmetry of the layout, the selection of the main parts of the building, the clarity of the lines. The founders of classicism in Russia are IN AND. Bazhenov(1737-1799) - Pashkov's house in Moscow, Engineering Castle in St. Petersburg, I.E. Starov(1745-1808) - the building of the Tauride Palace, the Trinity Cathedral of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra. With the name of a student of Bazhenov F.M. Kazakov(1738-1812) associated with the creation of a large number of buildings and mansions in Moscow. This is the Senate building in the Kremlin, the old building of Moscow University, the Golitsin hospital, the house of the Dolgoruky princes, transferred noble assembly and others. A prominent representative of Russian classicism was D. Quarenghi(1744-1817), who worked in Russia since 1780 - the building of the Academy of Sciences, the Alexander Palace in Tsarskoye Selo, the Smolny Institute, etc. Wonderful Russian architect Yu.M. Felten(c.1730-1801) together with P.E. Egorov(1771-1784) designed the Neva embankment and the lattice of the Summer Garden.

In the second half of the XVIII century. in painting a system of genres is taking shape: portrait, monumental and decorative painting, landscape, historical painting. The first Russian historical painter was A.P. Losenko(1737-1773). One of his most famous paintings is Vladimir in front of Rogneda. Worked in the historical genre G.I. Ugryumov(1764-1823) - "The election of Mikhail Fedorovich to the kingdom", "The capture of Kazan". However greatest development in painting received a portrait. Created a gallery of beautiful portraits A.P. Antropov (1716-1795), I.P. Argunov(1729-1802), F.S. Rokotov(c.1735-1808), D.G. Levitsky (1735-1822), V.L. Borovikovsky(1757-1825) and others.

During the period under review, the foundations of the secular sculptures. F.I. Shubin(1740-1805) - a fellow countryman of Lomonosov, a native of Pomeranian peasants - created a gallery of sculptural portraits - M.V. Lomonosov, A.M. Golitsyna, G.A. Potemkin and others.

The monument to Peter I is rightfully classified as a masterpiece of world sculpture (“ Bronze Horseman”) by the French master EM. Falcone In Petersburg. M.I. Kozlovsky(1753-1802) glorified himself with a monument to A.V. Suvorov on the Field of Mars in St. Petersburg. He is the author main statue Peterhof cascade of fountains - "Samson tearing apart the mouth of a lion."

Mid 18th century is an important milestone in theatrical culture of Russia. In 1750, the first professional theater appeared in Yaroslavl. The merchant was the initiator F.G. Volkov(1728-1763). Rumors about him reached St. Petersburg and Yaroslavl was summoned to the capital. In 1756 it was transformed into a public theater "for the presentation of tragedies and comedies."

Culture of Russia in the 18th century. prepared an extraordinary entry into the national culture of the first half of the 19th century.

Issues for discussion

1. What are the reasons for Peter's modernization and what were its

conflicting consequences?

2. Why did the palace coups of 1725-1762 could not change the creatures of the system?

3. Could Catherine II cancel serfdom in Russia?

4. What was the significance of the annexation of the Crimea to Russia in 1783?

5. What were the features of territorial acquisitions

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Brikner A.G. History of Peter the Great. History of Catherine II: a complete edition in one volume. M.: Alfa-Kniga, 2015. 1047 p.

Story foreign policy of Russia. 18th century / J.A. Ananyan [i dr.] M.: International relationships, 1998. 302 p.

Kamensky A.B.Russian empire in the 18th century: traditions and modernization. M.: New lit. Review, 1999. 326 p.

Klyuchevsky V.O. historical portraits. Moscow: Pravda, 1990. 624 p.

Moryakov V.I. Russian Enlightenment II half of XVIII in. M.: MGU, 1994. 215 p.

Musskaya I.A. The most famous businessmen of Russia. M.: Veche, 2003. 412 p.

Pavlenko N.I. Peter the Great. M.: World of Avanta+ Encyclopedias: Astrel, 2009. 829 p.

Semin V.P. History: Russia and the world: tutorial. –M.: KNORUS, 2012. 544 p.

Fortunatov V.V. History of world civilizations. St. Petersburg: Piter, 2014. 528 p.

By the middle of the XVIII century. general level education in Russia was low. In the orders of deputies to the Legislative Commission of 1767-1768, where for the first time considerations were publicly expressed on education, little benefit was noted from the schools established in Russia in the time of Peter the Great. However, "education" is becoming fashionable among the nobility.

Widespread development in the families of landowners receives home education. But most often it was superficial and consisted only in the desire to master the “French elegance”.

The country did not actually exist elementary school. Literacy schools continued to be the main form of education for the tax-paying population. They were created by private individuals (“masters of letters”, as a rule, priests). Teaching in them was conducted mainly according to the Book of Hours and the Psalter, but some secular textbooks were used, for example, “Arithmetic” by L.F. Magnitsky.

In the second half of the XVIII century. a network of closed estates was created educational institutions intended primarily for the children of the nobility. In addition to the well-known land gentry corps, at the end of the 50s, the Corps of Pages was founded, preparing the nobles for court service.

In 1764, the "Educational Society for Noble Maidens" was founded in St. Petersburg at the Smolny Monastery (Smolny Institute) with a department for girls from the bourgeois class.

The development of the class school consolidated the dominant position of the nobility in the main areas of administrative and military activity, turned education into one of its class privileges. However, closed educational institutions left a noticeable mark in the history of Russian culture. Many famous cultural figures were educated there.

From the second half of the XVIII century. professional art schools appeared in Russia (Dance School in St. Petersburg, 1738; Ballet School at the Moscow Orphanage, 1773).

The Academy of Arts, founded in 1757, became the first state center art education in painting, sculpture and architecture. Music classes of the Academy of Arts played known role in development in Russia music education and upbringing. All these educational institutions were closed; they were forbidden to study the children of serfs.

A qualitatively new moment in the development of education in Russia was the emergence of a general education school. Its beginning is associated with the foundation in 1755 of Moscow University and two gymnasiums: for the nobility and raznochintsy with the same curriculum. Three years later, on the initiative of university professors, a gymnasium was opened in Kazan.

The opening of the Moscow University, as well as the Academy of Sciences, was a major social and cultural event. The University in Moscow has become a nationwide center of education and culture, it embodies the democratic principles of the development of education and science, proclaimed and persistently pursued by M.V. Lomonosov.

Already in the XVIII century. Moscow University became the center of Russian education. The printing house, opened under him in 1756, was, in essence, the first civilian printing house in Moscow. Textbooks and dictionaries, scientific, artistic, domestic and translated literature were printed here.

For the first time, many works of Western European enlighteners were printed in the printing house of the university, and the first magazine for children began to be published (“ Children's reading for the Heart and Mind"), Russia's first natural science journal ("Magazin natural history, physics, chemistry"), the magazine "Musical entertainment". Moscow University began publishing the first non-governmental newspaper in Russia, Moskovskie Vedomosti, which existed until 1917.

The undoubted merit of the university was the publication of the ABCs of the peoples of Russia - Georgian and Tatar.

In the second half of the XVIII century. In Russia, a system of general education schools began to take shape. Approved in 1786, the Charter of Public Schools was the first general legislative act for Russia in the field of public education.

According to the Charter, the main four-year schools were opened in the provincial cities, approaching in type to high school, in the county - two-class schools, small, in which reading, writing, sacred history were taught, elementary courses arithmetic and grammar. For the first time, unified curricula were introduced in schools, a class-lesson system, and teaching methods were developed.

Continuity in education was achieved by the common curricula of small schools and the first two classes of main schools.

The main public schools opened in 25 provincial cities, small schools, along with estate schools, universities and gymnasiums in Moscow and Kazan, thus constituted the structure of the education system in Russia to late XVIII in. In the country, according to the data available in the literature, there were 550 educational institutions with 60-70 thousand students. Approximately one person out of one and a half thousand inhabitants studied at the school. The statistics, however, did not take into account various forms private education (home education in noble families, education in literacy schools, in peasant families, etc.), as well as foreigners who received education abroad or came to Russia. The actual number of literate people in Russia was obviously much higher.

One-year parish (parochial) schools were established at each church parish. They accepted children of "any condition" without distinction of "gender and age." The charter proclaimed a succession between schools of different levels.

However, in fact, very little was done to spread education and enlightenment among the masses of the people. The treasury did not bear any costs for the maintenance of schools, transferring it either to the local city government, or to the landlords, or to the peasants themselves in the state village.

School reform made topical issue teacher training. The first educational institutions for teacher training arose in the second half of the 18th century. In 1779, the Teacher's Seminary was founded at Moscow University. In 1782, the St. Petersburg main public school was opened to train teachers of public schools. It was a closed educational institution that trained gymnasium teachers, boarding school instructors, and university teachers. The teachers of district, parish and other lower schools were mainly graduates of gymnasiums.

The emergence of new textbooks in the second half of the XVIII century. associated with the activities of the Academy of Sciences, primarily M.V. Lomonosov, and professors of Moscow University. Lomonosov's Russian Grammar, published in 1757, replaced the outdated grammar of M. Smotritsky as the main textbook on the Russian language. The textbook on mathematics, compiled in the 1960s by D. Anichkov, a student of Moscow University, retained its importance as the main textbook on mathematics in schools until the end of the 18th century. Lomonosov's book "The First Foundations of Metallurgy, or Mining" became a textbook on mining.

An important indicator of the spread of education was the increase in book publishing, the appearance of periodicals, interest in the book, its collection.

The publishing base is expanding, in addition to state-owned printing houses, private printing houses appear. The Decree "On Free Printing Houses" (1783) for the first time granted the right to start printing houses to everyone. Private printing houses were opened not only in the capitals, but also in provincial towns.

In the second half of the XVIII century. the repertoire of books changes, the number of original scientific and artistic publications increases, the book becomes more diverse in content and design.

The first public cultural and educational organizations appear. For some time (1768 - 1783) in St. Petersburg there was an "Assembly trying to translate foreign books”, created on the initiative of Catherine II. It was engaged in the translation and publication of the works of ancient classics, French enlighteners. The publisher of the proceedings of the "Collection" for some time was N.I. Novikov.

In 1773, Novikov organized in St. Petersburg the "Society for the Printing of Books", something like the first publishing house in Russia. Many famous writers of the 18th century took part in its activities, including A.N. Radishchev. The activity of the "Society" was also short-lived, as it faced great difficulties, primarily with the weak development of the book trade, especially in the provinces.

The main centers for publishing books and journals were the Academy of Sciences and Moscow University. The academic printing house printed mainly scientific and educational literature. On the initiative of M.V. Lomonosov, the first Russian literary and scientific journal, Monthly Works for the Benefit and Amusement of Employees, began to be published (1755). The academic printing house also printed the first private journal in Russia, Hardworking Bee (1759), published by A.P. Sumarokov.

In the second half of the XVIII century. Periodicals become a noticeable social and cultural phenomenon not only in the capital, but also in provincial cities. In Yaroslavl, in 1786, the first provincial magazine "Solitary Poshekhonets" appeared. In 1788, the weekly provincial newspaper Tambov News, founded by G.R. Derzhavin, at that time the civil governor of the city. The journal The Irtysh Turning into Hippocrene (1789) was published in Tobolsk.

A special role in the publication and distribution of books in last quarter 18th century belonged to the outstanding Russian educator N.I. Novikov (1744 - 1818). Novikov, like other Russian educators, considered education the basis social change. Ignorance, in his opinion, was the cause of all the errors of mankind, and knowledge was the source of perfection. Defending the need for education for the people, he founded and maintained the first public school in St. Petersburg. Publishing Novikov received the greatest scope during the period when he rented the printing house of Moscow University (1779 - 1789). About a third of all books published in Russia at that time (about 1000 titles) came out of his printing houses. He published political and philosophical treatises of Western European thinkers, collected works of Russian writers, works of folk art. A large place among his publications was occupied by magazines, textbooks, Masonic religious and moral literature. Novikov's publications had a large circulation for that time - 10 thousand copies, which in to some extent reflected the growing interest in the book.

In the 60s - 70s XVIII years in. satirical journalism became widespread, on the pages of which works “employees for the correction of morals” were printed, anti-serfdom educational thought was formed. Most important role in this process, she belonged to the Novikov publications Truten (1769 - 1770) and especially The Painter (1772 - 1773). This bright and bold satirical magazine by N.I. Novikov contained sharp criticism of the feudal system in Russia.

The development of education is connected with the expansion of the circle of readers. In the memoirs of contemporaries there is evidence that "people from lower classes enthusiastically buy various chronicles, monuments of Russian antiquity, and many rag shops are full of handwritten chronicles.

Books were copied, sold, and this often fed small employees and students. At the Academy of Sciences, some workers were paid in books.

N.I. Novikov contributed in every possible way to the development of the book trade, especially in the provinces, considering it as one of the sources of book distribution. At the end of the XVIII century. bookstores already existed in 17 provincial cities, about 40 bookstores were in St. Petersburg and Moscow.

During this period, there were libraries at universities, gymnasiums, closed educational institutions. The library of the Academy of Sciences continued to work. In 1758, the library of the Academy of Arts was opened, the foundation of which was donated by the curator of Moscow University I.I. Shuvalov collection of books on art, a collection of paintings by Rembrandt, Rubens, Van Dyck. From the moment of its foundation, it was publicly available; not only students of the Academy, but also everyone who wished, could use the books in the reading room. AT certain days weeks for "lovers of books" halls and other libraries were opened.

In the 80s - 90s of the XVIII century. in some provincial cities (Tula, Kaluga, Irkutsk) the first public libraries. Paid (commercial) libraries arose at bookstores, first in Moscow and St. Petersburg, and then in provincial cities.

A large role in the spiritual life of society belonged to the intelligentsia. In my own way social composition 18th century intelligentsia was mostly nobility. However, in the second half of this century, many raznochintsy appeared among the artistic and scientific intelligentsia. Raznochintsy studied at Moscow University, the Academy of Arts, and some closed educational institutions intended for non-nobles.

One of the features of the cultural process in Russia at the end of the XVIII century. there was the existence of a serf intelligentsia: artists, composers, architects, artists. Many of them were talented, gifted people, they understood the gravity of their disenfranchised position, and their lives often ended tragically.

The fate of the serf intelligentsia in Russia reflected the incompatibility of serfdom and the free spiritual development of the individual. Developed by public consciousness new concept human personality came into conflict with real life.

great past Soviet people Pankratova Anna Mikhailovna

Chapter VI. Russia in the second half of the 18th century

1. Russia's participation in the Seven Years' War

Peter the Great died in 1725. He did not appoint an heir. Among the capital's nobles, who relied on the guards regiments, a struggle for power began. It was a period of palace coups, when some contenders for power replaced others. Such successors of Peter as Anna Ivanovna (his niece) or Peter III (his grandson) were insignificant and ignorant people, incapable of governing the state. Other successors of Peter I were minors and were only listed as emperors. ruled for them random people, mostly clever adventurers from foreigners. Under the successors of Peter I in government and in all areas economic life foreigners have gained a lot of influence. This was facilitated by the servility to everything foreign, common among the tops of the noble society. Anna Ivanovna actually transferred power in the state to the stupid and uneducated German Biron. From the time of Anna Ivanovna, a special dominance of the Germans in Russia began. They tried to seize the government apparatus and other important institutions of the country. Acting as teachers and tutors in the homes of Russian nobles, they instilled in their children contempt for everything Russian and admiration for everything foreign.

The dominance of foreigners caused indignation of the best part of the Russian nobility. One of the manifestations of such indignation was the palace coup of 1741, as a result of which Peter's daughter Elizaveta Petrovna was elevated to the throne.

In the middle of the 18th century, Russia's influence on European affairs increased. Russia's neighbors have weakened. The power of Sweden has long since fallen. Turks and Crimean Tatars were only fragments of their former glory. Poland, too, was no longer dangerous for Russia. The German feudal state was also falling apart - a helpless union of many dozens of small German states. The largest of these were Austria and Prussia, whose kings competed with each other. In 1740 Frederick II became King of Prussia. This, according to his contemporaries, "a very cunning king" committed surprise attacks against neighbors and unceremoniously seized foreign lands. “First take, and then negotiate,” said Frederick II.

The aggressive policy of Prussia unleashed a great European war, called the Seven Years (1756-1763). England took the side of Prussia, hoping with her help to weaken her rival on the seas - France. Russia joined the alliance of France, Austria and Saxony against Prussia. Frederick II was confident in his military superiority. His army, which consisted of mercenary soldiers, was well trained, drilled, accustomed to easy and quick victories and was known as "invincible".

In August 1757, the Russian army crossed the borders of East Prussia and launched an attack on Königsberg. When the Russian troops moved along a narrow forest road among impenetrable swamps, the Germans attacked them, closing all exits from the battlefield. In this trap, near the village of Gross-Egersdorf, the Russian army was forced to fight. With shouts of "Hurrah" Russian troops rushed into a bayonet attack and drove the Germans back. Russian artillery played a huge role in repulsing the onslaught of the Germans. Just on the eve of the war, guns of a new type appeared, more long-range and more mobile than the old ones.

The Jaegersdorf victory stunned the Germans. The Königsberg fortress surrendered without a fight. Almost all of East Prussia was in the hands of the Russians.

The successes of the Russian troops in East Prussia alarmed not only the enemies, but also the allies of Russia. Fearing the strengthening of Russian Influence, the allies did not support the Russian army, as a result of which the Russian troops fell into a difficult situation near Zorndorf, but even here, at the cost of great efforts and sacrifices, they honorably got out of the difficulty. Friedrich himself had to admit after Zorndorf: "These Russians can be killed to one and all, but not defeated." At the same time, he spoke of his soldiers: "My rascals ran like old women."

After Zorndorf there was a lull. The Prussian army was badly battered. In the summer of 1759, the Russian General Saltykov led an army on the offensive against Berlin. Near the village of Kunersdorf, five kilometers from Frankfurt an der Oder, a decisive battle took place. Under the hurricane fire of Russian artillery, the Prussians fled in panic along the narrow passages between the lakes. The defeat was so devastating that the king himself was almost captured. Frederick II was close to suicide. “I am unhappy that I am still alive,” the king wrote. - Out of an army of 48 thousand people, I don’t even have 3 thousand left. When I say this, everything runs, and I no longer have power over these people.

Panic broke out in Berlin. The Royal Family and the Berlin authorities left the capital. The Austrian command saved Frederick II by refusing to march on Berlin. This made it possible for Frederick II to collect new army. But a year later, on October 9, 1760, Russian troops nevertheless occupied the German capital. The city authorities of Berlin presented the Russian command on a velvet pillow with the keys to the fortress gates of the city.

The military position of Prussia was hopeless. But at that time, the Russian Empress Elizaveta Petrovna died. The nephew of the Empress, the Holstein prince, who received the name Peter III became Emperor of Russia. Being an ardent admirer of Frederick II, Peter III withdrew the Russian troops and concluded with Prussia alliance treaty. The Russian army, which brought so many victims and covered its battle flags with new glory in the war with Prussia, was bitterly disappointed. It became clear to everyone that Peter III was protecting the interests of Prussia, and not Russia.

The indignant guards organized a conspiracy against the new emperor. In the summer of 1762, Peter III was arrested and soon killed. His wife Catherine II was proclaimed empress.

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Tula region in the second half of the 18th century Before moving on to discussions about social portrait administration of the Tula province and province in the second half of the 18th century, it is necessary to clarify the geographical and socio-demographic parameters of the region, which

From the book History of Russia IX-XVIII centuries. author Moryakov Vladimir Ivanovich

7. Russia's foreign policy in the second half of the 18th century During the Seven Years' War, Russia's actions put Prussia on the brink military disaster, and King Frederick II was preparing to make peace on any terms. He was saved by the death of Elizabeth, which followed on December 25, 1761.

2.1 Life and customs

The second half of the 18th century, namely the period of the reign of Catherine II, went down in history as the "golden age" of the Russian nobility. One of the first manifestos of Catherine II after her accession to the throne was the "Manifesto on the Granting of Liberty and Freedom to All the Russian Nobility", according to which the nobles were exempted from the duties of military and civil service.

According to the same "Manifesto", many nobles received land in their possession, and the peasants, the inhabitants of these lands, were assigned to them. Naturally, these lands had to be landscaped. Improvement began, as a rule, with the construction of the estate. And the reign of Catherine is the time of the heyday of the noble manor culture. But the life of the majority of the landowners was not separated by the Iron Curtain from the life of the peasants, there was direct contact with folk culture, a new attitude is emerging towards the peasant as an equal person, as a person.

Also, the second half of the 18th century was marked by a number of innovations related to the life of the townspeople. Especially a lot of new appeared in the life of cities. After the government allowed merchants to keep shops in their homes, merchant estates with warehouses and shops appeared in the cities, forming entire shopping streets.

Water pipes appeared in Moscow and St. Petersburg, but for most cities, numerous wells and nearby reservoirs, as well as water carriers carrying water in barrels, remained the source of water supply.

At the end of the century, in some major cities illumination of the main streets is introduced. In Moscow, the first street lamps appeared in the 1930s. 18th century In them, the wick, dipped in hemp oil, was lit by special order of the authorities.

Hygiene issues became a big problem for city authorities with an increase in population, so the number of public baths in cities is growing, in which visitors could eat and pass the night for a special fee. For the first time, by a special decree of the Senate, the patriarchal custom of bathing together for men and women was prohibited, and according to the Charter of the Deanery of 1782, persons of the opposite sex were forbidden to enter the bathhouse on other than their day.

Another innovation in the second half of the century was the opening of city hospitals. The first of them appeared in St. Petersburg in 1779. But, despite this, faith in healers and conspiracies was firmly preserved among the common people. Prejudices were strengthened by the government itself: in 1771, during a plague epidemic in Kostroma, Catherine II confirmed the decree of 1730 on fasting and procession around the city as a means of combating infection.

2.2 Education and science

In the "Catherine era" the trend of nationalization of education received a new impetus and a new character. If in the first quarter of a century main goal education was to satisfy the state need for personnel, then Catherine II, sought to influence education with the help of education. public consciousness, educate "a new breed of people." In accordance with this, the principle of class education was preserved.

An important role in the spread of literacy and the development of education was played by book publishing, which expanded noticeably in the second half of the century. Book business has ceased to be the privilege of the state. Big role the Russian educator N.I. played in its development. Novikov. His printing houses published books on all branches of knowledge, including textbooks. important event was the publication in 1757 of the "Russian Grammar" by M.V. Lomonosov, which replaced the outdated "Grammar" by M. Smotritsky.

Primary school still remained the least developed link in the education system. As in the previous period, there were diocesan schools for the children of the clergy, garrison schools for the children of recruits. Only at the end of the century in each province formally classless main public schools were opened, and in each county - small public schools. However, the children of serfs were still deprived of the opportunity to receive an education.

Vocational schools still occupied a significant position in the education system. The network of medical, mining, commercial, etc. received further development. vocational schools, new trends emerged special education. In 1757 in St. Petersburg, according to the project of I.I. Shuvalov was founded "Academy of the three noblest arts". The Ballet School was opened at the Moscow Orphanage. Teachers' seminaries were created in Moscow and St. Petersburg to train teachers of public schools, on the basis of which pedagogical institutes subsequently arose.

Significant changes have taken place in the system high school. the largest cultural center The Russian Empire was created in 1755 according to the project of M.V. Lomonosov and I.I. Shuvalov Moscow Imperial University. The university had philosophical, legal and medical faculties. Theology was not taught there until the beginning of the 19th century, all lectures were given in Russian. A printing house was organized at the university, in which until 1917 the newspaper Moskovskie Vedomosti was published. In addition to Moscow University, where education was classless in accordance with the charter, noble corps (land, sea, artillery, engineering and page) and theological academies continued to operate.

In 1764, the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens (Educational Society for Noble Maidens at the Smolny Monastery in St. Petersburg) was opened for girls, at which there was a "School for Young Girls" of non-noble origin (later it was transformed into the Alexander Institute).

In 1786, the "Charter of Public Schools" was published - the first legislative act in the field of education. For the first time, unified curricula and a class-lesson system were introduced

By the end of the XVIII century. 550 educational institutions functioned in the country, in which there were about 60 thousand students; women's education began. Despite significant achievements in the spread of literacy and the development of a network of educational institutions, education still remained class-based, it was not universal, compulsory and the same for all categories of the population.

Catherine II continued the policy state support domestic science. Understanding the importance of the development of science for strengthening the economy and the country's defense capability, Catherine II supported various scientific research. So, for example, it was she who in 1768 received the first vaccination against smallpox. In the "Catherine era" domestic scientists occupied a dominant position in the Academy of Sciences, the circle of domestic scientists - academicians grew significantly, among them was the nephew of M.V. Lomonosov mathematician M.E. Golovin, geographer and ethnographer I.I. Lepekhin, astronomer S.Ya. Rumovsky and others. At the same time, fearing any "free-thinking", the empress sought to subordinate the development of science to strict state regulation. This was one of the reasons for the sad fate of many talented Russian self-taught scientists.

Natural sciences in the second half of the 18th century, as in the previous period, developed at a faster pace. By the end of the century, domestic natural science had reached the all-European level. In the second half of the century, active development and description of new lands continued. To study the territory of the Russian Empire, its natural resources, population and historical monuments The Academy organized 5 "physical" expeditions (1768-1774); polar explorer S.I. Chelyuskin described part of the coast of the Taimyr Peninsula; in honor of Russian sailors D.Ya. and H.P. Laptev named the sea of ​​the Arctic Ocean; S.P. Krasheninnikov, who is considered the founder of Russian ethnography, compiled the first "Description of the Land of Kamchatka"; the expedition of V. Bering reached the strait between Asia and America, named after him. G.I. Shelikhov compiled a description of the Aleutian Islands and organized the development of Alaska.

By the second half of the XVIII century. refers to the emergence of domestic agronomic science, one of the founders of which is the Russian writer and naturalist A.T. Bolotov.

2.3 Literature

In the second half of the XVIII century. In Russian literature, the intensive development that had begun in the previous period continued creative search. The socio-political role of literature and writers has noticeably increased. 18th century often referred to as the "age of the odes". Indeed, odes became widespread during this period, but in general, literature is characterized by multi-genre. Already known genres (elegies, songs, tragedies, comedies, satires, etc.) were further developed, new ones appeared (the modern urban story - "Poor Lisa" by N.M. Karamzin).

Until the end of the 60s, classicism remained the dominant trend. In the last third of the century, a new literary and artistic direction was born - realism, characterized by social topicality, interest in inner world person. Sentimentalism, which appeared in the last quarter of a century, proclaimed the cult natural feeling, nature, called for the liberation of man from power social environment. In the literature of sentimentalism, the lyrical story, family and psychological novel, elegy. The heyday of Russian sentimentalism is associated with the work of the writer and historian N.M. Karamzin (the stories "Poor Liza", "The Village", "Natalia, the Boyar's Daughter").

Folk art. In the second half of the XVIII century. oral folk art acquired a pronounced anti-serfdom character: songs about the hard lot of peasants and the arbitrariness of landowners; satirical poems ridiculing gentlemen; jokes, the main character of which was a savvy peasant; stories about the life of serfs and the Cossacks. Among the most striking works of this period are "The Tale of the Pakhra Village of Kamkin", "The Tale of the Village of Kiselikha" and the song of the fugitive peasant "Cry of serfs".

Patriotic themes, traditional for the Russian epic, also received further development. AT folk tales and soldiers' songs reflected the historical battles of the Russian army, the activities of prominent Russian generals of the XVIII in.

2.4 Art

2.4.1 Visual arts

Second half of the 18th century - time of intensive development various kinds visual arts, which was largely determined by the activities of the Academy of Arts established in 1757. The leading direction of academic painting was classicism, characterized by compositional clarity, clear lines, idealization of images. Russian classicism manifested itself most clearly in historical and mythological painting.

Portrait remained the leading genre of Russian painting. The intensive development of the secular portrait by the end of the century raised it to the level highest achievements modern world portrait art. The largest portrait painters of the era, who were world famous, were F. Rokotov ("Unknown in a pink dress"), D. Levitsky, who created a series of ceremonial portraits (from the portrait of Catherine II to portraits of Moscow merchants), V. Borovikovsky (portrait of M. I. Lopukhina ).

As well as portraiture landscape (S.F. Shchedrin), historical and mythological (A.P. Losenko), battle (M.M. Ivanov) and still life (G.N. Teplov, P.G. Bogomolov) painting developed. In the watercolors of I. Ermenev and the paintings of M. Shibanov, for the first time in Russian painting, images of the life of peasants appeared.

M.V. Lomonosov revived the technique of smalt mosaic. Under his leadership, easel portraits and battle compositions were created in this technique. In 1864, a mosaic department was founded at the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts, main task which was the manufacture of mosaics for St. Isaac's Cathedral.

At the end of the XVIII century. Catherine II's purchase of a number of private art collections in Europe laid the foundation for one of the largest and most significant museums in the world - the Hermitage.

The reforms of Peter the Great strengthened the feudal-serf system in Russia, but at the same time they gave a great impetus to the development of an internal socio-economic crisis. The reforms of Peter I were the beginning of the process of decomposition of the feudal-serf system National economy, gave impetus to the formation and development of capitalist relations. Criticism of the vices of serfdom begins, and then of the serf system itself.

Economic development Russia in the middle of the 18th century reached its peak in the conditions of feudal-serf relations. Feudalism, growing in depth and breadth, began to collapse from within. Commodity economy could not get along with serfdom, as a result, both landowners and serfs found themselves in conflicting relationship. The material interest of the manufacturer was needed, and it was inherent only to a free, free person.

Accession to Russia in the 18th century vast territories required their development. And serfdom was a brake on rapid development these territories.

The Russian bourgeoisie was constrained in its aspirations, at the same time it was generated by the socio-economic development of Russia and was dependent on the monarchy.

After the death of Peter I between his followers and the old Russian nobility, also, by the way, the followers of Peter, a struggle began for influence on power. Behind short term there was a change in the faces of politicians.

After the death of Peter I, the favorite of his wife Menshikov came to the fore. In 1727ᴦ. Catherine I dies and the grandson of Peter I, Peter II Alekseevich, enters the throne. But he was only 14 years old and a supreme secret council was created to govern the country (Menshikov, Prince Dolgoruky, etc.). But there was no unity within this council, and a struggle ensued between Menshikov and Dolgoruky, the winner of which was the latter, but he did not have to take advantage of this, since in 1730ᴦ. Peter II dies. The throne is free again.

At this time, the guards, dissatisfied with the policy of the Privy Council, make a coup, enthroning the niece of Peter I Anna Ioannovna, who lived in Jelgava (near Riga).

Anna Ioannovna was offered some conditions, which she signed, which stipulated that her power was limited in favor of the large Russian aristocracy (Privy Council). The nobles were unhappy and Anna Ioannovna dispersed the Privy Council, restoring the Senate. She ruled for 10 years.

The reign of Anna Ioannovna is characterized by mass terror against the Russian nobility (Dolgoruky, Golitsin and many others suffered). Rising at the court of Biron, who rose from a groom to the chancellor of Russia.

Under Anna Ioannovna, a war was waged with Turkey.

Arbitrariness was unbearable, and only after the death of Anna Ioannovna in Russia does calm come. Dying, Anna Ioannovna leaves a will, which stated that the Russian throne should pass into the hands of Ioann Antonovich, the nephew of Anna Ioannovna (the grandson of Peter I and Charles CII, former enemies), while still a baby.

Naturally, his mother ruled for him - Anna Leopoldovna and regent Biron. But November 25, 1741ᴦ. there was a coup. Biron and Munnich were arrested and exiled. The coup was carried out by the guards, dissatisfied with the dominance of foreigners.

Elizabeth ascends the throne, declaring that the death penalty is abolished. This ban was in effect throughout the 25 years of her reign.

In 1755ᴦ. opened a Russian university.

Elizabeth surrounds herself with a group of advisers, among whom were Shuvalov, Panin, Chernyshov and others.

Under Elizabeth, a 7-year war was waged against Prussia (Frederick II), which led to the victory of Russian weapons. Subsequently, Frederick II said that “It’s not enough to kill a Russian soldier, he and the dead one still need to be knocked down.”

The years of Elizabeth's reign were called the best years of Russia.

After Elizabeth, Peter III came to the throne, whose reign characterizes the dominance of the military. Peter III abolished all restrictions for the nobles. The peasants under him became the likeness of slaves. The landowner received the right to exile the peasant to Siberia for hard labor.

Activities of Peter III caused a storm of discontent in June 1762ᴦ. there was a coup d'état. Peter III was removed from power, and Catherine II the Great came to the throne.

The distribution of state lands begins, serfdom goes in breadth.

Catherine II, again using the nobility, carried out the secularization of church lands in 1764ᴦ. All lands owned by churches and monasteries were confiscated and transferred to the College of Economics. Church peasants were transferred to quitrent (ᴛ.ᴇ. about 1,000,000 peasants received freedom); part of the land was transferred to the landowners.

Catherine signed a decree on the ownership of their land.

In 1767ᴦ. adopted a decree on the attachment of peasants. Peasants were forbidden to complain about their landlords. The complaint was regarded as a grave state crime. Decree of January 17, 1765ᴦ. peasants could be sent to hard labor by their landowner. Decree of May 3, 1783ᴦ. Ukrainian peasants assigned to their landowners.

Domestic politics Catherine II was aimed at strengthening serfdom. Code of 1649ᴦ. already hopelessly outdated. In this regard, Catherine II convenes the established commission to adopt new laws. As a reaction to the policy of Catherine, numerous peasant unrest and uprisings begin, which later develop into a peasant war led by Emelyan Pugachev of 73-75. The uprising showed that the administration of the state did not correspond to the time.

After the suppression of the uprising, Catherine begins new reforms. In 1775ᴦ. decree of Catherine II held regional reforms. In Russia, provinces and districts have been created, governors have been appointed, nobility supervision has been created, noble corporate and class institutions, increases the staff of officials, police and detectives.

In the same 1775ᴦ. Decree on freedom of entrepreneurship and merchants was adopted. This decree brought with it the urgency of reforms in the cities. The process of registration of the privileges of the nobility and merchants ends with two letters of liberties and advantages of the Russian nobility and charter cities (1785ᴦ.). The first letter was aimed at consolidating the forces of the nobility, and the second met the interests of the merchants. The purpose of issuing charters is to strengthen power, create new groups and layers on which the Russian monarchy could rely.

Ekaterina decides to increase censorship after French Revolution. Novikov and Radishchev were arrested.

In 1796ᴦ. Catherine II died and Paul I came to the throne.

The character of the new emperor was largely contradictory. He did many things contrary to his mother's. Paul demanded that the nobility return to their regiments.

After some time, by decree of April 5, 1797ᴦ. approved that the peasants should work for the landowner no more than 3 days a week, banned the sale of peasants.

Paul broke off trade relations with England.

Against Paul, the highest nobility created a conspiracy, and on March 12, 1801ᴦ. he was killed in the Mikhailovsky Castle.

The foreign policy of Russia in the 18th century was characterized by the struggle for access to the Black Sea, Azov was captured in 1736ᴦ., Kabardino-Balkaria was completely annexed, in 1731ᴦ. Kazakhstan voluntarily joins Russia. During the 7-year war, Berlin and Koenigsber are captured.

During the reign of Catherine II, Poland was partitioned three times, and Poland itself ceased to exist as an independent state.

During the reign of Paul I, great heroic deeds take place Russian troops under the leadership of Suvorov.

Russia in the second half of the 18th century. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Russia in the second half of the 18th century." 2017, 2018.