Society is a dynamic system, which is characterized by such characteristics as change, development.

social change is the transition of society and its constituents structural elements from one state to another.

History shows that no society stands still: it either progresses or regresses. If the amount positive consequences large-scale changes in society exceed the amount of negative, then speak of social progress. Otherwise, social regression takes place. Social Progress - global process characterizing the movement human society throughout history. Social regression is a local process, covering individual societies and short periods of time. Depending on the intensity of the changes quality state object processes are divided into evolutionary and revolutionary.

Social development (progress) - irreversible changes in society associated with a qualitatively new, higher state of its structure and functions. In other words, it is the progressive movement of society from lower forms to a more perfect state. Social development in modern society called modernization. It implies a fundamental change in social institutions and the way of life of people, covering all spheres of society. There are two types of modernization: organic ("primary") and inorganic ("secondary").

Organic modernization is a moment of the country's own development and has been prepared by the entire course of the previous evolution. An example of organic modernization is the transition of England, France, and the United States from feudalism to capitalism as a result of the industrial revolution in the second half of the 18th century - the first half of the 19th century. This type of modernization does not begin with the economy, but with culture and a change in public consciousness. Capitalism arose as a natural consequence of changes in the way of life, traditions, worldview and orientations of people.

Inorganic modernization is a response to an external challenge from more developed countries. the main objective undertaken by the government - to overcome historical backwardness and avoid foreign dependency of the country. This model of social change, which is usually implemented in backward countries, was called "catching up development". Inorganic modernization is carried out by purchasing foreign equipment and patents, borrowing someone else's technology (often by economic espionage), inviting specialists, studying abroad, and investing. Corresponding changes are taking place in the social and political spheres: the system of government is changing dramatically, new power structures are being introduced, the country's constitution is being rebuilt under foreign analogues. Inorganic modernization does not begin with culture, but with economics and politics. In other words, organic modernization comes "from below", and inorganic "from above". Examples: Russia (Peter's reforms XVIII century, Stalinist industrialization 1930s), Japan (second half of the 19th and 20th centuries).

1. The essence of the concept of "social change" and their types.

2. Factors of social change.

3. Social process: essence, types and forms.

1. From the very beginning of its inception, since the time of O. Comte, sociology has been studying man and society not only in statics, but also in dynamics, in the process of social change. Everything changes in society: the economic system and social structure, social situations and roles, religious doctrines, cultural values and norms, etc. All these changes in public life covered by the concept of "social change".

Social change is a set of diverse changes taking place in society, in its social structure, in social communities, groups, institutions, organizations, in social statuses and roles of individuals and groups, in their interactions with each other and with any structural components society.

Social changes cover all spheres of society, all kinds of diverse changes in it, constituting the core of the social dynamics of society. This social dynamics is reflected not only by this concept, but also by others that are close to it in meaning: social process, social development, social evolution, social progress, etc.

Typology of social change:

BUT. The types of changes are diverse and may differ depending on which aspects, fragments and changes of the system are involved in them. Changes can be seen:

1) in the composition(for example, migration from one group to another, termination of activities social movement, group breakup, etc.);

2) in structure(the emergence of inequality, the formation of friendly ties, the establishment of cooperative or competitive relations);

3) in functions(specialization and differentiation of work, reduction economic role families, university takeover leadership);

4) within the boundaries(merger of groups or competition between them, democratization of membership conditions, etc.);

5) in the relations of subsystems(the victory of politics over the economy, management private life totalitarian government, etc.);

6) surrounded(deterioration environmental situation earthquakes, epidemics).

B. Social change is understood as what happens either with the system itself or within it. In the first case, changes can cover all (or at least the main) components of the system, leading to its complete rebirth, when new system fundamentally different from the previous one. This perfectly illustrates most social revolutions. In the second case, the changes are private, limited in nature and do not find a noticeable response in other parts of the system, its integrity is preserved and does not undergo global transformations despite the gradual changes taking place inside. Thus, social change is divided into two types: system-wide and intrasystem.

AT. Depending on the level of changes taking place:

1) social changes at the macro level ( international systems, nation, state);

2) social changes at the mesolevel (corporations, political parties, religious movements, large associations);

3) social changes at the micro level (families, employment groups, cliques, groups of friends).

G. In form, evolutionary and revolutionary social changes are distinguished.

evolutionary social changes are gradual, mostly quantitative changes, as a rule, of an irreversible nature, occurring in various social systems and communities - in the economy, politics, culture, education, etc. Evolutionary changes can be socially organized and regulated, in which case they acquire the character social reforms(for example: reform economic system in the country).

revolutionary social change is fundamentally different from evolutionary change. These are changes: a) not quantitative, but qualitative, aimed at radical transformations social system; b) are organically connected with the crisis and without increasing crisis phenomena usually do not occur; c) cover the main structures and functions of the system being changed; d) most often rely on violence.

D. Depending on the direction of the ongoing changes:

progressive changes - have such an orientation in which the transition is made from the lower level of development of the social system to its highest level or to a new, much more advanced social system that has a more complex organized structure and more effective functions (for example: the transition from the pre-civilized, archaic stage development of mankind towards civilized).

regressive changes - have a direction that is embodied in the transition from higher to lower, in the processes of degradation, stagnation, decline, return to obsolete social structures and functions (for example: the establishment of the fascist regime in Germany in the 30s of the twentieth century).

At the same time, it should be borne in mind that progress is a value category, progress is always correlated with values. The same changes can be qualified depending on the alleged value preferences, which are completely different for different individuals, groups, classes, nations. Therefore, we must constantly ask ourselves: progress for whom and in what respect? If absolute progress does not exist, then there is always a need for a scale of values ​​taken as the measure, or criterion, of progress.

The degree of relativity of values ​​can be different. There are so-called universal values, also called absolute, for example, human life, knowledge. Such facts as the increase in human life expectancy, the destruction of many dangerous epidemics, the ability to cross the ocean not in three months, but in six hours - these are undoubted indicators of progress in society.

However, there are areas where the choice of progress criteria is highly context dependent. So, for example, in the 19th century and for most of the 20th century, industrialization, urbanization, modernization were considered synonymous with progress, and only recently it was discovered that they can have too far-reaching consequences (crowded cities, traffic jams on freeways, overproduction of goods, etc.). ) and that good things can produce very unpleasant side effects(diffusion of resources, pollution and destruction of the environment, new diseases). In addition, it has become clear that progress in one area is often only possible at the expense of regression in another. Thus, the processes of democratization, the development of entrepreneurship and the free market that are currently taking place in the post-communist countries are accompanied by an increase in unemployment and poverty, a weakening social discipline, an increase in the level of crime and offenses, local conflicts.

By progress, we mean such changes that steadily bring the system closer to either a more preferable, better state, or to the ideal state of the society described in numerous social utopias. Over a long period intellectual history various thinkers have proposed various criteria as a measure of progress, among which:

1) salvation by religion as spiritual and moral progress;

2) knowledge as the progress of knowledge leading to "positive" science;

3) negative freedom (i.e. freedom from restrictions and barriers in order to have the opportunity for individual self-expression and self-realization) and positive freedom (i.e. freedom to influence one’s own society and its formation);

4) emancipation as an expansion of the field of activity of members of society, measured by the growth of people's involvement in public life and the disappearance of inequality;

5) technical development as the ability to dominate nature;

6) justice and equality, determined by humanely organized production and uniform distribution;

7) abundance as a realization of opportunities for access to benefits;

8) the ability to choose and equal life opportunities.

History shows that no society stands still: it either progresses or regresses. If the sum of the positive consequences of large-scale changes in society exceeds the sum of the negative ones, then we speak of social progress. Progress is both local and global.

Regression is a local process that covers individual societies and short periods of time, it represents the predominance of negative changes over positive ones.

2. The emergence of social change is explained by the interaction of a number of factors:

physical environment. If the environment changes for some reason, its inhabitants, who have developed certain type adaptation to it, must respond to these changes with appropriate institutional changes, the development of new forms of social organization and new technical inventions. Drought, floods, epidemics, earthquakes and other natural forces force people to make changes in their lifestyles. In addition, social change is caused by changes in the physical environment as a result of negative impact a person on her. For example, hazardous waste disposal, air and water pollution, acid rain, exhaustion natural resources, erosion of the top fertile soil layer - all this is the result of damage caused by people to the ecosystem. Thus, people are connected to their environment in a chain of complex mutual changes.

Population. Changes in the size, structure and distribution of the population affect the culture and social structure of society. For example, the "aging" of society creates serious problems with jobs.

Conflicts. Conflict is a form of interaction between people in the struggle for resources or values. The interests of individuals and groups contradict each other, their goals are incompatible. Most often, final result conflicts is expressed in the formation of a qualitatively new integral structure. Old social order constantly eroding and giving way to a new one.

Innovation. A discovery is a shared perception by many people of an aspect of reality previously unknown; this is a new achievement in progress scientific knowledge nature and society. It always adds something new to the culture. A discovery turns into a factor of social change only when it can be used, when it has become part of society or human relations. So, the ancient Greeks 100 years before our era had an idea about the energy of steam. A small steam engine was even built in Alexandria for recreation, but the power of steam did not produce social change until after two thousand years this discovery was seriously used by people.

An invention is a new combination or new use of already existing knowledge. It was in this way that the inventor J. Selden in 1895, combining the engine, fuel tank, belt drive and wheels, invented the car. Inventions are divided into two types: material (telephone, airplane) and social (alphabet, electoral democracy).

Innovation - both discoveries and inventions - is a cumulative sequence of growing knowledge passed down from generation to generation, plus a number of new elements.

Diffusion is the process by which cultural characteristics spread from one social system to another. Diffusion operates both within societies and between them. It is possible only in those societies that come into close contact with each other. Diffusion is a selective action: the group takes on some cultural traits and reject others.

3. As a rule, disparate actions can rarely lead to significant social and cultural changes. Significant social changes occur in the process of joint actions of people.

A social process is a set of unidirectional and repetitive social actions that can be distinguished from many other social actions.

Social change is one of important aspects social process, but do not cover it entirely, since in the social process a significant place belongs to the simple reproduction of structures, functions, norms, standards of behavior that already existed before. Thus, social changes represent a very important, most dynamic part of social processes.

From the whole variety of social processes, one can single out processes that have common features, the totality of which allowed the sociologists R. Park and E. Burgess to create a classification of the main social processes:

1) cooperation (co- together , operari - work ) - the interaction of individuals or groups that are in the process joint activities united by a common goal or decision specific task. The basis of cooperation is mutual benefit;

2) competition (rivalry)- it is a struggle between individuals, groups or societies for the mastery of values, the stocks of which are limited and unequally distributed among individuals or groups. Competitive relationships thrive in conditions of abundance.

Competition may appear in personal level(for example, when two leaders are fighting for influence in an organization) or be impersonal (for example, an entrepreneur is fighting for sales markets without personally knowing his competitors). Both personal and impersonal competition is usually carried out in accordance with certain rules that focus on reaching and outperforming rivals rather than eliminating them.

Competition has its “pluses” (competition is a means that stimulates each individual to the greatest achievements, i.e., increasing motivation for activity) and “minuses” (for example, if there are competing groups in an organization, this can negatively affect on the effectiveness of such an organization);

3) adaptation- acceptance by an individual or group of cultural norms, values ​​and standards of action of a new environment, when the norms and values ​​learned in the old environment do not lead to the satisfaction of needs, do not create acceptable behavior. In other words, adaptation is the formation of a type of behavior suitable for life in changing environmental conditions. Depending on the assessment by the individual of changes in the external environment and the significance of these changes, adaptation processes can be short-term or long-term.

The device is difficult process, in which a number of features can be distinguished, these are:

Submission is a prerequisite for the adjustment process, because any resistance greatly complicates the entry of the individual into a new structure, and the conflict makes this entry or adaptation impossible. Submission to new norms, rules, customs may be conscious or unconscious, but in the life of any individual it occurs more often than disobedience and rejection of new norms;

Compromise is a form of accommodation that means that an individual or group agrees to changing conditions and culture by partially or completely accepting new goals and ways to achieve them. Each individual usually tries to reach an agreement, taking into account his own strengths and what forces the changing environment has in a particular situation. Compromise is a balance, a temporary agreement; as soon as the situation changes, a new compromise has to be found;

Tolerance is a necessary condition for the successful course of the adaptation process, it is tolerance towards a new situation, new samples of culture and new values ​​(for example, an emigrant leaving for another country must be tolerant of samples of a culture alien to him, try to understand them);

4) conflict- an attempt to achieve a reward by subjugating, imposing one's will, removing or even destroying an opponent seeking to achieve the same reward. Conflict differs from competition in a clear direction, the presence of incidents, and a tough fight. ;

5) assimilation is a process of mutual cultural penetration, through which individuals and groups come to a shared by all participants in the process common culture. It is always a two-way process in which each group has the opportunity to infiltrate its culture into other groups in proportion to its size, prestige and other factors. Assimilation can significantly weaken and extinguish group conflicts, mixing groups into one big homogeneous culture;

7) amalgamation- biological mixing of two or more ethnic groups or peoples, after which they become one group or people.

Key concepts:social change and social revolution; levels and directions of development of society; conservative, reformist, revolutionary approaches to the transformation of society; the ratio of reforms and revolutions, the causes of social revolutions.

Numerous, relatively independent social objects and processes that make up society as a structurally complex and dynamic social system are constantly changing. social change is the transition of society or its constituent structural elements from one state to another. They are an inevitable and obligatory feature of any society.

Encourage society to move forward social contradictions . However, if they are not addressed in a timely manner, social revolution , that is, a deep and prolonged crisis in all spheres of public life. After a revolution, a painful process usually sets in, the formation of new social relations, which often turn out to be less effective and, often, worse than the previous ones.

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Shikun A.I.
Fundamentals of sociology: electronic manual for university students / Brest. state un-t im. A.S. Pushkin. - Brest: BrGU, 2009. - 133 p. The main

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Before considering the mechanism of changing social relations, it is necessary to briefly touch upon the question of the structure of social relations - the cell of social relations. At a minimum, it consists of two subjects, potential or real interaction between them, as well as an object to which their interests are directed (Fig. 8). If we reveal the content of the interaction between the subjects, then it will be reduced to the statuses (positions) of the subjects relative to each other and/or the actions of one or both of them, aimed at satisfying the interest. Action (behavior) is divided into elements of an objective (external, physical) and subjective (internal, psychological) character.

Rice. eight.

Take, for example, labor relations in a market economy. The subjects are an employee and an entrepreneur. The interaction between them is the rights and obligations of each relating to the labor process, wages, social guarantees, etc. The object of interest is labor and its equivalent (wage). All these elements are very significant for these two individuals, and they acquire even greater significance on a social scale when we are talking not about two subjects, but about an "army of hired workers" and an "army of entrepreneurs".

Here it is time to turn to Marx's Capital, but we will confine ourselves to the more modest task of analyzing the mechanisms of the emerging conflict.

In what part of this structure can its deformation begin? For what reason? These questions cannot be answered unambiguously. In essence, a change in the relationship between two subjects can begin with any element: goals, motives for behavior, external actions, interests, as well as with attendant circumstances (such as, for example, the environment for the interaction of subjects, the actions of third forces). It is all the more difficult to determine in theoretical reasoning the initial moment of deformation of social relations as a mass, social phenomenon, especially considering that the different areas life, these changes can have various causes.

So, labor relations can be violated due to failure by one of the subjects of their duties. A common cause of labor conflicts in our time are factors external to production: rising prices, poor living conditions, national tension, etc. All of them can cause changes in requirements for employers, lead to strikes and other actions. Instead of the harmonious labor relations of the past, although they concealed deep social disadvantage, we are now dealing with direct conflicts at work, fraught with further economic collapse.

And yet, the following can be said about the mechanism of deformation of social relations in general. First, social relations are more stable than social values, and in order to change them, we need much more compelling objective reasons. This explains relative stability social (class, national, group, etc.) ties in society compared, for example, with social preferences, moods, fashion, etc.

Secondly, changes in social relations, as we shall see later, most often follow changes in other elements of social life. Strikes, interethnic conflicts, armed clashes do not start, but complete the process of social tension in the city, region, region. And the very intensity of changes in social relations reflects the nature and depth of deformations in the elements discussed above: value orientations, institutions, norms. One can apparently say that social relations are deformed the more, the more seriously distorted value orientations in certain segments of the population, the less effective are the social norms and institutions operating in the sphere of human relations.

Analysis of changes in social relations in last years made by sociologists repeatedly. The most obvious changes are in interethnic relations. It is known that in crisis periods some interethnic processes take on a social connotation. This is what began to characterize the state of affairs in a number of regions of the country. The "parade of sovereignties" led to the opposition of the local and central leadership, people of different nationalities and religions, to the incitement of ethnic discord and conflicts. Needless to say, the thesis about "friendship of the peoples of the USSR" turned out to be untenable; the principles of internationalism were replaced by clear manifestations of nationalism and great-power chauvinism.

At the same time, socio-psychological studies have shown that many negative processes and manifestations in the sphere of interethnic relations are rather superficial. According to the results of the elections to the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR in February 1990 and the people's deputies of the USSR in 1989, supporters of the "national-patriotic bloc" gained an average of 2-4% of the votes. "State" types mass consciousness, according to experts, affect approximately 20% of the population of Russia. According to the same data, about 14% of respondents expressed a positive attitude towards the “Memory” society. When it comes to everyday, everyday connections and relationships of people at the interpersonal level, nationalistic manifestations recede into the background, traditional feelings of neighborhood, fellowship, friendship, acquaintance, camaraderie take over. This suggests that internationalism, as a feature of the psychology of the bulk of the population, has not been lost, but only clogged, deformed.

If we return to the list of types of social relations given in the previous paragraph, then in general we can say that during deformations there is a transition from relations of cooperation to conflicts, confrontation, struggle. Ultimately, there is a rupture of social relations, their atomization. And decay social connections- this is a sure sign of a deep crisis in society.

• See: Deepening social disintegration in 1990 ... S. 33 et seq.

In society, most often, such a term as social development is used. It denotes any improvements that bring positive results. However, there are also social changes that have a generally neutral effect. They do not contain an evaluation component. That is, social development is certain processes that have a positive result. Changes are quite neutral. They simply occur as a result of any historical processes.

Social change can be divided into several levels. Let's consider them all. Short-term changes occur in a short time frame. For example, it may be the organizational restructuring of the authorities. Long-term changes take a long time to implement. For example, it can be a restructuring of the mores, norms or traditions of people.

There are also partial social changes. Them distinctive feature is that they affect only certain segments of reality. For example, it could be restructuring by industry or the higher education system. There are also changes regarding most

The changes under consideration affect, first of all, various, in particular, groups and communities, certain processes, organizations. Social change can occur at the level of interpersonal relationships. For example, the functions and structure of the family are changing. Restructuring can also take place at the level of various institutions and organizations. For example, social change may affect education and science. Restructuring is taking place at the level of small and large groups. In particular, the structure of the working class is changing, new ones appear. global level. For example, this can include environmental threats, migration processes.

Social change can be divided into four categories. They are determined on the basis of which particular area is undergoing restructuring. Let's look at all four categories.

There are structural social changes. For example, they may relate to the family institution. Interpersonal relationships may change towards monogamy or polygamy, large families or small families. The restructuring may involve professional groups, nations, structures of power and control, society as a whole. These include changes affecting science, the education system, and religion.

Restructuring can also occur in any That is, relating to the relationship between different societies, individuals, institutions and structures. For example, in the field of equality, solidarity, subordination, tolerance and so on.

Functional changes affect the functions of various organizations, systems and institutions. In this way, new functions may arise, or old ones may be improved. Let's consider a simple example. In connection with new constitution RF, the functions of the legislative and executive power.

Perestroika also affects the spiritual spheres. In particular, the structure of the motivation of collective and individual activities. Perestroika affects the values, norms, goals, ideals of people. For example, during the transition to a market economy, the motivational structure of society has changed significantly. The signal for activity is personal money earnings, enrichment, climbing career ladder. Such changes affect the thoughts, values, worldviews and norms of large social groups.